Proving the existence of God is one of the main tasks of Christian theology. And the most interesting argument in favor of divine existence was put forward by the Italian theologian Anselm of Canterbury.

Its essence is the following. God is defined as the totality of all perfections. He is the absolute good, love, goodness, and so on. Existence is one of the perfections. If something exists in our mind but does not exist outside of it, then it is imperfect. Since God is perfect, it follows from the idea of ​​his existence that his real existence must be inferred.

God exists in the mind, therefore, he exists outside of it.

This is a rather interesting argument, illustrating what philosophy was like in the Middle Ages. Although it was refuted by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, try to think about it for yourself.

Rene Descartes: "I think, therefore I am"

Can you say anything with absolute certainty? Is there at least one thought that you have no doubt about? You say, “Today I woke up. Of this I am absolutely sure.” Sure? What if your brain was hit an hour ago and now they are sending electrical signals to it to artificially create memories in you? Yes, it looks implausible, but it is theoretically possible. It's about absolute certainty. What then are you sure of?

Rene Descartes found such undeniable knowledge. This knowledge is in man himself: I think, therefore I am. This statement is beyond doubt. Think about it: even if your brain is in a flask, your very thinking, however wrong, exists! Let everything you know be false. But one cannot deny the existence of that which thinks falsely.

Now you know the most indisputable statement of all possible, which has become almost the slogan of all European philosophy: cogito ergo sum.

Plato: "It is the concepts of things that really exist, not the things themselves"

The main problem of ancient Greek philosophers was the search for being. Don't worry, this beast is not scary at all. Being is what is. That's all. “Then why look for it,” you say, “here it is, everywhere.” Everywhere, but just take some thing, think about it, as being disappears somewhere. For example, your phone. It seems to be there, but you understand that it will break down and be disposed of.

Basically, everything that has a beginning has an end. But being has no beginning and no end by definition - it just is. It turns out that since your phone exists for some time and its existence depends on this time, its existence is somehow unreliable, unstable, relative.

Philosophers have dealt with this problem in different ways. Someone said that there is no being at all, someone stubbornly continued to insist that there is being, and someone - that a person cannot say anything definite about the world at all.

Plato found and argued the most powerful position, which had an incredibly strong influence on the development of the entire European culture, but with which it is intuitively difficult to agree. He said that the concepts of things - ideas - have being, while the things themselves belong to another world, the world of becoming. There is a particle of being in your phone, but being is not peculiar to it as a material thing. But your idea of ​​a telephone, unlike the telephone itself, does not depend on time or anything else. She is eternal and unchanging.

Plato has put a lot of effort into proving this idea, and the fact that he is still considered by many to be the greatest philosopher in history should make you slightly reluctant to unequivocally reject the position of the reality of ideas. Better read the "Dialogues" of Plato - they are worth it.

Immanuel Kant: "Man constructs the world around him"

Immanuel Kant is a giant of philosophical thought. His teaching became a kind of waterline that separated the philosophy "before Kant" from the philosophy "after Kant".

He was the first to express an idea that today may not sound like a bolt from the blue, but which we completely forget about in everyday life.

Kant showed that everything that a person deals with is the result of the creative forces of the person himself.

The monitor in front of your eyes does not exist "outside of you", you yourself have created this monitor. The easiest way to explain the essence of the idea is physiology: the image of the monitor is formed by your brain, and it is with it that you are dealing, and not with the “real monitor”.

However, Kant thought in philosophical terminology, while physiology as a science did not yet exist. Besides, if the world exists in the brain, then where does the brain exist? Therefore, instead of the “brain”, Kant used the term “a priori knowledge”, that is, such knowledge that exists in a person from the moment of birth and allows him to create a monitor from something inaccessible.

He identified various types of this knowledge, but its primary forms, which are responsible for the sensory world, are space and time. That is, there is neither time nor space without a person, it is a grid, glasses through which a person looks at the world, while simultaneously creating it.

Albert Camus: "Man is absurd"

Is life worth living?

Have you ever had such a question? Probably not. And the life of Albert Camus was literally permeated with despair from the fact that this question cannot be answered in the affirmative. Man in this world is like Sisyphus endlessly doing the same meaningless work. There is no way out of this situation, no matter what a person does, he will always remain a slave of life.

Man is an absurd being, wrong, illogical. Animals have needs, and there are things in the world that can satisfy them. A person, on the other hand, has a need for meaning - for something that does not exist.

The essence of man is such that it requires meaningfulness in everything.

However, its very existence is meaningless. Where there should be a meaning of meanings, there is nothing, emptiness. Everything loses its foundation, not a single value has a foundation.

