Levels of basic human needs according to A. Maslow and the needs of everyday life according to V. Henderson. On the topic "Needs. Their types and development" Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
1. Needs as a prerequisite for production. Classification of needs.
The ultimate goal of any social production is the satisfaction of needs. Needs can be defined as any state of dissatisfaction experienced by a person from which he seeks to get out, or as a certain state of satisfaction that a person wants to prolong. Needs are diverse (Fig. 1.2.1).
We single out only those of them that are associated with the formation of demand and the actual satisfaction of needs. This relationship is especially clearly seen in the division of needs into absolute (prospective), actual, subject to satisfaction and actually satisfied. Absolute needs are determined by the maximum amount of goods mastered by production that could be consumed by society if they were available. Actual needs are needs that can be satisfied under the conditions of the achieved level of production, the optimal course of reproduction. The ratio of absolute and actual needs characterizes the degree to which society satisfies its maximum needs at a given level of development and production efficiency. Needs to be satisfied are the needs that can be satisfied in the actual state of reproduction, taking into account deviations from the optimum. Needs to be met are effective demand- a set of cash income and resources presented to the market.
Rice. 1.2.1 Classification of needs
Depending on the role in the reproduction of the human labor force, needs are divided into material(food, clothing, housing, etc.), social(communication) and spiritual(education, art, entertainment, etc.). In modern economic literature, they are most often called primary, most basic human needs, and secondary, associated primarily with the spiritual, intellectual activity of man. Their peculiarity in relation to demand is that some - primary needs cannot be replaced by others, each one is satisfied separately. Secondary needs can be replaced by one another, some of them can be temporarily abstained. Hence the division of needs into elastic and inelastic. The first are quickly replaced whenever the means necessary to satisfy them appear (for example, the need for food). The latter change over a longer period of time.
There are needs economic and non-economic. Economic - these are those needs for the satisfaction of which labor activity is necessary. Non-economic needs can be satisfied without the application of labor (for example, the need for air to breathe). Almost all the needs of modern man act as economic.
Depending on the subject, the needs can be divided into:
the needs of the individual, the needs of individual groups of society, the needs of society as a whole. They may not coincide and come into conflict with each other. In economic life, needs include the needs of enterprises, firms and the needs of government, state departments.
Needs can be represented in the form of a pyramid (this approach was proposed by the American economist Maslow). According to Maslow, the following needs are distinguished:
1) basic - hunger, thirst, sleep, housing;
2) guaranteed - aimed at ensuring the satisfaction of basic needs in the future;
3) social - stem from the social contacts of the individual and represent the desire to live in society, communicate with their own kind;
4) evaluated - are manifested in the desire to recognize the individual by other people, in confirming his significance;
5) in development - they are aimed at self-development and are satisfied by recognizing the individual by society.
Needs have the properties of infinity and historicity. In the process of satisfying needs, new needs are formed both in quantitative and qualitative terms. K. Marx and V. I. Lenin called this objective process the law of rising needs. The rise of needs is confirmed by the entire course of historical development. This is one of the fundamental factors around which the problems of the economy revolve: the desire to satisfy growing and changing needs is the strongest motive for improving production.
Economists note another law - law of diminishing intensity, or the law of saturation of needs. Its essence is that, while simultaneously experiencing a number of needs, a person uses the first part of a product with the greatest intensity, with each subsequent time his desire decreases until the saturation point is reached.
Needs are met through economic interests- motivating motives of conscious activity aimed at satisfying objectively determined requests, needs of people.
The most common classification of interests is the allocation of personal, collective and public interests. Personal interests are associated with the satisfaction of material, spiritual and social needs of each member of society, collective - the interests of collectives, various social groups, and public - with the need to meet the needs of society. There are both interconnections and contradictions between these types of interests. Personal interests are not always consistent with the collective, and the collective - with the public. Their differences are based on different motives of human behavior. The classics of economic theory A. Smith and D. Ricardo believed that the model of economic behavior of a person, or “economic person”, in the era of a market economy includes enrichment, personal material interest and selfishness. Only to the extent that his own benefit is pursued does economic man act for the benefit of society. K. Marx considers a person as a spokesman for the interests of his class.
The transition to a market economy involves the development of a system of economic interests. At the same time, the main prerequisite for the formation of the modern type of economic interests is the diversity of forms of ownership.
