PHILOSOPHY OF VALUES (AXIOLOGY)

Socrates was one of the first thinkers-philosophers who raised the question of the essence and value of the good. This was due to the crisis of Athenian democracy, the change in cultural models of the organization of the existence of man and society, the loss of guidelines in the spiritual life of people.

In the future, philosophy began to develop and assert doctrine about the nature of values, the patterns of their emergence, formation and functioning, their place and role in the life of a person and society, about the relationship of values ​​with other phenomena of people's lives, about the classification of values ​​and their development. It got the name axiology (from Greek. axia- value and logos- word, doctrine). For the first time this concept was applied by the French thinker P. Lapi in 1902, and then by the German philosopher E. Hartmann in 1908.

For legal sciences and legal practice, the phenomenon of "value" has great importance, because in context understanding and interpretation values normative acts are adopted in the country, the acts of subjects in litigation are characterized. In the activities of the courts, the phenomenon of value is always present in everything.

It is also impossible to exclude value from the goal-setting of people, from the formulation of concepts of the future, from relations between people and countries, from the processes of continuity of traditions, customs, ways, cultures in the life of ethnic groups, nationalities and nations.

VALUES IN HUMAN LIFE AND SOCIETY

As a result of studying the material in this chapter, the student should: know

• causes and sources of values ​​in the life of man and society;
• criteria for classifying values;
• classification of values;
• representatives of philosophical thought who developed the problem of values;
• content and features of values ​​in modern Russia; be able to
• comprehend the place and role of values ​​in legal activity;
• apply knowledge about values ​​in determining the role of law and law in human life and society;
• analyze value aspects in legal theory and practice;
• predict the development of values ​​in modern Russia; master the skills
• using the provisions of axiology in the assessment of illegal acts;
• application of the value approach in the practice of a lawyer;
• inclusion of value regulators in the formation of a lawyer's personality;
• development of normative documents from the standpoint of the value approach.

The essence of values ​​and their classification

After the separation of axiology into an independent area philosophical studies several types of conceptions of values ​​appeared: naturalistic psychologism, transcendentalism, personalistic ontologism, cultural-historical relativism and sociologism.

Naturalistic psychologism was formed as a result of the studies of A. Meinong, R. B. Perry, J. Dewey, C. I. Lewis and others. According to them, the source of values ​​is in the biopsychologically interpreted human needs. The values ​​themselves can be empirically fixed as specific facts of observable reality. As part of this approach the phenomenon of "standardization of values" is used, i.e. to values can be attributed to any items that satisfy needs person.

Concept axiological transcendentalism , created by the Baden school of neo-Kantianism, treats value like perfect being the norm , which refers not to the empirical, but to the "pure", transcendental, or normative, consciousness. Being ideal objects, values

ns depend on human needs and desires. As a result, the supporters of this concept of values ​​take the position of spiritualism postulating a superhuman "logos". As an option, N. Hartmann substantiates the phenomenon of the independent existence of the sphere of values ​​in order to free axiology from religious premises.

Concept personalistic ontologism was formed in the depths of axiological transcendentalism as a way to justify the existence of values ​​outside of reality. The most prominent representative of these views, Max Scheler (1874-1928), argued that the reality of the value world is guaranteed by the "timeless axiological series in God", an imperfect reflection of which is the structure of the human personality. Moreover, the personality type itself is determined by its inherent hierarchy of values, which forms the ontological basis of personality. According to M. Scheler value exists in the individual and has a certain hierarchy, the bottom rung of which is occupied by values ​​associated with the satisfaction of sensual desires. More high values- this is an image of the beautiful and knowledge. The highest value is the sacred and the idea of ​​God.

For cultural-historical relativism , at the origins of which stood

V. Dilthey, the idea is characteristic axiological pluralism , which was understood as a plurality of equal value systems, identified with the help of the historical method. In essence, this approach meant criticism of attempts to create an absolute, the only correct concept of values, which would be abstracted from the real cultural and historical context.

An interesting fact is that many followers of W. Dilthey, for example O. Spengler, A. J. Toynbee, II. Sorokin and others, revealed the content of the value meaning of cultures through intuitive approach.

Concerning sociological concept of values , whose ancestor was Max Weber (1864-1920), then in it the value is interpreted as norm , whose way of being is importance for the subject. M. Weber used this approach to interpret social action and social knowledge. Subsequently, the position of M. Weber was developed. Thus, in F. Znaniecki (1882-1958) and especially in the school of structural-functional analysis, the concept of "value" acquired a generalized methodological meaning as a means of identifying social ties and the functioning of social institutions. According to scientists, value is any thing, which has definable content and value for members of any social group. Attitudes are the subjective orientation of group members in relation to value.

In materialistic philosophy, the interpretation of values ​​is approached from the standpoint of their socio-historical, economic, spiritual and dialectical conditionality. Real values for a person, communities are specific, historical and conditioned by the nature of people's activities, the level of development of society and the direction of development of these subjects, they are of a specific historical nature, and to identify them nature and entities should use a dialectical-materialist approach and such criterion, as measure, which characterizes the transition of quantitative indicators to qualitative ones.

Value is a set of social and natural objects (things, phenomena, processes, ideas, knowledge, samples, models, standards, etc.) that determine the life of a person, society within the framework of a measure of compliance with the objective laws of human or society development and expected ( planned) people goals, results.

Value comes from comparisons, expressed by means of inference in a certain judgment, objects of the real world (ideal images) that may and predetermine the development (progressive or regressive) of the individual and the community, with those who cannot, cannot, or contradict to this process. This can happen and often happens at the level of feelings, and not at the level of the known laws of development, for example, of the human body.

Values ​​are fixed in various forms, for example of good , if it refers to moral activity, moral behavior, attitude, consciousness, or in forms that reflect the content beautiful, perfect when it comes to aesthetics public consciousness and activities, in the canons of specific religions, if it is connected with the confessional life of a person and society, in regulations, regulating public relations using state coercion, etc.

In other words, the category "value" reflects in qualitative terms degree of conformity, coincidence of real or conceivable phenomena (things, processes, thoughts, etc.) needs, goals, aspirations, plans, programs a specific individual, community, country, party, etc., which determine the process of harmonious and effective development of the previously listed subjects. That is why the objects of the real world, connections and interactions between people acquire features that translate samples, models, standards of human existence into the category of values.

Values ​​arise, are formed and affirmed in the mind of a particular person on the basis of his real activity, relationships with nature and with his own kind through a certain criteria which, from the standpoint of the philosophical and general scientific law of the development of nature, society, including the individual, according to the law of the mutual transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones, is measure of conformity. Any phenomena of being both an individual and society can be given the status of value. This criterion reveals the "limit", a kind of "boundary", beyond which the change quantity, those. content phenomena, processes, knowledge, formations, etc., entails a change in their quality or their "transition" into value.

Attention should be paid to the fact that this criterion not only allows people to determine the moment of transition of the phenomena of being of people into value, but at the same time with this moment "internally" turns on

into value, transforming the components of people's lives into their ego qualitative property.

One side, this criterion is specific , and on the other hand, relative , because for different people and communities it requires clarification, "filling" with quantitative content, since the real conditions of life of a person and society change. For example, if we take this component human life as water , then the criterion for its transition to value for the inhabitants of the middle lane and the desert will be different in content.