The existential philosophy of Camus is very pessimistic. But you must admit that there are certain grounds for pessimism.

Karl Marx: "All human culture is an ideology"

In accordance with the theory of Marx and Engels, the history of mankind is the history of the suppression of some classes by others. In order to maintain its power, the ruling class distorts knowledge of real social relations, creating the phenomenon of "false consciousness". Exploited classes just don't know they're being exploited.

All creations of bourgeois society are declared by philosophers as ideology, that is, a set of false values ​​and ideas about the world. This is religion, and politics, and any human practices - in principle, we live in a false, erroneous reality.

All our beliefs are a priori false, because they originally appeared as a way of hiding the truth from us in the interests of a certain class.

A person simply does not have the opportunity to look at the world objectively. After all, ideology is a culture, an innate prism through which he sees things. Even such an institution as the family must be recognized as ideological.

What is real in this case? Economic relations, that is, such relations in which a way of distributing life's goods is formed. In a communist society, all ideological mechanisms will collapse (that means there will be no states, no religions, no families), and true relationships will be established between people.

Karl Popper: "A good scientific theory can be refuted"

What do you think, if there are two scientific theories and one of them is easily refuted, and the other is impossible to undermine at all, which one will be more scientific?

Popper, the methodologist of science, showed that the criterion of being scientific is falsifiability, that is, the possibility of refutation. A theory not only must have a coherent proof, it must have the potential to be broken.

For example, the statement "the soul exists" cannot be considered scientific, because it is impossible to imagine how to disprove it. After all, if the soul is immaterial, then how can you be sure for sure whether it exists? But the statement “all plants carry out photosynthesis” is quite scientific, since in order to refute it, it is enough to find at least one plant that does not convert light energy. It is quite possible that it will never be found, but the very possibility of refuting the theory should be obvious.

Such is the fate of any scientific knowledge: it is never absolute and is always ready to resign.

Philosophy allowed the visible world to take shape in our minds. From the hard sciences to political discussions, philosophers have sought to challenge our idea of ​​what the world looks like. And this science originated in Ancient Greece, known for its impressive list of philosophers, many of whom you know from school days.

Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
An ancient Greek philosopher, known to almost every person who is at least a little familiar with the course of school history. Aristotle was a student of Plato, but in many ways surpassed his teacher, which caused his discontent. Known for his work in mathematics, physics, logic, poetry, linguistics and political science.

Immanuel Kant
A native of Germany, Kant is known for his ideas on the relativity of perception. According to him, we see the world not as it is. We can only perceive it through the prism of our thoughts, feelings and judgments. In other words, he laid the foundation for the creation of the concept of the Matrix by the Wachowski brothers.

Plato
As already mentioned, Plato was the teacher of Aristotle. He is known for establishing the Academy in Athens. It was the first institution of higher education in the Western world.

Confucius is one of the greatest and most famous in the world
This Chinese philosopher lived around 500 BC. His philosophy was focused on relationships and the importance of the family in the life of each individual and society. Later, his views developed and became known as Confucianism.

David Hume
This Scottish philosopher was known for his commitment to empiricism and skepticism. He was sure that our perception of the world is based not on an objective vision, but on our belief in how the world should look like. Kant, by the way, took a lot from Hume's ideas.

Rene Descartes
He is rightfully considered the father of modern philosophy. He owns one of the most famous aphorisms - "I think, therefore I exist."

Socrates
Plato's teacher made a very significant contribution to rhetoric, logic and philosophy. He is credited with the so-called Socratic method of discussion, in which the listener is asked a series of questions that lead the listener to the desired conclusions.

Niccolo Machiavelli
Living during the Renaissance, Machiavelli is known for his invaluable contributions to political philosophy. His book "The Sovereign" tells how to stay "at the helm" of power under any circumstances. Machiavelli's work was accepted with hostility, since at that time it was believed that power could not be unvirtuous. “Power is always right” and “Love does not get along well with fear” are his statements.

John Locke
Locke was a British physician. According to his theory, all our perception is based on subjective vision. His thoughts were developed by Hume and Kant. Locke is also known for using simple language in his writings, understandable to anyone familiar with the ability to read. When asked how objects outside of a person could exist, he suggested sticking one's hand into a fire.

Diogenes
This ancient Greek philosopher is famous for sitting in a barrel. He also cursed Aristotle, claiming that he perverted the teachings of Plato. No less famous is the episode in which Diogenes, finding Athens mired in vanity and vices, walked the streets of the capital with a torch and exclamations “I am looking for a Man!”.