The emergence of private property was the basis for the formation of the interest of a private owner, the interest of an entrepreneur, and financial figures. Privatization, corporatization of state property aroused interest in private property and private entrepreneurial initiative. Society in the transitional period needs entrepreneurial producers who are able to form capital and create new jobs in production.
Collective economic interest is formed and improved on the basis of collective property. Enterprises, organizations for the production of goods and services are called the real sector of the economy, organizing their activities on a self-supporting (or commercial) basis.
State property forms the public economic interest - the satisfaction of the needs of members of society in public goods. Management and disposal of them is carried out by state authorities.
Economic interests are included in a complex system: economic interest - incentive - material interest - stimulation. stimulus becomes a conscious interest, an interest the fulfillment of which is vital. material interest manifests itself in the real activities of people, business entities in the form of the need for higher wages, remuneration to individuals and higher profits for enterprises and organizations. The system of measures for the implementation of material interest is stimulation. Higher property income, wages, and bonuses provide incentives for high bottom line performance.
Need- this is a conscious psychological or physiological deficiency of something, reflected in the perception of a person, which he experiences throughout his life and must fill it in order to achieve health and well-being.
The American psychophysiologist of Russian origin Abraham Maslow in 1943 identified 14 basic human needs and arranged them according to five steps. According to his theory, which determines human behavior, some needs for a person are more significant than others. This made it possible to classify them according to a hierarchical system - from physiological to needs for self-expression. Arranging human needs in the form of a pyramid, A. Maslow showed that without satisfying the lower, physiological needs underlying the pyramid, it is impossible to satisfy the higher needs.
The first level of human needs. Physiological basic needs. Survival. These are the lower needs controlled by the organs of the body, such as breathing, food, sexual, the need for self-defense.
1. The need to breathe - provides constant gas exchange between the cells of the body and the environment. This is one of the basic physiological needs of a person. Breath and life are inseparable concepts. A person, satisfying this need, maintains the gas composition of the blood necessary for life.
2. There is a need - provides the body with the nutrients it needs to stay healthy. Rational and adequate nutrition helps eliminate risk factors for many diseases.
3. The need to drink - Satisfying the need to drink, a person delivers water to the body to maintain water-salt metabolism.
4. The need to highlight - ensures the excretion of waste products, toxins, substances harmful to the body.
5. The need to sleep, rest - satisfaction of this need ensures the restoration of the exhausted nervous system and the impaired functional state of the body, thereby normalizing the physical and mental activity of a person.
Second level. Reliability Needs - Security- striving for material security, health, provision for old age, etc. To achieve this, certain needs must be met.
6. The need to be clean. The skin and mucous membranes of a person perform a protective function, remove waste products from the body, and participate in the processes of thermoregulation. Therefore, a person needs to take care of maintaining the purity of the body.
7. The need to dress, undress. Depending on the state of the body and climatic conditions, a person needs to maintain and regulate body temperature with clothing, ensuring a comfortable state of the body, regardless of the season. To do this, it is important to choose clothes according to age, gender, season, environment.
8. The need to maintain body temperature. A constant body temperature (within physiological fluctuations) is created by the process of thermoregulation, as a result of which the body maintains a balance between heat production and heat loss. To do this, it is necessary to maintain a microclimate in the premises where a person is located and control the choice of clothing for the season.
9. The need to be healthy - It is ensured by a person’s desire for independence in meeting vital needs in the event of a change in the state of health, the occurrence of an illness, to independently solve many problems, to actively participate in the chosen course of treatment or rehabilitation.
10. The need to avoid danger, illness, stress - provides a person with the avoidance of risk factors that lead to the occurrence of diseases. It is important to avoid indifference to your state of health.
11. The need to move- provides appropriate blood circulation in the body, thereby improves tissue nutrition, increases muscle tone, and promotes the resorption of congestion.
Third level. Social needs. Affiliation- these are the needs for family, friends, their communication, approval, affection, love, etc. Satisfying the needs of this level is biased and difficult to describe. In one person, the need for communication is expressed very strongly, in another it is limited to very few contacts. Helping a person solve a social problem can significantly improve the quality of his life.
12. The need to communicate. Communication as a complex, multifaceted process of establishing contacts between people, generated by the needs of joint activities, is necessary for the patient for normal life, especially psycho-emotional balance. Violation of a person's social contacts can lead him to isolation, a desire for self-isolation, or, conversely, to irritability and increased demands on himself.
Fourth level. Consciousness of self-worth is the achievement of success.