This criterion will also be meaningfully different for such a component of people's lives as right. So, if this component is included in the life of a society with a democratic regime, the content of the criterion "measure of conformity" will include extensive quantitative characteristics that will be completely different than in a country where totalitarianism takes place. Value can be classified in different ways. In the context of a philosophical approach, as such a basis, one can use the requirements contained in the regular connections of the categories "general - special - individual" (Fig. 11.1), i.e. originally by generic sign, then specific and further - but typical. Taking into account the fact that value is a social phenomenon, it is predetermined and determined by the objective laws of the development of a person and society, and the essential feature-criterion is measure of compliance with the laws of personality development , societies , its generic "carrier" will be all things in the real world , as well as spiritual education , which correspond objective laws development of man and society.

Rice. 11.1. Variant of classification of values

Since all our relations are reflected in the forms of social consciousness, the forms of manifestation of values ​​can be classified according to the forms of social consciousness. This approach allows us to distinguish the following forms of values: confessional (religious); moral (moral); legal ; political ; aesthetic ; economic ; ecological etc.

Types of values ​​are directly related to the main subjects of social existence: a person and communities of people. They may be due to factors such as level the impact of values ​​on the individual and society as a whole; character the impact of values ​​on society.

These signs reveal the content of the interaction of the individual with other subjects of social relations. Consequently, for each of the selected features in a particular kind of values, it will be possible to distinguish its subspecies.

By level impacts on the value development process can be classified according to the following indicators: revolutionary , evolutionary , counterrevolutionary.

By character impact values ​​in each kind can be classified according to following results: defiant positive development; defiant negative development.

defiant positive development, or the so-called socially approved changes in the individual and society, are those values ​​that, according to character impact on society or personality give them the necessary, in accordance with the laws of development, conditionality and determination. Their list is quite extensive and includes super-intelligence, super-motivation, a lucky break, talent, genius, giftedness, etc.

Negative , or the so-called socially disapproved, values ​​are those values ​​that, in their own way, character impact on society or personality give them unnecessary , often, perhaps even directly opposite, in accordance with the laws of development, conditionality and determination. In the context of this approach, they can be subdivided as follows. First, they can be purely personal direction. Secondly, they can, along with personal negative impacts, include antisocial action (protesting, rude), manifested only at home in relationships with parents and relatives, close ones. Thirdly, they can be characterized by a combination of persistent antisocial actions of the individual with a violation of social norms and with significant violations of relationships with other individuals. Fourth, they can be completely anti-social.

Recognized and quite in demand in the scientific literature is the classification of values ​​developed by V. P. Tugarinov. It contains three steps.

At the first stage, the author divides values ​​into positive and negative depending on the the nature of their assessments. He refers to the former values ​​that evoke positive emotions and receive positive evaluations within the framework of the forms of social consciousness, to the latter - those that evoke negative emotions and receive negative evaluations.

At the second stage, depending on belonging of values ​​to specific subjects of being , the author divides them into individual , group and universal. Everything is obvious here. Individual values ​​include those values ​​that are significant for one person (individual), group values ​​are those that are significant for a group of people. Finally, universal values ​​include those values ​​that are significant for all mankind.

life values, for they are predetermined by man's biological existence, his physiological being;

- cultural values, for they are conditioned by the results of man's spiritual and transformative activity, by his creation of a "second nature" of his being.

In its turn, life values include the following phenomena: a) human life itself, because only its presence makes it possible to identify other values ​​and use them; b) human health; c) labor as a way of existence of society and the basis for the formation of man himself;

• d) the meaning of life as a goal that gives this life the highest value;
• e) happiness and responsibility to be a person; f) public life as a form and way of being a person; g) the world as a level of relations between people and a form of value being of people; h) love like highest level manifestations of human feelings of a person to a person and to society, which is the basis of patriotism and heroism; i) friendship as the highest form of collective relationships between people; j) motherhood and fatherhood as the highest forms of manifestation of people's responsibility to their future.

Concerning cultural values, then V.P. Tugarinov divides them into three subgroups: 1) material values; 2) spiritual values; 3) socio-political values.

To material values, or material goods, include objects that satisfy the material needs of people and have two important properties: a) they provide the basis for people's real activity, life; b) are significant in themselves, because without them there can be no life either for a person or for society.

To spiritual values ​​include those phenomena real life that satisfy the needs of the spiritual life of people. Ego is quite a multi-aspect phenomenon that is in demand by human thinking and at the same time develops the spiritual life of society: a) the results of people's spiritual creativity; b) different kinds and forms of this creativity (literature, theater, morality, religion, etc.).

To socio-political The scientist refers to values ​​everything that serves the needs of the social and political life of people. These are: a) various social institutions (state, family, socio-political movements, etc.);

b) norms of public life (law, morality, customs, traditions, way of life, etc.); in) ideas, conditioning aspirations people (freedom, equality, brotherhood, justice, etc.).

A feature of socio-political values ​​is that they are related to both the material and spiritual life of a person. Their absence is perceived by people as violence both over the body and over the spirit. They have a dual character. They are the result of the creativity of both man and society with its institutions.

The author gives a special place in such a classification of values ​​to education, or enlightenment, which occupies an intermediate position between spiritual and social values, although in terms of its role in society it is a social value, and in terms of content it is spiritual.

There are other options for classifying values ​​in modern philosophical thought. However, all available approaches to some extent refine or supplement the options already outlined.

• Cm.: Tugarinov V.P. On the values ​​of life and culture. L.. 1960.
• In some cultures, such as Buddhism, life is not regarded as the highest value.

The term "culture" is of Latin origin. Initially, it meant "cultivation, cultivation of the soil", but later it received more general meaning. Culture is studied by many sciences (archaeology, ethnography, history, aesthetics, etc.), and each gives it its own definition. Distinguish material and spiritual culture. Material culture is created in the process of material production (its products are machine tools, equipment, buildings, etc.). Spiritual culture includes the process of spiritual creativity and the spiritual values ​​created at the same time in the form of music, paintings, scientific discoveries, religious teachings, etc. All elements of material and spiritual culture are inextricably linked. Material production activity a person is the basis of his activity in other areas of life; at the same time, the results of his mental (spiritual) activity materialize, turn into material objects - things, technical means, works of art.

Spiritual culture is a kind of integrity of art, science, morality, religion. There are a number of features in the history of the formation of culture. The accumulation of cultural values ​​goes, as it were, in two directions - vertically and horizontally. The first direction of accumulation of cultural values ​​(vertically) is associated with their transfer from one generation to another, that is, with continuity in culture.

The most stable side of culture - cultural traditions, elements of social and cultural heritage that are not only passed on from generation to generation, but also preserved for a long time, throughout the life of many generations. Traditions imply what to inherit and how to inherit. Values, ideas, customs, rituals can be traditional.

The second line of accumulation of cultural values ​​(horizontally) is most clearly manifested in artistic culture. It is expressed in the fact that, unlike science, not individual components are inherited as values, current ideas, parts of the theory, but the whole work of fiction.

Different approaches to the interpretation of culture:

• Philosophical and anthropological: culture is an expression of human nature, the totality of knowledge, art, morality, law, customs and other features inherent in man as a member of society.
• Philosophical and historical: culture as the emergence and development of human history, the movement of man from nature, herds into historical space, the transition from the “barbarian” state to the “civilized” one.
• Sociological: culture as a factor in the formation of the life of any society, cultural values ​​are created by society and determine its development.