Thomas Aquinas
Thomas Aquinas is one of the most important Christian theologians and philosophers. He not only combined the Greek natural school of philosophy with Christian theology, but also created a series of treatises that develop a rational approach to faith and religion (oddly enough). His writings most widely describe the beliefs and faith of the Middle Ages.

Lao Tzu
This mysterious philosopher lived around the 6th century BC. in China. He is credited with the creation of such a movement as "Taoism" (or "Taoism"). The main idea of ​​this teaching is Tao, that is, a special Path to Harmony. These thoughts have become very important to Buddhism, Confucianism and other Asian philosophies.

Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
Leibniz is on a par with Descartes among idealist thinkers. Due to his technical background and penchant for analytics, Leibniz initially believed that the brain was a complex mechanism. However, later he abandoned these ideas precisely because of the perfection of the brain. According to his idea, the brain consisted of Monads - subtle spiritual substances.

Baruch Spinoza
Spinoza was a Dutch Jew born in the early 15th century in Amsterdam. He is known for his research on rationalism and pragmatism in the Abrahamic religions. For example, he tried to prove the impossibility of many Christian miracles of that time. For which, as expected, he was repeatedly persecuted by the authorities.

Voltaire
A French philosopher of the Enlightenment, Voltaire advocated humanism, concern for nature and responsibility for the actions of mankind. He sharply criticized religion and the humiliation of human dignity.

Thomas Hobbes
This English philosopher lived in turbulent times. Looking at fratricidal wars, he concluded that a citizen must submit to the authority of the state at any cost, as long as this authority ensures internal and external peace, since there is nothing worse than wars.

Aurelius Augustine
Aurelius was born in what is now Algeria. He is especially known for his work "Confession", in which he describes his path to Christianity. In this work, he often talked about free will and predestination. He was canonized shortly after his death and is considered one of the most important Christian authors of the early period.

Abu Hamid al-Ghazali
Persian philosopher, known for his criticism of the works of Aristotle. For example, he pointed out the error of assertions about the eternity of the world and its infinity.

Siddhartha Gautama Buddha
Perhaps the most famous Indian philosopher. He came to the conclusion that all human suffering is the result of a conflict between the desire for permanence and the lack of permanence in the world.

Baron de Montesquieu
We can say that Montesquieu is the great-grandfather of almost all Constitutions (including the American one). This French philosopher made an invaluable contribution to political science.

Jean Jacques Rousseau
He is known not only for his works in the field of humanism, but also for statements that are very controversial for us (though not without meaning). He argued that man is freer in anarchy than in society. In his opinion, science and progress do not develop humanity, but give more power to the government.

George Berkeley
An Irishman with a fine mental organization is known for the idea that the material world may not exist. Everything that surrounds us and we ourselves are thoughts in the mind of a higher deity.

Ayn Rand
She was born in Russia, but emigrated to the United States, where she became widely known for her ideas of strong capitalism, in which the government has no right to interfere. Her concepts formed the basis of modern libertarianism and conservatism.

Simone de Bouvoir
Simone did not consider herself a philosopher. However, it was this French woman writer who influenced the formation of existentialism. Supporters of the latter, by the way, consider her almost the messiah of the struggle for women's equality.

Sun Tzu
Being a talented military man, General Sun Tzu had invaluable experience in combat operations. This allowed him to write one of the most popular book among business sharks and modern business philosophers - "The Art of War".
Of course, this list is far from complete, it does not include many controversial or odeotic personalities whose philosophy has influenced modern society no less than scientific progress (take the same Nietzsche). However, philosophy and the development of thought always give rise to discussions.

Kokshetau State University

them. Sh. Ualikhanov

Department of Philosophy

PERSONALITIES

In accordance with the state standard for the discipline "Philosophy" in all specialties and areas

Kokshetau - 2008

Aristotle

Augustine the Blessed

Thomas Aquinas

Al Kindi

Abu Nasr Al-Farabi

Khoja Ahmet Yasawi

Yusuf Balasaguni

Mahmoud Kashgari

Nicholas of Cusa

Leonardo da Vinci

Tomaso Campanella

Francis Bacon

Rene Descartes

Benedict Spinoza

George Berkeley

John Locke

Thomas Hobbes

Jean Jacques Rousseau

Immanuel Kant

Johann Gottlieb Fichte

Friedrich Schelling

Friedrich Hegel

Ludwig Feuerbach

Edmund Husserl

Kierkegaard

Schopenhauer

Sigmund Freud

Friedrich Nietzsche

Bukhar-Zhyrau

Shokan Ualikhanov

Ibray Altynsarin

Abai Kunanbaev

Shakarim Kudaiberdiev

Vladimir Solovyov

Fedor Dostoevsky

Nikolai Berdyaev

Bertrand Russell

Ludwig Wittgenstein

Heidegger

Spengler

Jose Ortega y Gasset

Michel Foucault

(469 - 399 BC)

Socrates is an Athenian philosopher. The parents of Socrates were the sculptor Sophronix and Fenareta. Already in old age, Socrates married Xanthippe, who bore him three children. The poverty of Socrates, his unpretentiousness and unusual appearance became proverbial.