The need for respect, awareness of one's own dignity - here we are talking about respect, prestige, social success. It is unlikely that these needs are met by an individual, this requires groups.
13. Need for success. Communicating with people, a person cannot be indifferent to the evaluation of his success by others. A person has a need for respect and self-respect. The higher the level of socio-economic development of society, the more fully the needs for self-esteem are satisfied.
Fifth level. Realization of oneself, service. The need for personal development, self-realization, self-realization, self-actualization, understanding one's purpose in the world.
The need to play, learn, work is the highest level of human need. It is necessary for self-expression, self-realization. A child realizes himself in the game, an adult - in work. To do this, he needs to learn, improve.
Needs affect experiences, the will of a person, form the orientation of the personality. The dominant need suppresses other needs, determines the main direction of human activity. Man consciously regulates the needs and this differs from animals.
In 1977, the hierarchy of human needs according to A. Maslow is undergoing changes. As a result of these changes, the number of pyramid levels increases to 7, cognitive, aesthetic needs appear, and the list of needs also changes.
Virginia Henderson, developing her model of nursing in the mid-60s of the last century, was based on A. Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of basic human needs. According to V. Henderson, the needs are much less at each level than according to A. Maslow.
W. Henderson offers 14 necessities for daily life:
1. Breathe normally
2. Eat enough food and fluids
3. Remove waste products from the body
4. Move and maintain proper position
5. Sleep, relax
6. Independently dress and undress, choose clothes
7. Maintain body temperature within normal limits by choosing appropriate clothing and changing the environment
8. Observe personal hygiene, take care of appearance
9. Ensure your own safety and not endanger others
10. Maintain communication with other people, expressing your emotions, opinions
11. Perform religious rites in accordance with their faith
12. Do what you love
13. Rest, take part in entertainment and games
14. Satisfy your curiosity, which helps to develop normally
The meaning of the word "need" can be guessed intuitively. It clearly comes from the verbs "require", "required". This word means some thing, phenomenon or quality of the surrounding world, which is necessary for a person in a given situation. You can learn more about this concept, its diverse manifestations and meaning from the proposed article.
Concept disclosure
Need is the subjective need of an individual (or social group) to receive one or another object of the surrounding reality, which is a prerequisite for maintaining a normal and comfortable life.
In the human lexicon, there are concepts similar in meaning - "need" and "request". The first is usually used in a situation where a person experiences a shortage of something, the second relates to the field of marketing and is associated with the purchasing power of a person or group of people. Unlike need and demand, need is the need to receive both material and spiritual benefits. So it's a broader concept. It can include both needs and requests.
What are the needs
There is a wide variety of forms of this phenomenon. For example, material needs are singled out - those that are associated with obtaining certain resources (money, goods, services) necessary for an individual to maintain good health and mood.
Another large group is spiritual needs. This includes everything related to emotions, self-knowledge, development, self-realization, enlightenment, security, etc. In other words, this is the need for a person to receive what was created by the consciousness of other people.
The third broad group is social needs - that is, those that are associated with communication. This may be the need for friendship and love, attention, approval and acceptance by other people, finding like-minded people, the opportunity to speak out, etc.
Detailed classifications of needs are available in sociology, psychology, and economics. Now we will consider one of the most popular.
Pyramid of Needs
The hierarchy of needs created by the American psychologist Abraham Maslow is widely known. This classification is interesting in that it is a seven-step pyramid. It clearly presents the basic needs of the individual and the role they play. Let us describe successively all these seven steps, from the bottom to the top.
7. At the base of Maslow's pyramid are physiological needs: thirst, hunger, the need for warmth and shelter, sexual desire, etc.
6. Slightly higher is the need for security: security, self-confidence, courage, etc.
5. The need to be loved, to love, to feel one's belonging to people and places.
4. The need for approval, respect, recognition, success. This and the previous stage already include social needs.
3. At a higher level of the pyramid, there is a need for knowledge of the surrounding world, as well as for obtaining skills and abilities.
2. Almost at the top are aesthetic needs: comfort, harmony, beauty, cleanliness, order, etc.
1. And finally, the top of the pyramid represents the need for self-actualization, which includes knowing yourself, developing your abilities, finding your own life path and achieving personal goals.
good or bad
To satisfy a need means to perform a certain action, to receive something in one form or another. But can needs be bad? By themselves, no. However, in some cases, people choose unhealthy ways of satisfaction. For example, smoking with friends (colleagues, fellow students) as a ritual of association helps to satisfy the need for friendship, respect, etc., but is harmful to physical health. How to avoid it? You just need to find replacement options that will satisfy the need, but not be bad habits and self-destructive actions.