CULTURE FUNCTIONS:

• cognitive - a holistic view of the people, country, era;
• evaluation - selection of values, enrichment of traditions;
• regulatory or normative - a system of norms and requirements of society for all its members in all areas of life and activity (norms of morality, law, behavior);
• informative - transfer and exchange of knowledge, values ​​and experience of previous generations;
• communicative - the ability to preserve, transmit and replicate cultural values, development and improvement of the individual through communication;
• socialization - the assimilation by an individual of a system of knowledge, norms, values, accustoming to social strata, normative behavior, the desire for self-improvement.

In creativity, culture is organically merged with uniqueness. Every cultural value is unique, whether it is a work of art, an invention, scientific discovery etc. Replication in one form or another of what is already known is the dissemination, not the creation of culture.

"Mass culture" formed simultaneously with a society of mass production and consumption. Radio, television, modern means of communication, and then video and computer technology contributed to its spread. In Western sociology Mass culture”is considered as commercial, since works of art, science, religion, etc. act in it as commodities that can make a profit when sold if they take into account the tastes and needs of the mass audience, reader, music lover.

"Mass culture" is called in different ways: entertainment art, the art of "anti-fatigue", kitsch (from the German jargon "hack"), semi-culture. In the 80s. the term "mass culture" has become less common, because it is compromised by being used exclusively in negative sense. Nowadays it has been replaced by the concept "popular culture", or "pop culture". Describing it, the American philologist M. Bell emphasizes: “This culture is democratic. It is addressed to you, people without distinction of class, nation, level of poverty and wealth.” In addition, thanks to modern means of mass communication, many works of art of high artistic value have become available to people. "Mass" or "pop culture" is often contrasted with "elite" complex in content and difficult for the unprepared perception of culture. It usually includes films by Fellini, Tarkovsky, books by Kafka, Bell, Bazin, Vonnegut, paintings by Picasso, music by Duval, Schnittke. The works created within the framework of this culture are designed for a narrow circle of people who are finely versed in art and are the subject of lively debate among art historians and critics. But the mass viewer, the listener may not pay any attention to them or not understand.

Recently, scientists have been talking about the appearance "screen culture" related to the computer revolution. "Screen culture" is formed on the basis of the synthesis of a computer with video equipment. Personal contacts and reading books fade into the background. A new type of communication is emerging, based on the possibility of a person's free access to the world of information. Such, for example, are video telephones or electronic banks and computer networks that allow receiving information from archives, book depositories, libraries on the computer screen. Thanks to the use of computer graphics, it is possible to increase the speed and improve the quality of the information received. The computer "page" brings with it a new type of thinking and education with its characteristic speed, flexibility, and reactivity. Many today believe that the future belongs to the "screen culture".

In the context of internationalization, the problems of preserving culture are exacerbated small peoples. So, some peoples of the North do not have their own written language, and spoken language quickly forgotten in the process of constant communication with other peoples. Such problems can only be resolved through a dialogue of cultures, but on the condition that this should be dialogue "equal and different". A positive example is the existence in Switzerland of several state languages. Equal opportunities have been created here for the development of the cultures of all peoples. Dialogue also presupposes interpenetration and mutual enrichment of cultures. It is no coincidence that cultural exchange (exhibitions, concerts, festivals, etc.) has become a good tradition in the life of modern civilization. As a result of dialogue, universal cultural values ​​are created, the most important of which are moral norms, and first of all, such as humanism, mercy, mutual assistance.

The level of development of spiritual culture is measured by the volume of spiritual values ​​created in society, the scale of their distribution and the depth of development by people, by each person. When evaluating the level of spiritual progress in a particular country, it is important to know how many research institutes, universities, theaters, libraries, museums, nature reserves, conservatories, schools, etc. are available in it. But some quantitative indicators for overall assessment few. It is important to take into account and the quality of spiritual products - scientific discoveries, books, education, movies, plays, paintings, music. The purpose of culture is to form the ability of each person to be creative, his susceptibility to the highest achievements of culture. This means that it is necessary to take into account not only what has been created in culture, but also how people use these achievements. That is why an important criterion for the cultural progress of a society is the degree to which people achieve social equality in introducing them to the values ​​of culture.

CLASSIFICATION OF VALUES:

• Vital - life, health, physical and spiritual well-being, quality of life.
• Social - social status and well-being, social equality, personal independence, professionalism, comfortable work.
• Political - freedom of speech, civil liberties, law and order, legality, security.
• Moral - goodness, honesty, duty, disinterestedness, decency, fidelity, love, friendship, justice.
• Religious - God, divine law, faith, salvation, grace, ritual, Holy Scripture and Tradition.
• Aesthetic - beauty, style, harmony, adherence to traditions, cultural identity.

The crisis situation that has developed in Russia is manifested with particular force in the spiritual life of society. The situation in the culture of our fatherland is assessed as extremely difficult and even catastrophic. With the inexhaustible cultural potential accumulated by previous generations and our contemporaries, the spiritual impoverishment of the people began. Mass lack of culture is the cause of many troubles in the economy and nature management. The decline of morality, bitterness, the growth of crime and violence - an evil growth on the basis of lack of spirituality. An uncultured doctor is indifferent to the suffering of a patient, an uncultured person is indifferent to the creative search of an artist, an uncultured builder builds a beer stall on the site of a temple, an uncultured farmer disfigures the land ... Instead of native speech, rich in proverbs and sayings, - a language littered with foreign words, thieves and even foul language. Today, under the threat of destruction, what has been created for centuries by the intellect, spirit, talent of the nation - ancient cities are being destroyed, books, archives, works of art are being destroyed, folk traditions of craftsmanship are being lost. The danger for the present and future of the country is the plight of science and education.

The problem of protecting and preserving the cultural heritage of the past, which has incorporated universal human values ​​are a problem planetary. Historical monuments of culture are also dying from the inexorable destructive effects of natural factors: natural - the sun, wind, frost, moisture and "unnatural" - harmful impurities in the atmosphere, acid rain, etc. They also die from the pilgrimage of tourists and sightseers, when it is difficult to preserve a cultural treasure in its original form. After all, for example, the Hermitage in St. Petersburg, when it was laid, was not designed to be visited by millions of people a year, and in the New Athos cave, due to the abundance of tourists, the internal microclimate has changed, which also threatens its continued existence.

Science as a whole can be viewed from three perspectives:

• as a special system of knowledge;
• as a system of specific organizations and institutions with people working in them (for example, branch research institutes, the Academy of Sciences, universities) that develop, store and disseminate this knowledge;
• as special kind activities - a system of scientific research, experimental design research.

The peculiarity of scientific knowledge lies in the deep penetration into the essence of phenomena, in their theoretical nature. Scientific knowledge begins when a pattern is realized behind a set of facts - a common and necessary connection between them, which makes it possible to explain why a given phenomenon proceeds in this way and not otherwise, to predict its further development. Over time, some scientific knowledge moves into the realm of practice. The immediate goals of science are the description, explanation, and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality, i.e., in a broad sense, its theoretical reflection. The language of science differs significantly from the language of other forms of culture and art in greater clarity and rigor. Science is thinking in concepts, and art is in artistic images. On the different stages In the development of society, scientific knowledge performed various functions: cognitive and explanatory, worldview, prognostic.