The invaluable merit of Socrates is that in his practice dialogue has become the main method of finding the truth. Whereas previously principles were simply postulated, Socrates discussed all sorts of approaches critically and comprehensively. Socrates used the so-called midwifery art, called maieutics - the art of defining a concept through induction. With the help of skillfully asked questions, he singled out false definitions and found the correct ones.

Socrates became famous as one of the founders of dialectics in the sense of finding the truth through conversations and disputes. The method of dialectical disputes of Socrates was to detect contradictions in the reasoning of the interlocutor and bring him to the truth through questions and answers.

In matters of ethics, Socrates developed the principles of rationalism, arguing that virtue stems from knowledge and a person who knows what good is will not act badly. After all, good is also knowledge, so the culture of intelligence can make people good: no one is evil out of good will, people are only evil out of ignorance, Socrates believes.

The political views of Socrates were based on the conviction that power in the state should belong to the "best", i.e. experienced, honest, fair, decent and certainly possessing the art of public administration. He sharply criticized the shortcomings of contemporary Athenian democracy.

If Socrates directed all his wisdom and his "service to God" to denounce imaginary human wisdom, it was because of the ideal of universal reason and divine wisdom, which he thus preached.

At the end of his life, Socrates was brought to trial for an interpretation of the deity that differed from that accepted according to the tradition that existed in Athens, as well as allegedly for "corrupting youth." He was sentenced to death. Socrates died by drinking poison.

Socrates, according to Hegel, is not only an extremely important figure in the history of philosophy and perhaps the most interesting in ancient philosophy, but also world famous. For the main repeated point of the spirit, its appeal to itself, was embodied in the form of philosophical thought.

PLATO

(427-347 BC)

Plato is a Greek philosopher and teacher. Born in Athens, where he died at the age of 80.

The idea is the central category in Plato's philosophy. The idea of ​​a thing is something ideal. All cosmic life is generalized in Platonic ideas: they have regulative energy and govern the Universe. Plato interpreted ideas as some kind of divine essence. They were thought of as end causes.

Interpreting the idea of ​​the soul, Plato says: the soul of a person before his birth resides in the realm of pure thought and beauty. Then she ends up on a sinful earth, where, temporarily being in a human body, like a prisoner in a dungeon, "remember the world of ideas." Here Plato had in mind memories of what happened in a former life: the soul resolves the main questions of its life even before birth.

In his doctrine of cognition, Plato underestimated the role of the sensory stage of cognition, believing that sensations and perceptions deceive a person. Plato approached knowledge from the standpoint of dialectics. Plato developed the dialectic of the one and the many, the identical and the other, movement and rest, etc., in particular detail. Plato's philosophy of nature is characterized by its connection with mathematics.

Plato justifies his views on the origin of society and the state by the fact that an individual person is not able to satisfy all his needs for food, housing, clothing, etc. In considering the problem of society and the state, he relied on his favorite theory of ideas and ideals. The "ideal state" is a community of farmers, artisans who produce everything necessary to maintain the life of citizens, warriors who protect security, and philosopher-rulers who carry out wise and just government of the state. However, only aristocrats can rule this state.

Plato's philosophy is almost entirely permeated with ethical issues: his dialogues deal with such issues as the nature of the highest good, its implementation in the behavioral acts of people, in the life of society. The ideal of objective absolute truth is opposed to human sensual inclinations: the good is opposed to the pleasant. Faith in the ultimate harmony of virtue and happiness remains, but the ideal of absolute truth, absolute goodness leads Plato to recognize another, supersensible world.

According to Plato, the sensory world is imperfect - it is full of disorder. A person must rise above it and strive with all the strength of the soul to become like God.

Main works: "George", "Theaetetus", "Phaedo", "Laws" and others.

ARISTOTLE

(384 - 322 BC)

Ancient Greek philosopher and teacher. Born in Stagira and died in Chalkis. For almost 20 years, Aristotle studied at the Academy of Plato, and after leaving it he became the tutor of Alexander the Great. Aristotle's father was a doctor in Stagira. Left without parents early, the young man studied at Attarn in Proksiny. While Aristotle was at the academy, he studied the whole philosophy of Plato.