There is also an opinion that material needs are something bad, and their satisfaction hinders the spiritual development of a person. But in reality, a variety of physical goods (consumer goods, educational tools, transport, communications) allow you to get food, comfort, education, rest, communication and other components of a harmonious life. A person first satisfies simpler and more urgent needs, and then moves on to complex ones related to creativity, spiritual growth and self-improvement.
What to do with the need
Life without satisfaction of spiritual and social needs is difficult, but possible. Another thing is physical needs, or, in other words, needs. It is impossible to do without them, since they are responsible for maintaining the life of the body. Higher needs are a little easier to ignore than basic ones. But if you completely ignore the desire of the individual to be loved, respected, successful, developed, this will lead to an imbalance in the psychological state.
Satisfaction of human needs begins with the lowest step of the pyramid (physiological needs) and then gradually moves up. In other words, it is impossible to satisfy the higher (social or spiritual) needs of the individual until the simplest, basic ones are satisfied.
Conclusion
Need is what makes both the individual and society as a whole move and develop. The need for something pushes you to look for or invent ways to get what you want. It can definitely be said that without needs, the development of man and the progress of society would be impossible.
Section V. The concept of needs and their classification5.1. Definition of needs
5.2. Classification of needs
5.3. Structural analysis of the system of needs
^ 5.1.
In modern natural science, the term "need" has several meanings.
« Need- in the most general sense of the word - an essential link in the system of relations of any acting subject, this is a certain need of the subject in a certain set of external conditions of his being, a claim to external circumstances, arising from his essential properties, nature. In this capacity, the need acts as the cause of activity (more broadly, as the cause of all vital activity). The etymology of this concept is such that it extends to the whole world of organic and social life, as if indicating a natural connection between these two higher forms of the movement of matter. It is this circumstance that explains the versatility of the concept of "need".
A more detailed meaning of this category is associated with the specification of ideas about the subject of activity, i.e. wear-le needs. The carrier can be:
biological organism;
human individual;
community of people (family, clan, tribe, people);
social group or social stratum (class, nation, estate, generation, professional group).
The need is a property of all living things, expressing the original initial form of its active, selective attitude to the conditions of the external environment. The needs of the body are dynamic, interchangeable, cyclical. The needs of a living organism are biological needs, but we will be more interested in social needs. The peculiarity of the need as an initial internal stimulus is that at this level there is a dependence of the subject on a certain range of external conditions. Through the satisfaction of needs, external conditions pass inward, the conditions form a need, and it, in turn, closes on these external conditions. The need is associated with human activity, and this relationship is two-way: the need stimulates activity, but the activity itself becomes the subject of need. In addition, the activity causes the formation of new needs, since it needs the funds necessary for its implementation. Tools and means of labor become the object of needs.
Needs correspond to the spirit of the time, in some eras it is the spirit of entrepreneurship, in others - the spirit of despair and discontent, in others - the spirit of optimism, collectivism, faith in the future. The concept of "need" generalizes the needs of people, their aspirations, claims that require constant satisfaction. Without the satisfaction of these needs at the level set by cultural and historical standards, the vital activity of society is impossible, social reproduction is impossible. With the development of production systems - means of transport, radio, television, telephone, etc. the needs for communication, movement, education, information, etc. become urgent. A society that does not care about the reproduction and development of human needs is degrading. The needs of the individual and other incentives for her behavior are formed not only under the influence of her social position, but also under the influence of the whole way of life, the spiritual culture of society, the social psychology of various social groups.
All needs are classified depending on the criterion underlying the classification into various groups:
material - spiritual;
individual - group;
production - non-production;
rational - irrational;
current - expected;
real - ideal;
vital - secondary;
traditional - new;
permanent - temporary;
elevated - low.
To the number primary include the need for self-preservation, i.e. food, water, rest, sleep, warmth, health, reproduction, etc.
Secondary needs include the needs for self-affirmation, communication, various achievements, friendship, love, knowledge, self-development, creativity, self-expression. All human needs (primary and secondary) are social in nature, the forms of their manifestation depend on the level of development of culture and society. The very "birth" of various human needs occurs in the process of socio-historical development. The more diverse the activity of a person, the richer his needs and the more complex the system of values, since it is the needs of a person that are the basis for the formation of his values.