Over time, industrialists and scientists saw in science a powerful a catalyst for continuous improvement in manufacturing. The realization of this fact dramatically changed the attitude towards science and was an essential prerequisite for its decisive turn towards practice. You have already become acquainted with the revolutionary influence of science on the sphere of material production. Today, science is more and more clearly showing one more function - it begins to act as social force, directly involved in the processes of social development and its management. This function is most clearly manifested in situations where the methods of science and its data are used to develop large-scale plans and programs for social and economic development, for example, such as the program of economic and political integration of the member countries of the EEC.

In science, as in any area of ​​human life, the relationship between those who are involved in it, and the actions of each of them are subject to a certain system. ethical (moral) norms, determining what is permissible, what is encouraged, and what is considered impermissible and unacceptable for a scientist in different situations. These rules can be divided into three groups. To first relate universal human requirements and prohibitions, such as “do not steal”, “do not lie”, adapted, of course, to the peculiarities of scientific activity.

Co. second The group includes ethical norms that serve to assert and protect specific values ​​that are characteristic of science. An example of such norms is the disinterested search and upholding of the truth. Aristotle’s saying “Plato is my friend, but truth is dearer” is widely known, the meaning of which lies in the fact that in striving for truth, a scientist should not take into account either his likes and dislikes, or any other unscientific considerations.

To third The group includes moral rules that relate to the relationship of science and the scientist with society. This circle of ethical norms is often referred to as the problem freedom of scientific research and social responsibility of the scientist.

The problem of social responsibility of a scientist has deep historical roots. Among the areas of scientific knowledge, a specific place is occupied by genetic engineering, biotechnology, biomedical and human genetic research. The undeniable achievements of these sciences are combined with the growing danger for mankind of ill-conceived or malicious use of their methods and discoveries, which can lead to the emergence of so-called mutant organisms with completely new hereditary traits that have not previously been found on Earth and are not due to human evolution.

The development of genetic engineering and fields of knowledge close to it required a different understanding of the connection between freedom and responsibility in the activities of scientists. For centuries, many of them, not only in word but also in deed, had to affirm and defend the principles of free scientific research in the face of ignorance, fanaticism, and superstition. Today, the idea of ​​unlimited freedom of research, which was undoubtedly progressive before, can no longer be accepted unconditionally, without taking into account social responsibility. After all, there is responsible freedom and there is a fundamentally different from it free irresponsibility, fraught with the current and future possibilities of science with very serious consequences for man and mankind.

The main components of the worldview:

• cognitive - includes knowledge, scientific knowledge, styles of thinking of the community, the people;
• value-normative - ideals, beliefs, beliefs, norms;
• emotional-volitional - socio-psychological attitudes of the individual and society, turning into personal views, beliefs, values, knowledge, norms of the community, people;
• practical - actualization of generalized knowledge, values, ideals and norms, a person's readiness for certain type behavior.

“Any reorganization of society is always connected with the reorganization of the school. New people, forces are required - they should be prepared by the school. Where social life has taken a certain form, the school has accordingly established itself and fully corresponds to the mood of society. Written in the second half of the 19th century, these words are still relevant today.

Throughout a person's life, there is a process of his socialization - the assimilation of the social experience of past and contemporary generations. This process is carried out in two ways: in the course of the spontaneous influence of life circumstances on a person and as a result of a purposeful impact on him by society, in the process of education and, above all, through the education system that has developed in society and meets its needs. But society is heterogeneous: each class, social group, nation has its own idea of ​​the content of education.

The main directions of education reform:

• democratization: expansion of the rights and freedoms of educational institutions, openness of discussion and decision-making;
• humanization: increasing the role of humanitarian knowledge in the training of specialists, increasing the number of specialists in the field of the humanities;
• humanization: the attention of society to the individual, his psychology, interests and demands;
• computerization: the use of new modern technologies learning;
• internationalization: the creation of a unified education system at the national and global levels.

In the modern world there is a huge variety of types of schools and other educational institutions: Quaker schools in England, providing a religious-pacifist education, comprehensive schools and vocational schools. educational establishments in the CIS countries, theological seminaries in all Christian countries, madrasas in the Muslim states of the East, universities, colleges, technical schools. But in this extremely motley variety of systems and types of education, one can trace the general directions of its development in the modern world.

Religion is certain views and ideas of people, corresponding ceremonies and cults. Faith, according to the Gospel, is the realization of what is hoped for and the certainty of what is not visible. It is alien to any logic, and therefore it is not afraid of justification by atheists that God does not exist, and does not need logical confirmation that He exists. The apostle Paul said: “Your faith may not be based on the wisdom of men, but on the power of God.” Features of religious faith. Its first element is faith in the very existence of God as the creator of everything that exists, the manager of all deeds, deeds, thoughts of people. According to modern religious teachings, a person is endowed by God with free will, has freedom of choice, and because of this, he himself is responsible for his actions and for the future of his soul.

Stages of development of religion:

• natural religion: finds its gods in natural conditions;
• religion of the law: the idea of ​​an almighty God-master, obedience to divine commandments;
• religion of redemption: faith in the merciful love and mercy of God, liberation from sins.

Religion structure:

• religious consciousness;
• religious faith;
• religious performances;
• religious activities;
• religious communities, denominations, churches.

Religious consciousness:

• religious psychology, which includes: feelings and moods, habits and traditions, religious ideas;
• religious ideas, which include: theology (theory of God), cosmology (theory of the world), anthropology (theory of man).

Anthropological foundations of religion:

• ontological (ontology - a philosophical doctrine of being) - this is the attitude of a mortal person to eternity, faith in personal immortality, the assumption of the posthumous existence of the soul;
• epistemological (epistemology theory of knowledge) - this is a person's cognitive attitude to Infinity, the contradiction between the abstract possibility of knowing the world as a whole and the real impossibility of such knowledge, only religion explains the world as a whole from its beginning to the "end of time" religious worldview is a holistic worldview;
• sociological - this is the attitude to the real conditions of human life in the past, present and future, the desire of a person to have a justly organized world;
• psychological - this is a feeling of fear, loneliness, insecurity, the desire to be sovereign, self-sufficient, to be understood, involved in the world of other people, to assert oneself, to find a second "I", solving the problem of understanding in the sphere religious consciousness, hope in God.

Functions of religion:

• ideological - this is a religious worldview, an explanation of the world, nature, man, the meaning of his existence, worldview;
• compensatory - this social inequality is compensated by equality in sinfulness, suffering, human disunity is replaced by brotherhood in the community, human impotence is compensated by the omnipotence of God;
• regulatory - it is a regulator of people's behavior, organizes the thoughts, aspirations and actions of a person, groups, communities with the help of certain values, ideas, attitudes, traditions;
• cultural transmission is the introduction of a person to the cultural values ​​and traditions of religious culture, the development of writing, printing, art, the transfer of the accumulated heritage from generation to generation.

The idea of ​​the existence of God is the central point of religious faith, but does not exhaust it. Thus, religious faith includes: moral norms, norms of morality, which are declared to be derived from divine revelation; violation of these norms is a sin and, accordingly, is condemned and punished; certain legal laws and norms, which are also declared or occurred directly as a result of divine revelation, or as a result of the God-inspired activity of legislators, as a rule, kings and other rulers; faith in the divine inspiration of the activities of certain clergy, persons declared saints, saints, blessed, etc.; so, in Catholicism it is customary to believe that the head catholic church- Pope - is the vicar (representative) of God on earth; faith in the saving power for the human soul of those ritual actions which are performed by believers in accordance with the instructions of the Holy Books, clergy and church leaders (baptism, circumcision of the flesh, prayer, fasting, worship, etc.); faith in the God-directed activity of churches as associations of people who consider themselves adherents of one or another faith.