Aristotle is a student of Plato, but on a number of fundamental issues he disagreed with his teacher. In particular, he believed that the Platonic theory of ideas is completely insufficient for explaining empirical reality.

Proceeding from the recognition of the objective existence of matter, Aristotle considered it eternal, uncreated and indestructible. Matter cannot arise from nothing, nor can it increase or decrease in quantity.

Aristotle developed a hierarchical system of categories, in which the basis was "essence", or "substance", and the rest were considered its signs. In an effort to simplify the categorical system, Aristotle then recognized only three main categories: essence, state, relation.

For Aristotle, knowledge has its object of being. The basis of experience is in sensations, in memory and habit. Any knowledge begins with sensations: it is that which is able to take the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter. The mind, on the other hand, sees the general in the particular. The forms of truly scientific knowledge are concepts that comprehend the essence of a thing. Having developed the theory of knowledge in detail and deeply, Aristotle created a work on logic. Here he developed the theory of thinking and its forms, concepts, judgments, conclusions, etc. Aristotle is the founder of logic.

Analyzing categories and operating with them in the analysis of philosophical problems, Aristotle also considered the operations of the mind, its logic, including the logic of propositions. He formulated logical laws: the law of identity, the law of contradiction and the law of the excluded middle.

He singled out such forms of government as monarchy, aristocracy and polity. Deviation from monarchy gives tyranny, deviation from aristocracy gives oligarchy, from polity gives democracy. At the heart of all social upheavals lies property inequality.

Major works: "On the Soul", "Athenian Politia", "Metaphysics", "Topeka", "Analytics", "Nicomachean Ethics", "Eudemic Ethics" and others.

AUGUSTINE THE Blessed

(354-430)

Born in the Roman province of Numidia. His father, a Roman citizen, Patricius, was a small landowner. Mother, Monica was a peasant woman and insisted that her son's baptism take place, right before her death.

Augustine's doctrine of being is close to Neoplatonism. According to Augustine, everything that exists, insofar as it exists and precisely because it exists, is good. Evil is not a substance, but a defect, deterioration of the substance, vice and damage to the form, non-existence. On the contrary, the good is a substance, a "form" with all its elements: kind, measure, number, order. God is the source of being, pure form, the highest beauty, the source of goodness.

Augustine's worldview is deeply theocentric: at the center of spiritual aspirations is God as the starting and ending point of reflection. The problem of God and his relationship to the world appears in Augustine as central. The world, nature and man, being the result of God's creation, depend on their Creator. If neoplatonism considered God (the Absolute) as an impersonal being, as the unity of all that exists, then Augustine interpreted God as a person who created all that exists.

Augustine specifically emphasized the difference between God, so understood, and fate, fortune, which occupy such a large place not only in antiquity, but even to this day.

Eternity is conceived by Augustine as follows: in the world of thoughts - the ideas of God, everything exists once and for all - static eternity is inseparable from God. Meanwhile, in the eternal there is neither the passing nor the future, for what passes away already ceases to exist, and what will be has not yet begun to be.

There are many different philosophies and schools in the world. Some praise spiritual values, while others preach a more essential way of life. However, they have one thing in common - they are all invented by man. That is why, before you begin to study the school of thought, you should understand what a philosopher is.

At the same time, it is necessary not only to find out the meaning of this word, but also to look back into the past in order to remember those who stood at the origins of the first schools of philosophy. After all, only in this way can one comprehend the true essence of the question of who a philosopher is.

People who have devoted themselves to great reflections

So, as always, the story should begin with the main. In this case, who is a philosopher. Indeed, in the future, this word will appear very often in the text, which means that it simply cannot be done without a clear understanding of its meaning.

Well, a philosopher is a person who has devoted himself entirely to thinking about the essence of being. At the same time, his main desire is the desire to understand the essence of what is happening, so to speak, to look behind the scenes of life and death. Strictly speaking, such reflections turn a simple person into a philosopher.

It should be noted that such reflections are not just a passing hobby or fun, this is the meaning of his life or even, if you like, a calling. That is why the great philosophers devoted all their free time to resolving the issues that tormented them.

Differences in philosophical currents

The next step is to realize that all philosophers are different. There is no universal view of the world or the order of things. Even if thinkers adhere to the same idea or worldview, there will always be divergences in their judgments.

This is due to the fact that the views of philosophers on the world depend on their personal experience and ability to analyze facts. That is why hundreds of different philosophical currents have seen the light of day. And all of them are unique in their essence, which makes this science very multifaceted and informative.