The diversity of human needs is due to the versatility of human nature, as well as the diversity of conditions (natural and social) in which they manifest themselves. The difficulty and uncertainty of identifying stable groups of needs does not stop numerous researchers in search of the most adequate classification of needs. But the motives and grounds with which different authors approach classification are completely different. Economists have some reasons, psychologists have second ones, sociologists have third ones. As a result, each classification is original, but narrow-profile, not suitable for general use. So, for example, the Polish psychologist K. Obukhovsky counted 120 classifications. How many authors, so many classifications. P.M. Yer-shov in the book “Human Needs” considers two classifications of needs to be the most successful: F.M. Dostoevsky and Hegel.
Dostoevsky divided the many interests and needs of people in terms of complicating their content into three groups:
1. The need for material goods necessary to sustain life.
2. Needs of knowledge.
3. The needs of the global unification of people.
Hegel divided needs into four groups:
1. Physical needs.
2. Needs of law, laws.
3. Religious needs.
4. Needs of knowledge.
The first group, according to Dostoevsky and Hegel, can be called vital needs; the third, according to Dostoevsky, and the second, according to Hegel, are social. And the second, according to Dostoevsky, and the fourth, according to Hegel, are ideal.
Obviously, all categories of needs can be divided into two groups:
the needs of existence (for food, clothing, safety, belonging);
needs to achieve the goals of life (material, social, intellectual, spiritual).
At the same time, such the need to achieve the goals of life, both material, are considered the norm for each group of the population if the level of their satisfaction is equal to the baseline. When the base level is exceeded, needs can act as needs for luxury.
^ Social needs can also be divided into two groups:
predominantly selfish (the need for fame, power, recognition, respect, etc.);
predominantly altruistic (the need for charity, love for children, parents, other people.
spiritual needs- the need for spiritual perfection, faith, truth, truth.
The listed needs for achieving the goals of life usually manifest themselves either as a desire for greater satisfaction of the needs of existence (the need for luxury, recognition, fame), or as the emergence of new groups of needs (in knowledge, in creativity, spiritual improvement).
This means that these needs can dominate with equal intensity for different categories of people. At the same time, the needs of existence have two levels, and the basic levels of satisfaction of the needs of existence can have significant individual and group differences. It should be noted again that the needs to achieve the goals of life become dominant at the basic level of satisfying the needs of existence. Within the limits of the needs of existence, the traditional hierarchy of needs (physiological, security, belonging) can be the same for all people only within the limits of the minimum level of their satisfaction.
5.3.
Structural analysis is closely related to the consideration of the composition of the system of needs, the main elements of which are types, groups, blocks of needs. Science faces the important task of cataloging human needs. Some scientists present this cataloging as differentiated into two or more complementary subsystems, built on the principle of "vertical-horizontal". The system deployed in the vertical plane includes the needs at all stages of human phylogenesis, and the horizontal one includes the full set of needs of one or another subject at a given moment in time. Most often, there are schemes of needs built according to the principle of origin. There are either two groups of needs - natural(lower, primary, somatic, biogenic, viscerogenic, physical) and social(higher, secondary, sociogenic, artificial), or three - natural, natural-public, public (social); or five, if social needs are divided into economic, intellectual and proper social.
Often in classifications, social needs are not singled out as an independent class. I.V. Bestuzhev-Lada proposed a branched scheme of the bases for the division of needs. I.V. Bestuzhev-Lada classifies needs according to their types:
By genesis (origin) - biogenic and sociogenic:
In the sphere of society's life - material and spiritual;
According to the sphere of life of the individual - physiological, intellectual, social;
According to the subject of needs - universal, group, individual;
In relation to social values - rational and irrational (reasonable and unreasonable);
According to the degree of distribution - global and local;
By duration of action - permanent and temporary;
Satisfaction, if possible, real and unreal;
According to the degree of urgency - vital and secondary;
According to the degree of development - undeveloped, normal, excessive;
By the time of appearance - traditional, new, current, foreseen.
The main or first criteria in this classification are the genetic criterion and the next most important spheres of the life of society and the individual. The criterion of the second order is the subject of need. The rest are classified as third-order criteria.
There are attempts to build a structure of needs on the basis of their minimum number necessary for the normal functioning of a person.
For example, K. Obukhovsky singled out the following types of needs that are characteristic of people of a certain cultural level:
1) the need for self-preservation;
2) the need for reproduction;
3) needs that ensure the proper development of the individual:
cognitive;
emotional contact;
the meaning of life.