In the world there is a variety of beliefs, sects, church organizations. This and various forms polytheism(polytheism), the traditions of which come from primitive religions (belief in spirits, worship of plants, animals, souls of the dead). They are associated with different forms. monotheism(monotheism). Here are the national religions - Confucianism (China), Judaism (Israel), etc., and world religions, formed in the era of the emergence of empires and found adherents among peoples speaking different languages ​​- Buddhism, Christianity, Islam. It is the world religions that provide greatest influence to the development of modern civilizations.

Buddhism - the earliest world religion. It is most widely used in Asia. The central area of ​​Buddhist teaching is morality, the norms of human behavior. Through reflection and contemplation, a person can reach the truth, find the right way to salvation and, keeping the commandments of the holy teaching, come to perfection. The elementary commandments, obligatory for all, are reduced to five: do not kill a single living being, do not take someone else's property, do not touch someone else's wife, do not tell lies, do not drink wine. But for those who strive to achieve perfection, these five commandments-prohibitions develop into a whole system of much more stringent prescriptions. The prohibition of killing is brought to the point that it is not allowed to kill even insects that are barely visible to the eye. The prohibition to take someone else's property is replaced by the requirement to renounce all property in general. One of the most important precepts of Buddhism is love and mercy for all living beings. Moreover, Buddhism prescribes not to make distinctions between them and to treat equally benevolently and sympathetically to good and evil, to people and animals. A follower of the Buddha should not repay evil for evil, because otherwise, not only are they not destroyed, but, on the contrary, enmity and suffering increase. You can not even protect others from violence and punish for murder. A follower of the Buddha should calmly, patiently deal with evil, avoiding only participation in it.

Christianity - the second oldest world religion. Now it is the most widespread religion on Earth, numbering over 1024 million adherents in Europe and America. The moral rules of Christianity are set forth in the commandments of Moses: “Thou shalt not kill,” “Thou shalt not steal,” “Do not commit adultery,” “Honor thy mother and father,” “Do not make an idol for yourself,” “Do not take the name of the Lord God in vain” ... Central in Christianity are the idea of ​​human sinfulness as the cause of all his misfortunes and the doctrine of deliverance from sins through prayer and repentance. The sermon of patience, humility, forgiveness of insults is boundless. “Love your enemies,” Jesus teaches. “Bless those who curse you, give thanks to those who hate you, and pray for those who mistreat you.”

Islam (Muslim) - the most recent world religion. There are about a billion of its adherents on Earth. Islam was most widespread in North Africa, Southwest and South Asia. "Islam" in translation into Russian means "submission". Man, according to the Koran, is a weak creature, prone to sin, he is not able to achieve anything in life on his own. He remains to rely on the mercy and help of Allah. If a person believes in God, fulfills the requirements of the Muslim religion, he will earn eternal life in paradise. Demanding obedience to Allah from believers, Islam prescribes the same obedience to earthly authorities. characteristic feature Muslim religion is that it vigorously intervenes in all spheres of people's lives. Personal, family, social life of believing Muslims, politics, legal relations, court - everything must obey religious laws.

In this regard, today more and more people talk about the processes of "Islamization", by which they mean, firstly, the content of political programs put forward and implemented in a number of countries of the Muslim world (Pakistan, Iran, Libya). Although their implementation may be different, nevertheless, they all declare their goal to build an "Islamic society", in which economic, social and political life will be determined by the norms of Islam.

Secondly, "Islamization" refers to the continued spread of this relatively young religion in a number of regions of Asia, Africa, India, Far East. The process of "Islamization" is very controversial. On the one hand, it reflects the desire of the peoples of developing countries to free themselves from the remnants of colonialism and Western influence, on the other hand, the implementation of Islamic slogans by the hands of extremists can bring incalculable troubles to humanity.

The impact of religion on a person is contradictory: on the one hand, it calls a person to observe high moral standards, introduces culture, and on the other hand, it preaches (at least this is done by many religious communities) humility and humility, refusal to take active actions even when they aim at the welfare of the people. In some cases (as in the situation with the Sikhs), it contributes to the aggressiveness of believers, their separation and even confrontation. If we cannot give a general formula that allows us to assess whether a particular position in relation to religious faith is progressive or reactionary, then some general provisions concerning the relationship between believers, between believers and atheists, are still available.

They exist as moral, legal (legal) relations. Before, in respect for another person, for other people, even if they believe in another God (or gods), they believe in the same God in a different way, if they do not believe in God, they do not perform religious rites at all. To believe or not to believe in God, to perform religious rites or not is a private matter for each person. And not one government agency, no government agency, no public organization has the right to hold anyone liable - criminal or civil - for his belief or unbelief. This does not mean that the state and society are indifferent to any religious activity.

There are religions that require human sacrifices, whose rites physically and spiritually disfigure people, excite crowds and direct them to pogroms, murders, outrages. Of course, the state, the law, public opinion are against it. But this is not religion itself, not faith itself, but activity malicious and illegal. And the struggle of the state against this activity does not at all mean that it violates the principle of freedom of conscience.

A person who has a highly developed spiritual life, as a rule, has an important personal quality: he acquires spirituality as a striving for the height of one's ideals and thoughts, which determine the direction of all activity. Spirituality includes sincerity, friendliness in relations between people. Some researchers characterize spirituality as a morally oriented will and mind of a person.

It is noted that the spiritual is a characteristic and practice, and not just consciousness. A person whose spiritual life is little developed, unspiritual. At the core of the spiritual life consciousness. You already have some idea about it. Recall that consciousness is such a form of mental activity and spiritual life, thanks to which a person comprehends, understands the world around him and his own place in this world, forms his attitude to the world, determines his activity in it. The history of human culture is the history of the human mind.

The historical experience of generations is embodied in the created cultural values. When a person communicates with the values ​​of the past, the culture of the human race, as it were, overflows into the spiritual world of the individual, contributing to its intellectual and moral development. As a rule, knowledge, faith, feelings, needs, abilities, aspirations, goals of people are attributed to spiritual life, to the life of human thought. The spiritual life of a person is also impossible without experiences: joy, optimism or despondency, faith or disappointment. It is human nature to strive for self-knowledge and self-improvement. The more developed a person, the higher his culture, the richer his spiritual life.

The condition for the normal life of a person and society is the mastery of the knowledge, skills, values ​​accumulated in the course of history, since each person is a necessary link in the relay race of generations, a living link between the past and future of mankind. Anyone who from an early age learns to navigate in it, to choose for himself values ​​that correspond to personal abilities and inclinations and do not contradict the rules of human society, feels free and at ease in modern culture. Each person has a huge potential for the perception of cultural values ​​and the development of their own abilities. The ability for self-development and self-improvement is the fundamental difference between a person and all other living beings.

Ethical(custom, moral character) means to always act in accordance with the moral law, which should be the basis of the behavior of all.

Religious(piety, piety) - faith dominates in life, not reason, selfless service to God, the fulfillment of divine commandments. Accept the will of the Heavenly Father and build your life in accordance with it.