And yet everything has its beginning, including philosophy. Therefore, it would be very logical to turn our eyes to the past and talk about those who founded this discipline. Namely, about ancient thinkers.

Socrates - the first of the great minds of antiquity

You should start with the one who is considered a legend in the world of great thinkers - Socrates. He was born and lived in Ancient Greece in 469-399 BC. Unfortunately, this learned man did not keep a record of his thoughts, so most of his sayings have come down to us only thanks to the efforts of his students.

He was the first person to think about what a philosopher is. Socrates believed that life has meaning only when a person lives it meaningfully. He condemned his compatriots for forgetting about morality and mired in their own vices.

Alas, the life of Socrates ended tragically. The local authorities called his teaching heresy and sentenced him to death. He did not wait for the execution of the sentence and voluntarily took the poison.

Great Philosophers of Ancient Greece

It is Ancient Greece that is considered the place where the Western school of philosophy originated. Many great minds of antiquity were born in this country. And although some of their teachings were rejected by contemporaries, we must not forget that the first scientists-philosophers appeared here more than 2.5 thousand years ago.

Plato

Of all the disciples of Socrates, Plato was the most successful. Having absorbed the wisdom of the teacher, he continued to study the world around him and its laws. Moreover, with the support of the people, he founded the great Academy of Athens. It was here that he taught young students the basics of philosophical ideas and concepts.

Plato was sure that his teachings could give people the wisdom they desperately needed. He argued that only an educated and sober-minded person can create an ideal state.

Aristotle

Aristotle did a lot for the development of Western philosophy. This Greek graduated from the Academy of Athens, and one of his teachers was Plato himself. Since Aristotle was distinguished by special erudition, he was soon called to teach in the palace of the steward. According to historical records, he taught Alexander the Great himself.

Roman philosophers and thinkers

The works of Greek thinkers greatly influenced the cultural life in the Roman Empire. Encouraged by the texts of Plato and Pythagoras, the first innovatory Roman philosophers began to appear at the beginning of the second century. And although most of their theories resembled Greek ones, there were still some differences in their teachings. In particular, this was due to the fact that the Romans had their own concepts of what the highest good is.

Mark Terence Varro

One of the first philosophers of Rome was Varro, who was born in the 1st century BC. During his life he wrote many works devoted to moral and spiritual values. He also put forward an interesting theory that every nation has four stages of development: childhood, youth, maturity and old age.

Mark Tullius Cicero

It is one of the most Ancient Rome. Such fame came to Cicero because he was finally able to combine Greek spirituality and Roman love of citizenship into one whole.

Today, he is valued for being one of the first to position philosophy not as an abstract science, but as part of everyday human life. Cicero managed to convey to people the idea that everyone can comprehend if they wish. In particular, that is why he introduced his own dictionary, which explains the essence of many philosophical terms.

Great Philosopher of the Celestial Empire

Many attribute the idea of ​​democracy to the Greeks, but on the other side of the globe, a great sage was able to put forward the same theory, relying only on his own convictions. It is this ancient philosopher who is considered the pearl of Asia.

Confucius

China has always been considered a country of sages, but among all others, special attention should be paid to Confucius. This great philosopher lived in 551-479. BC e. and was a very famous person. The main task of his teaching was the preaching of the principles of high morality and personal virtues.

Names known to all

As the years passed, more and more people wanted to contribute to the development of philosophical ideas. More and more new schools and movements were born, and lively discussions between their representatives became the usual norm. However, even in such conditions, there were those whose thoughts for the world of philosophers were like a breath of fresh air.

Avicenna

Abu Ali Hussein ibn Abdallah ibn Sina - this is the full name of Avicenna, the great He was born in 980 on the territory of the Persian Empire. During his life he wrote more than a dozen scientific treatises related to physics and philosophy.

In addition, he founded his own school. In it, he taught gifted young men medicine, in which, by the way, he succeeded very much.

Thomas Aquinas

In 1225, a boy named Thomas was born. His parents could not even imagine that in the future he would become one of the most outstanding minds in the philosophical world. He wrote many works devoted to reflections on the world of Christians.

Moreover, in 1879 the Catholic Church recognized his writings and made them the official philosophy for Catholics.

Rene Descartes

He is better known as the father of the modern form of thought. Many people know his catchphrase "If I think, then I exist." In his works, he considered the mind as the main weapon of man. The scientist studied the works of philosophers of different eras and conveyed them to his contemporaries.

In addition, Descartes made many new discoveries in other sciences, in particular in mathematics and physics.