So, G.L. Smirnov showed that any typology of social needs should be linked to the main characteristics of the laws of social development. Taking as a criterion the need to preserve and develop the social organism and the specifics of the implementation of this need through the image and conditions of life of the individual in the history of society, two levels can be distinguished in the system of social needs of the individual: the level of subsistence needs (basic )- lowest level and the level of needs for comprehensive development - highest level.
Based on the needs of the life process of a person, sublevels of needs can be distinguished, taking into account the time and scope of their implementation, as well as dominance.
There are several such needs:
the need for self-preservation and socialization (maintaining the vital activity of the organism, education, training);
the need for labor activity and self-affirmation (acquisition of a profession, social status, participation in the life of the team);
the need to procreate and streamline family life (love, marriage, family, children);
the need for self-improvement, development and self-expression (self-education, creativity, physical education and sports);
the need for communication and movement.
The need to procreate and streamline intimate life is an intermediate connection between levels.
The need for communication and movement is subordinated to other needs and manifests itself in the form of corresponding needs at all levels. They can be called cross-cutting in relation to the system of needs.
Five sublevels of needs are associated with the hierarchy of needs:
^ Basic human needs
The first- household needs, the need for social guarantees and provision, the need for the development and assimilation of social values.
In the first sublevel, it is possible to identify complexes of needs:
A) in consumer goods and services (need for housing, household, food, wardrobe, recreation, movement);
B) in the functioning of social institutions that ensure the implementation of the rights and obligations of citizens - the need for social guarantees and social security (social insurance, education, health care, etc.);
C) in participation in public organizations (the need for belonging).
Second- labor needs and self-affirmation needs (need for work, profession, qualifications, promotion, communication in a professional environment, in a normal moral and psychological climate in a team, in status, in an active life position, the need for confidence -nosti in the future).
Third- needs related to intimate life and family education (family needs). This level of needs provides a link between the first, second, fourth and fifth levels.
^ higher needs
These needs ensure the all-round development of man. Among them are:
Fourth- cultural and leisure needs of a passive nature:
A) cognitive needs;
B) the need for artistic reading;
C) the need to communicate with art;
D) needs in the game, etc.
Fifth- cultural and leisure needs of an active nature:
A) the need for creativity;
B) the need for initiative;
C) the need for self-expression;
D) socio-political and moral needs.
The core of the needs of the highest level is the need for comprehensive development and self-actualization. The top of the hierarchy is a group of needs associated with the need for a person to realize himself, his life through the true meaning of existence.
The need for communication does not form an independent sublevel.
A similar approach in the structural analysis of human needs can be traced to S.S. Korneenkov, who subdivided the needs as follows:
by genesis-
B) socially acquired (cultural, aesthetic, moral, etc.);
according to reasonableness-
B) unreasonable (leading to destruction, disease, hatred);
on a territorial basis-
B) regional;
B) local
by satisfaction time-
B) nearest;
B) promising;
by social nature-
B) main and secondary;
C) historically transient and stable.
It is possible to single out the needs of men and women, children and adults, healthy and sick people, extroverts and introverts, etc. But as a starting point for his classification, Korneenkov chose the modes that make up a person: individual, subject, person, individuality, universality - or trimeria: bodily, mental, spiritual being. The proposed subdivision of needs is built on the proposition that man is the measure of all things and the cause that gives rise to all kinds of needs. A person has the body of an animal, but he can get out of the influence of the needs of his animal essence, animal soul thanks to free will and spirituality. Man is a rational being, endowed with individuality and self-consciousness, which regulate his behavior. Depending on the degree of development of consciousness, the emphasis of a person's volitional efforts shifts towards development and satisfaction of higher needs, which, in turn, harmonizes the needs of the earthly level.
Of interest is another typology of needs, authored by Henry Murray. This typology proceeds not only from the needs themselves, but also from the availability of certain benefits necessary to satisfy them. And under the good not only goods and services are understood, but also various socio-psychological factors (love, joy, prestige, etc.). In the personology of G. Murray, needs are classified according to four grounds:
primary and secondary,
positive and negative,
Explicit and latent
Conscious and unconscious.
On this basis, G. Murray derives 20 needs, which are shown in the table. These needs exist in three states:
refractory, when no stimulus contributes to the awakening of the need;
suggestible when the need is passive, but can be excited;
active, when the need determines the behavior of the individual.