Humanistic(humanity) is the desire for improvement, self-expression, self-affirmation of the personality, the harmonious development of human value abilities, feelings and mind, the development of human culture and morality.

Criteria of the spiritual culture of the individual.

• Active creative attitude to life.
• Readiness for self-giving and self-development.
• Constant enrichment of your spiritual world.
• Selective attitude to sources of information.
• The system of value orientations.

A person can preserve his originality, remain himself even in extremely contradictory conditions only if he has been formed as a person. Being a person means having the ability to navigate in a variety of knowledge and situations and be responsible for your choice, be able to withstand many negative influences. The more complex the world and the richer the palette of options for life aspirations, the more urgent the problem of freedom to choose one's own life position. The relationship between a person and the surrounding culture in the process of civilization development was constantly changing, but the main thing remained - the interdependence of the universal, national culture and culture of the individual. After all, a person acts as a bearer of the general culture of mankind, and as its creator, and as its critic, and universal culture - as an indispensable condition for the formation and development of the spiritual culture of the individual.

In the process of cognition, such a quality of the inner world of a person as intelligence is formed. The word is of Latin origin, meaning knowledge, understanding, reason. But this is such a human ability that differs from his feelings (emotions), will, imagination and a number of others. Intelligence is primarily closest to the concept of "mind" - the ability of a person to understand something, to find the meaning of any things, phenomena, processes, their causes, essence, place in the world around. The intellectual potential of a person is associated with the culture on which he builds his activity, which he mastered and which penetrated into him. inner world. Intelligence is the ability of a person to new information on the basis of the one that he had at one stage or another of the process of cognition, through reasoning, conclusions, evidence.

The spiritual world of man is not limited to knowledge. An important place in it is occupied by emotions - subjective experiences about situations and phenomena of reality. A person, having received this or that information, experiences emotional feelings of grief and joy, love and hatred, fear or fearlessness. Emotions, as it were, color the acquired knowledge or information in one or another “color”, express a person’s attitude towards them. The spiritual world of a person cannot exist without emotions, a person is not a passionless robot processing information, but a person capable of not only having “calm” feelings, but in which passions can rage - feelings of exceptional strength, stamina, duration, expressed in the direction of thoughts and forces to achieve a specific goal. Passions lead a person sometimes to the greatest feats in the name of people's happiness, and sometimes to crimes. A person must be able to control his feelings. To control both these aspects of spiritual life, and all human activities in the course of his development, a will is developed. Will is the conscious determination of a person to perform certain actions in order to achieve the goal.

The worldview idea of ​​the value of an ordinary person, his life makes today, in a culture traditionally understood as a receptacle of universal values, to single out moral values ​​as the most important ones, which determine the very possibility of his existence on Earth in the modern situation. And in this direction, the planetary mind takes the first, but quite tangible steps from the idea of ​​the moral responsibility of science to the idea of ​​combining politics and morality.

It is necessary to explain the differences and the relationship of spiritual and material culture.

Substantiate your point of view on the emergence of subculture, mass and elite culture, counterculture.

Refer to historical materials that deal with cultural issues, as well as to training course MHC.

Try to determine the state of the spiritual culture of your country.

Pay attention to the achievements of science and technology that are in the world and in your country.

Try to determine the features of education in the world, in Russia, in your country.

Defining the role of religion, consider the problem as a dialogue and cooperation between believers and non-believers, because the basis of this process is freedom of religion.

To complete tasks on Topic 8 you need:

1. KNOW THE TERMS:
Spiritual culture, folk culture, mass culture, elite culture.

2. DESCRIBE:
Religion as a phenomenon of culture, education in modern society.

3. CHARACTERIZE:
The diversity of cultural life, science as a system of knowledge and a type of spiritual production, the scientific picture of the world, the essence of art, its origin and forms.

The most important role not only in the life of each individual, but also in the whole society as a whole is played by values ​​and value orientations, which primarily perform an integrative function. It is on the basis of values ​​(while focusing on their approval in society) that each person makes his own choice in life. Values, occupying a central position in the structure of personality, have a significant impact on the orientation of a person and the content of his personality. social activity, behavior and actions, his social position and on general attitude him to the world, to himself and to other people. Therefore, the loss of the meaning of life by a person is always the result of the destruction and rethinking of the old system of values, and in order to regain this meaning again, he needs to create new system based on common human experience and using socially accepted forms of behavior and activity.

Values ​​are a kind of internal integrator of a person, concentrating around themselves all his needs, interests, ideals, attitudes and beliefs. Thus, the value system in a person's life takes the form of the inner core of his entire personality, and the same system in society is the core of its culture. Value systems, functioning both at the level of the individual and at the level of society, create a kind of unity. This is due to the fact that the personal value system is always formed based on the values ​​that are dominant in a particular society, and they, in turn, influence the choice of the individual goal of each individual and determine the ways to achieve it.

Values ​​in a person's life are the basis for choosing the goals, methods and conditions of activity, and also help him answer the question, why does he perform this or that activity? In addition, values ​​are the system-forming core of the idea (or program), human activity and his inner spiritual life, because spiritual principles, intentions and humanity no longer relate to activity, but to values ​​and value orientations.

The role of values ​​in human life: theoretical approaches to the problem

Modern human values is the most urgent problem of both theoretical and applied psychology, since they influence the formation and are the integrative basis of the activity of not only a single individual, but also a social group (large or small), a team, an ethnic group, a nation and all of humanity. It is difficult to overestimate the role of values ​​in a person's life, because they illuminate his life, filling it with harmony and simplicity, which determines a person's desire for free will, for the will of creative possibilities.

The problem of human values ​​in life is studied by the science of axiology ( in lane from Greek axia / axio - value, logos / logos - a reasonable word, teaching, study), more precisely separate industry scientific knowledge of philosophy, sociology, psychology and pedagogy. In psychology, values ​​are usually understood as something significant for the person himself, something that gives an answer to his actual, personal meanings. Values ​​are also seen as a concept that denotes objects, phenomena, their properties and abstract ideas that reflect social ideals and therefore are the standard of due.

It should be noted that the special importance and significance of values ​​in a person's life arises only in comparison with the opposite (this is how people strive for good, because evil exists on earth). Values ​​cover the whole life of both a person and the whole of humanity, while they affect absolutely all areas (cognitive, behavioral and emotional-sensory).

The problem of values ​​was of interest to many famous philosophers, sociologists, psychologists and educators, but the beginning of the study this issue was established in ancient times. So, for example, Socrates was one of the first who tried to understand what goodness, virtue and beauty are, and these concepts were separated from things or actions. He believed that the knowledge achieved through the understanding of these concepts is the basis of a person's moral behavior. Here it is also worth referring to the ideas of Protagoras, who believed that each person is already a value as a measure of what exists and what does not exist.

Analyzing the category of “value”, one cannot pass by Aristotle, because it is to him that the term “thymia” (or valued) originated. He believed that values ​​in human life are both the source of things and phenomena and the cause of their diversity. Aristotle identified the following benefits:

• valued (or divine, to which the philosopher attributed the soul and mind);
• praised (impudent praise);
• opportunities (here the philosopher attributed strength, wealth, beauty, power, etc.).