In Russian

• Spirkin A.G. Philosophy // . - Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1977. - T. 27. - S. 412-417.
• E.Gubsky, G.Korableva, V.Lutchenko Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - Moscow: Infra-M, 2005. - 576 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 5-86225-403-X
• Alexander Gritsanov The latest philosophical dictionary. - Minsk: Skakun, 1999. - 896 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 985-6235-17-0

in foreign languages

• Robert Audi philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - T. 7. - S. 325-337. - ISBN 0-02-865787-X.
• The Oxford companion to philosophy / Ted Honderich. - New Edition. - Oxford University Press, 2005. - 1060 p. - ISBN 0–19–926479–1

Introductory Literature

In Russian

• P.V. Alekseev, A.V. Panin Philosophy. - 3rd edition. - Moscow: Prospect, 2005. - 604 p. - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-482-00002-8
• B. Russell History of Western Philosophy = The History of Western Philosophy. - Moscow: Mif, 1993. - T. I. - 512 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 5-87214-012-6
• B. Russell History of Western Philosophy = The History of Western Philosophy. - Moscow: Mif, 1993. - T. II. - 446 p. - 10,000 copies. - ISBN 5-87214-012-6
• M.N. Rosenko The subject of philosophy. Anthropocentrism as an ideological and methodological principle of modern philosophy. // Yu.N. Solonin and others. Fundamentals of modern philosophy. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999. - S. 3-19. - ISBN 5-8114-0100-0.
• A.S. Kolesnikov Historical types of philosophy // Yu.N. Solonin and others. Fundamentals of modern philosophy. - St. Petersburg: Lan, 1999. - S. 20-110. - ISBN 5-8114-0100-0.
• A.A. Sychev Fundamentals of philosophy. - Moscow: Alfa M, 2010. - 368 p. - 1500 copies. - ISBN 978-5-98281-181-3

in foreign languages

• Brooke Noel Moore, Kenneth Bruder philosophy. The Power of Ideas. - 6th edition. - Mc Graw Hill, 2005. - 600 p. - ISBN 0-07-287603-4
• Edward Craig philosophy // Nigel Warburton philosophy. Basic Readings.. - Routledge, 2005. - S. 5-10. - ISBN 0-203-50642-1.
• Rodolphe Gasche The Honor of Thinking: Critique, Theory, Philosophy. - 1st edition. - Stanford University Press, 2006. - 424 p. - ISBN 0804754233
• Richard H. Popkin Origins of Western Philosophical Thinking // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 1-5. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.

Thematic literature on philosophical schools

Early Greek philosophy

• A.I. Zaitsev Sophists // V.S. Stepin ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
• Catherine Osborne Presocratic Philosophy. A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2004. - 146 p. - ISBN 0-19-284094-0
• Thomas M. Robinson The Pre-Socratic Philosophers // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 6-20. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
• Thomas M. Robinson The Sophists // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 20-23. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.

Greek classical philosophy

• V.F. Asmus Plato. - Moscow: Thought, 1975. - 220 p. - (Thinkers of the past). - 50,000 copies.
• A.F. Losev, A.A. Tahoe Godi Plato. Aristotle.. - 3rd edition. - Moscow: Young Guard, 2005. - 392 p. - (Life of remarkable people). - 5000 copies. - ISBN 5-235-02830-9
• A.F. Losev Life and creative path of Plato // Plato. Collected works in four volumes. - Moscow: Thought, 1994. - T. 1. - S. 3-63. - ISBN 5-244-00451-4.

ancient indian philosophy

• VK. Shokhin Indian philosophy // V.S. Stepin ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
• D.B. Zilberman, A.M. Piatigorsky Philosophy [in India] // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - Moscow: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1972. - T. 10. - S. 221-223.
• Sue Hamilton Indian Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2001. - 168 p. - ISBN 0192853740
• Karl Potter Indian Philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 4. - S. 623-634. - ISBN 0-02-865784-5.
• VK. Shokhin Indian philosophy. Shraman period. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg University Publishing House, 2007. - 424 p. - 1000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-288-04085-6
• VK. Shokhin Schools of Indian Philosophy. Formation period. - Moscow: Eastern Literature, 2004. - 416 p. - (History of Eastern philosophy). - 1200 copies. - ISBN 5-02-018390-3

ancient chinese philosophy

• V.G. Burova, M.L. Titarenko Philosophy of Ancient China // ancient chinese philosophy: in 2 volumes .. - Moscow: Thought, 1972. - T. 1. - S. 5-77.
• A.I. Kobzev Chinese philosophy // V.S. Stepin New Philosophical Encyclopedia: in 4 volumes - Moscow: Thought, 2010. - Vol. 2. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
• Livia Kohn Daoism Handbook. - Boston: Brill Academic Publishers, 2000. - 954 p. - (Handbook of Oriental Studies / Handbuch der Orientalisk). - ISBN 90-04-11208-1
• Wing-Tsit Chan Chinese Philosophy: Overview // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 149-160. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
• Kwong-loi Shun Chinese Philosophy: Confucianism // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 170-180. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
• Chad Hansen Chinese Philosophy: Daoism // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 184-194. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
• Bo Mou Chinese Philosophy: Language and Logic // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 202-215. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.