In general, all needs interact and mutually influence each other. G. Murray accepts the position on the hierarchy of needs, but introduces the concept dominance in relation to those needs that "not being satisfied, begin to dominate with the greatest force." A minimum satisfaction of dominant needs is necessary before others can take effect. In cases where different needs are realized in the same behavior of an individual, G. Murray speaks of shifting needs. Another important type of relationship of needs is described by the concept subsidies. A subsidizing need, one that serves to satisfy another, is only an instrument for satisfying the other.
In addition, for a more predictable behavior of the individual, Murray examines not only the needs themselves, but also the environment in which the individual operates (“presses” that facilitate or hinder the achievement of the goal). As a result, a complex system of motives is formed. When the needs are actualized, the individual finds himself in tension, and the satisfaction of the need leads to its reduction. Satisfaction is largely a consequence of need states and their behavioral consequences. An individual can associate specific objects with certain needs (due to experience) and on this basis, ways of approaching this object or ways of avoiding it are formed. The interaction between all determinants (needs, their relationship, lifestyle) is the deep basis of the individual's behavior. A need always presupposes the emergence of some state, i.e. values that should be taken into account when analyzing the motivation of a particular behavior.
Values and corresponding benefits, according to G. Murray, constitute well-being.
There are also various classifications of human needs, which are based on the dependence of the organism (or personality) on some objects or on the needs it experiences. So, A.N. Leontiev (1956) divided needs into subject and functional needs. Pierron identifies twenty types of fundamental physiological and psychophysiological needs, which, in his opinion, create the basis for any motivated behavior:
hedonic (hedone - pleasure);
research attention, novelty;
seeking communication and mutual assistance;
competitive, etc.
material (need for food, clothing, housing);
spiritual (the need for knowledge of the environment and oneself, in creativity, in aesthetic pleasures, etc.);
social (the need for communication, work, social activities, recognition by other people, etc.).
Spiritual and social needs reflect the social nature of a person, his socialization. Although the material needs of a person have become socialized (for example, a person eats food after a long process of preparing it).
P.V. Simonov (1987) divides needs into three groups:
vital - preservation and development;
social - conservation, development, "for oneself", "for others";
ideal - conservation and development.
Psychologists also talk about needs:
conservation and development (growth);
to be different from others, the only one, irreplaceable (i.e., the need associated with the formation and preservation of one's own "I");
the need for avoidance;
in new experiences.
in sympathy and approval;
in power and prestige;
in possession and dependence;
in information;
in glory;
in justice.
G. Allport (1953) and A. Maslow (1970) single out the needs of "need" and "growth needs".
Perhaps the most harmonious is the classification of A. Maslow's needs.
A. Maslow proceeded from the hierarchy of needs, depending on the phase of development of the individual and the priority ranking of needs.
According to his theory, a person, before “going to the next category (hierarchy) of needs, should try to satisfy the dominant needs (needs of a lower hierarchy). Satisfying lower-order needs allows higher needs to motivate and influence human behavior. The intensity (urgency) of already satisfied needs is weakened, and the urgency of needs of a higher order is increased. There is an evolution of the structure of needs depending on the level of development of the individual as he moves from the general goal of providing a living minimum to goals of a higher order related to the style and quality of life.
^ Functional Needs - these are fundamental (vital) needs. Being satisfied, they cease to be the dominant factors of motivation and no longer affect the behavior of the individual.
^ Security Needs - These are the needs for physical and psychological security.
Social needs- needs for mutual assistance, belonging, a sense of community.
^ Esteem Needs - this is self-respect, personal dignity, self-confidence, competence, in recognition, in the presence of a significant social status.
^ Needs for self-actualization It is self-realization, personal development. In real life, all categories (types) of needs coexist, and one or another category (type) of needs becomes more important depending on the characteristics of the individual or in accordance with the circumstances in which the individual is at a given time.
Speaking about the dominance of certain hierarchies of needs, A. Maslow did not at all mean the need for their full satisfaction. Moreover, the sequence of needs outlined by A. Maslow (functional, safe, social, self-esteem and self-actualization) is not mandatory for all people. Biographies of outstanding creative personalities prove the individualization of the structure and hierarchy of needs. For many of them, the needs for creativity, for self-actualization are dominant not after satisfying the needs of a lower order (physiological, security), but when the basic needs for food, housing, security, etc., in fact , are not yet satisfied or are satisfied on the "brink of survival". Although, of course, the satisfaction of the needs of existence (of the lowest order) on some basic level - the necessary level of formation of all other needs.