Philosophers of modern times made a significant contribution to the development of questions about the nature of values. Among the most significant figures of that era, it is worth highlighting I. Kant, who called the will the central category that could help in solving the problems of the human value sphere. And the most detailed explanation of the process of formation of values ​​belongs to G. Hegel, who described the changes in values, their connections and structure in the three stages of the existence of activity (they are described in more detail below in the table).

Features of changing values ​​in the process of activity (according to G. Hegel)

Steps of activity	Features of the formation of values
first	the emergence of a subjective value (its definition occurs even before the start of actions), a decision is made, that is, the value-goal must be concretized and correlated with external changing conditions
second	The value is in the focus of the activity itself, there is an active, but at the same time contradictory interaction between the value and possible ways to achieve it, here the value becomes a way to form new values
third	values ​​are woven directly into activity, where they manifest themselves as an objectified process

The problem of human values ​​in life has been deeply studied by foreign psychologists, among which it is worth noting the works of V. Frankl. He said that the meaning of human life as its basic education finds its manifestation in the system of values. Under the values ​​themselves, he understood the meanings (he called them “universals of meanings”), which are characteristic of a greater number of representatives not only of a particular society, but of humanity as a whole throughout the entire path of its development (historical). Viktor Frankl focused on the subjective significance of values, which is accompanied, first of all, by the person taking responsibility for its implementation.

In the second half of the last century, values ​​were often considered by scientists through the prism of the concepts of "value orientations" and "personal values". The greatest attention was paid to the study of the value orientations of the individual, which was understood both as an ideological, political, moral and ethical basis for a person's assessment of the surrounding reality, and as a way of differentiating objects according to their significance for the individual. The main thing that almost all scientists paid attention to was that value orientations are formed only due to the assimilation of social experience by a person, and they find their manifestation in goals, ideals, and other manifestations of personality. In turn, the system of values ​​in human life is the basis of the content side of the orientation of the individual and reflects its internal attitude in the surrounding reality.

Thus, value orientations in psychology were considered as a complex socio-psychological phenomenon that characterized the orientation of the personality and the content side of its activity, which determined general approach person to himself, to other people and to the world as a whole, and also gave meaning and direction to his behavior and activities.

Forms of existence of values, their signs and features

Throughout its history of development, humankind has developed universal or universal values ​​that have not changed their meaning or diminished their significance for many generations. These are such values ​​as truth, beauty, goodness, freedom, justice and many others. These and many other values ​​in a person's life are associated with the motivational-need sphere and are an important regulatory factor in his life.

Values ​​in psychological understanding can be represented in two meanings:

• in the form of objectively existing ideas, objects, phenomena, actions, properties of products (both material and spiritual);
• as their significance for a person (value system).

Among the forms of existence of values, there are: social, subject and personal (they are presented in more detail in the table).

Forms of existence of values ​​according to O.V. Sukhomlinsky

Of particular importance in the study of values ​​and value orientations were the studies of M. Rokeach. He understood by values ​​positive or negative ideas (and abstract ones), which are in no way connected with any particular object or situation, but are only an expression of human beliefs about types of behavior and prevailing goals. According to the researcher, all values ​​have the following features:

• the total number of values ​​(significant and motivated) is small;
• all values ​​in people are similar (only the steps of their significance are different);
• all values ​​are organized into systems;
• the sources of values ​​are culture, society and social institutions;
• values ​​influence a large number of phenomena that are studied by a variety of sciences.

In addition, M. Rokeach established a direct dependence of a person's value orientations on many factors, such as his income level, gender, age, race, nationality, level of education and upbringing, religious orientation, political beliefs, etc.

Some signs of values ​​were also proposed by S. Schwartz and W. Bilisky, namely:

• values ​​are understood as either a concept or a belief;
• they refer to the desired end states of the individual or to his behavior;
• they have a supra-situational character;
• are guided by the choice, as well as the assessment of human behavior and actions;
• they are ordered by importance.

Classification of values

Today in psychology there are a huge number of the most various classifications values ​​and value orientations. Such diversity appeared due to the fact that values ​​are classified according to various criteria. So they can be combined into certain groups and classes, depending on what types of needs these values ​​satisfy, what role they play in a person's life and in what area they are applied. The table below shows the most generalized classification of values.

Classification of values

Criteria	Values ​​can be
assimilation object	material and moral
subject and object content	socio-political, economic and moral
subject of assimilation	social, class and values ​​of social groups
purpose of assimilation	selfish and altruistic
generalization level	concrete and abstract
mode of manifestation	persistent and situational
the role of human activity	terminal and instrumental
content of human activity	cognitive and object-transforming (creative, aesthetic, scientific, religious, etc.)
belonging	individual (or personal), group, collective, public, national, universal
group-society relationship	positive and negative

From the point of view of the psychological characteristics of human values, the classification proposed by K. Khabibulin is interesting. Their values ​​were divided as follows:

• depending on the subject of activity, values ​​can be individual or act as values ​​of a group, class, society;
• according to the object of activity, the scientist singled out material values ​​in human life (or vital) and sociogenic (or spiritual);
• depending on the type of human activity, values ​​can be cognitive, labor, educational and socio-political;
• the last group consists of values ​​according to the way of performing activities.

There is also a classification based on the allocation of vital (human ideas about good, evil, happiness and sorrow) and universal values. This classification was proposed at the end of the last century by T.V. Butkovskaya. Universal values, according to the scientist, are:

• vital (life, family, health);
• social recognition (values ​​such as social status and employability);
• interpersonal recognition (exhibition and honesty);
• democratic (freedom of expression or freedom of speech);
• particular (belonging to a family);
• transcendental (manifestation of faith in God).

It is also worth dwelling separately on the classification of values ​​according to M. Rokeach, the author of the most famous methodology in the world, the main objective which is to determine the hierarchy of value orientations of the individual. M. Rokeach divided all human values ​​into two broad categories:

• terminal (or value-goals) - the person's conviction that the ultimate goal is worth all the effort to achieve it;
• instrumental (or value-methods) - a person's conviction that a certain way of behavior and actions is the most successful for achieving the goal.

There are still a huge number of different classifications of values, a summary of which is given in the table below.

Value classifications

Scientist	Values
V.P. Tugarinov	spiritual	education, art and science
	socio-political	justice, will, equality and brotherhood
	material	various types of material goods, technology
V.F. Sergeants	material	tools and methods of implementation
	spiritual	political, moral, ethical, religious, legal and philosophical
A. Maslow	being (B-values)	higher, characteristic of a person who is self-actualizing (values ​​of beauty, goodness, truth, simplicity, uniqueness, justice, etc.)
	scarce (D-values)	lower, aimed at satisfying a need that has been frustrated (values ​​such as sleep, security, dependence, peace of mind, etc.)

Analyzing the presented classification, the question arises, what are the main values ​​in human life? In fact, there are a lot of such values, but the most important are common (or universal) values, which, according to V. Frankl, are based on three main human existentials - spirituality, freedom and responsibility. The psychologist has identified following groups values ​​("eternal values"):

• creativity that allows people to understand what they can give to a given society;
• experiences, thanks to which a person realizes what he receives from society and society;
• relationships that enable people to realize their place (position) in relation to those factors that somehow limit their lives.

It should also be noted that the most important place is occupied by moral values ​​in human life, because they play a leading role in people's decisions related to morality and moral standards, and this in turn indicates the level of development of their personality and humanistic orientation.