Medieval philosophy of Europe

• Chanyshev A.N. Course of Lectures on Ancient and Medieval Philosophy. - Moscow: Higher School, 1991. - 512 p. - 100,000 copies. - ISBN 5-06-000992-0
• Sokolov V.V. medieval philosophy. - Moscow: Higher School, 1979. - 448 p. - 40,000 copies.
• S.S. Neretina Medieval European Philosophy // V.S. Stepin New Philosophical Encyclopedia: in 4 vols. - Moscow: Thought, 2010. - Vol. 4. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.
• Desmond Paul Henry Medieval and Early Christian Philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 6. - S. 99-107. - ISBN 0-02-865786-1.
• G.A. Smirnov Okcam // V.S. Stepin New philosophical encyclopedia: in 4 vols. - Moscow: Thought, 2010. - ISBN 978-5-244-01115-9.

Medieval Philosophy of the Near East

• E.A. Frolova A History of Arab-Muslim Philosophy: The Middle Ages and Modern Times. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 2006. - 199 p. - 500 copies. - ISBN 5-9540-0057-3
• Kecia Ali, Oliver Leaman Islam: the key concepts. - New York: Routledge, 2007. - 2000 p. - ISBN 0415396387
• E.A. Frolova Arab-Islamic Philosophy in the Middle Ages // M.T. Stepanyants History of Eastern Philosophy. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1998. - S. 72-101. - ISBN 5-201-01993-5.
• Colette Sirat History of Medieval Jewish Philosophy = A History of Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages. - Moscow: Bridges of Culture, 2003. - 712 p. - (Bibliotheca judaica. Modern research). - 2000 copies. - ISBN 5-93273-101-X

Medieval Philosophy of India and the Far East

• G.A. Tkachenko Medieval Philosophy of China // M.T. Stepanyants History of Eastern Philosophy. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1998. - S. 49-71. - ISBN 5-201-01993-5.
• VK. Shokhin Medieval Philosophy of India // M.T. Stepanyants History of Eastern Philosophy. - Moscow: Institute of Philosophy RAS, 1998. - S. 21-48. - ISBN 5-201-01993-5.

Philosophy of the Renaissance

• V. Shestakov Philosophy and culture of the Renaissance. Dawn of Europe. - St. Petersburg: Nestor-History, 2007. - 270 p. - 2000 copies. - ISBN 978-5-59818-7240-2
• OH. Gorfunkel Philosophy of the Renaissance. - Moscow: Higher School, 1980. - 368 p. - 50,000 copies.

Philosophy of the New Age

• Karl Americas Immanuel Kant // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 494-502. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
• Richard H. Popkin The French Enlightenment // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 462-471. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
• Harry M. Bracken George Berkeley // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 445-452. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
• Yuen Ting Lai China and Western Philosophy in the Age of Reason // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 412-421. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.

Continental philosophy

• Simon Critchley Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2001. - 168 p. - ISBN 0-19-285359-7
• Charles E. Scott Continental Philosophy at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 745-753. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
• Thomas Nenon Continental Philosophy // Donald M. Borchert Encyclopedia of Philosophy. - Thomson & Gale, 2006. - V. 2. - S. 488-489. - ISBN 0-02-865782-9.
• The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought / Lawrence D. Kritzman, Brian J. Reilly. - New York: Columbia University Press, 2006. - 788 p. - ISBN 978-0-231-10791-4
• Peter Singer Marx: A Very Short Introduction. - Oxford University Press, 2001. - 120 p. - ISBN 0–19–285405–4
• Franz Peter Hugdahl Poststructuralism: Derrida and Foucault // Richard H. Popkin The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. - New York: Columbia University Press, 1999. - S. 737-744. - ISBN 0-231-10128-7.
• Alain Sokal, Jean Bricmont Intellectual tricks. Criticism of postmodern philosophy = Fashionable Nonsense. Postmodern Intellectuals "Abuse of Science. - Moscow: House of Intellectual Books, 2002. - 248 p. - 1000 copies - ISBN 5-7333-0200-3
• N.V.Motroshilova