The system of values ​​in human life

The problem of human values ​​in life occupies a leading position in psychological research, because they are the core of the personality and determine its orientation. In solving this problem, a significant role belongs to the study of the value system, and here the research of S. Bubnova, who, based on the works of M. Rokeach, created her own model of the system of value orientations (it is hierarchical and consists of three levels), had a serious impact. The system of values ​​in human life, in her opinion, consists of:

• values-ideals, which are the most general and abstract (this includes spiritual and social values);
• values-properties that are fixed in the process of human life;
• values-modes of activity and behavior.

Any system of values ​​will always combine two categories of values: values-goals (or terminal) and values-methods (or instrumental). Terminal includes the ideals and goals of a person, group and society, and instrumental - ways to achieve goals that are accepted and approved in a given society. Values-goals are more stable than values-methods, therefore they act as a system-forming factor in various social and cultural systems.

To the specific system of values ​​that exists in society, each person shows his own attitude. In psychology, there are five types of human relations in the value system (according to J. Gudechek):

• active, which is expressed in a high degree of internalization of this system;
• comfortable, that is, externally accepted, but at the same time a person does not identify himself with this system of values;
• indifferent, which consists in the manifestation of indifference and complete lack of interest in this system;
• disagreement or rejection, manifested in a critical attitude and condemnation of the value system, with the intention to change it;
• opposition, which manifests itself both in internal and external contradiction with this system.

It should be noted that the system of values ​​in human life is the most important component in the structure of the personality, while it occupies a borderline position - on the one hand, it is a system of personal meanings of a person, on the other, its motivational-need sphere. Values ​​and value orientations of a person act as the leading quality of a person, emphasizing its uniqueness and individuality.

Values ​​are the most powerful regulator of human life. They guide a person on the path of his development and determine his behavior and activities. In addition, the focus of a person on certain values ​​and value orientations will certainly have an impact on the process of formation of society as a whole.

How to understand what is the difference between spiritual and material values? What are the options for personal development in this regard and what to expect on each path of development? Let's take a closer look at these current issues in more detail later in the article.

Human values: a general concept

To begin with, it is worth understanding the concept of “value” in general: what is it in the universal human understanding? The word "value" comes from the word "price", that is, it is something that has a price, significance, weighty preference, expressed in various objects of both the material and subtle spiritual worlds.

The main types of human values ​​are divided into three groups:

1. Spiritual - something that does not have a pronounced physical form, but at the same time significantly affects the quality of life of both an individual and society as a whole. They are usually divided into personal ones, that is, they are important for a particular individual, group ones - having weight for a certain group of people (communities, castes, nationalities), as well as universal ones, the significance of which is not affected by the level of consciousness or life of a person.
2. Social - a type of values ​​that is important for a certain circle of people, but there are individuals for whom it is absolutely not important, that is, it is not something necessary for a fulfilling life. A great example is the ascetics in the mountains of Tibet, hermits living alone in the forests or traveling the world.
3. Material - this type of values ​​is predominant for more than half of humanity, as it has become the basis for another status - social. The basis of material value is not only objects of personal property, but also the surrounding world.

All kinds of values ​​have in themselves the main reason and driving force for the development of an individual, group, society or humanity as a whole, which is an indicator of success and progress.

In various life situations, a person is sometimes forced to make a choice between development and nourishment of the material or spiritual world, which determines further development individual, and hence the overwhelming majority of society.

Spiritual values ​​- the litmus of the morality of society

There are several types of spiritual values, and all of them are based on one goal: to make the individual a more developed personality from the point of view of the non-material world.

• The fundamental values ​​of life are freedom, love, faith, kindness, peace, friendship, nature and life in general. The absence of these factors calls into question the further development of man, even at a primitive level.
• Moral values ​​determine the relationship between people from the standpoint of morality. This is honor and honesty, conscience, humanity and compassion for all living things, respect for age and experience.
• Aesthetic - associated with the experience of beauty and harmony, the ability to enjoy the moment, sound, color and form. The music of Beethoven, Vivaldi, the paintings of Leonardo da Vinci, Notre Dame Cathedral and St. Basil's Cathedral are the aesthetic values ​​of humanity outside of time. For a specific person, a figurine donated by a loved one, or a picture drawn by a three-year-old kid can become such an important object.

A person who lives by spiritual values ​​will never have a doubt what to choose: attend a concert of his favorite artist or buy the fifth in a row, but very fashionable boots. For him, the duty to aging parents is always primary, he will not be able to satisfy his egoism and send them to a nursing home.

Public or collective values ​​of a person

The social values ​​of a person are twofold: for some they are primary and important in the highest degree(politicians, actors, clergy, world-class scientific researchers), on the contrary, they do not play any role for others, and it is absolutely unimportant to a person what others think of him and what position he occupies on the social ladder.

All types of social values ​​are divided into several types:

Political + social ladder level: for some people, it is extremely important to stand at the helm of power, to be respected and honored by everyone.

Communicative - it is important for the vast majority of people to belong to any group or cell, whether it be "Krishna Consciousness" or a circle of cross-stitch lovers. Communication by interests gives a feeling of being in demand, and therefore, of importance for the world.

Religious: for many people, belief in divine powers and related rituals in Everyday life provide the basis for future life.

Natural and economic (environment-oriented): few people want to live in environmentally hazardous areas, places with strong gas pollution or seismic hazardous areas is an indicator of personal natural values. At the same time, the concern of humanity as a whole about environment also included in this section, as well as the conservation of rare animal species.

Material values ​​- the main incentive of the modern world of consumers

All physical objects that make a person's life as comfortable as possible - these are the material values ​​that supposedly make life happier and more diverse.

Unfortunately, modernity is too preoccupied with caring for the external, material world, and few people really realize that houses, cool cars and closets full of clothes, as well as iPads, are only temporary and imaginary values ​​​​that are relevant only to a limited extent. habitual life. And if you move a person without his “toys” to a space independent of them, then he might be able to realize that these things, in fact, are worth nothing and are not primary values.

Personal values ​​of an individual

This type of values ​​is a combination of all the above aspects, but taking into account the individual priorities of a person.

So, one person in the first place will have a desire to achieve a high position in society. So, its main value is social. Another will have a sincere desire to understand the true meaning of being - this is an indicator of spiritual value, which is above all.

A person's priorities in choosing personal values ​​are an indicator of a highly developed being.

All kinds of values ​​of an individual perfectly show who a person really is and what awaits him in the future, because it is pointless to ignore the previous experience of many thousands of people. If a person has chosen material goods as a priority, believing that they will make him happy for life, then he will eventually understand (if not stupid!) That all these “toys” that come and replace each other give a feeling of happiness and satisfaction for a short time. , and then again I want something else.

But the people who chose spiritual path and high values, not only know, but also feel that their life is full, interesting and without capital investments: it doesn’t really matter to them whether they have a popular brand car or an old Moskvich - after all, their happiness comes not from owning things, but lies in the love of life or God.

Can all three types of values ​​coexist peacefully in the mind of one person?

This idea is very well illustrated by Krylov's fable "The Swan, Cancer and Pike": if you rush in all directions at once, then in the end nothing moves anywhere, it remains in place. But a group of like-minded people or a nation, and indeed all of humanity as a whole, is quite capable of such a task: some will be responsible for material values, using them for the benefit of everyone, while others will raise the spiritual level, preventing society from morally decaying.