Thus, the analysis of the above classifications of needs shows that the diversity of human needs cannot be presented in the form of a strict hierarchy.
If the hierarchy of needs based on biological instincts is visible and understandable, then the hierarchy of mental and spiritual needs is more dynamic. Combined together, these needs create the phenomenon of man. And although in most cases the emotional and mental own a person and hold priority, a person as a spiritual being must become the master of his body, emotions and thoughts. Having considered the main approaches to a person and his needs, we can move on to characterizing the features of the functioning of the service sector in the context of meeting needs.
^ Questions and tasks for self-examination:
1. Describe the groups of needs, taking into account the criteria underlying the classification.
2. Give a description of the primary and secondary needs of a person.
3. Give a classification of needs according to Hegel and Dostoevsky, make a comparison.
4. Give the characteristic of the structural analysis of system of needs.
5. Describe the basic human needs.
6. Describe the highest human needs.
7. Classification of needs by S.O. Korneenkov.
8. Explain the classification of G. Murray's needs.
9. Classification of needs according to A. Maslow.
10. Expand the essence of the classification of I.V. Bestuzhev-Lada.
Section VI. Consumer Behavior Models
6.1.Characteristics of the consumer
6.2. Typology of personality according to K.G. Jung and purchasing behavior
6.3. Consumer typology
6.1.
Despite the wide recognition, the theory of A. Maslow is not enough to explain the behavior of modern consumers during the purchase. It is impossible to categorize them, although they may have some common characteristics, but most often they are of great variety. Moreover, consumer characteristics - lifestyle, tastes, expectations and requirements - are constantly changing and evolving.
The motives of buyers can be very complex, each buyer perceives the same product in his own way, this perception can be unique, emotional, due to fatigue, and therefore illogical and changeable. For a number of consumers, it can be super-logical, caused by a series of successive steps aimed at an analytical and balanced purchase decision.
Moreover, when purchasing the same product, different people may have different needs and be guided by different motives, while each person may have several motives at once when making one purchase.
Basic human needs have changed little throughout the history of economic development. The ways of satisfying these needs have undergone significant changes in the era of information technology development. Modern consumers are different in their lifestyle, tastes, expectations, requirements.
The result is a one-on-one strategy based on the main principle that different customers need to be served differently.
Moreover, all the characteristics of consumers are constantly changing and developing. Consumer behavior researchers analyze how individuals make purchasing decisions, what they buy, why, how often, where and when. They use information from concepts and theories developed in other fields of science, such as psychology, sociology, social psychology, anthropology, cultural studies, economics.
In a study published in 1979 by R. Olshavsky and D. Grabois "Consumer Decision Making - Fact or Fantasy?" it has been demonstrated that the vast majority of everyday purchases are carried out without any search for information and evaluation of alternatives. M. Dymshits notes that various studies conducted over more than 20 years suggest that, in contrast to the “loyal consumer” model, which is widespread and actively promoted by the advertising and PR business, as well as the media industry, the reality and prevalence of "indifferent consumer" (more than 90% of consumers in any product group). Such a consumer is distinguished by:
1. Getting information randomly.
2. Using the information he already has.
4. Purchase, and only then the assessment of brands.
5. Striving for a certain level of satisfaction, purchasing the product that causes the least number of problems, using a limited set of criteria when evaluating it.
6. Reference groups have little influence on such a consumer, on his individual consumer behavior
The final choice of a product buyer is formed under the influence of many cultural, social, personal and psychological factors, and the decisive role in this process belongs to culture.
^ EXTERNAL FACTORS AFFECTING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
A. Cultural factors
The most important factors influencing the consumer's behavior include the culture of the consumer, his belonging to a certain social class and subculture.
Culture. AT in the process of socialization in the family and other social institutions, values, stereotypes of perception and behavior are instilled in a person. It is known that culture guides and directs our thinking and behavior, and therefore has a significant impact on our decisions about consumption.
Culture can be defined as the accumulation of values, norms of behavior, forms of expression, beliefs, transmitted examples of the behavior of a group of people living in the same environment and speaking the same language. Culture tends to encourage or discourage certain human behaviors and ways of thinking. It is clear that culture guides and directs our thinking and behavior and therefore has a significant influence on our consumption decisions.
Subculture. Every culture is made up of subcultures with which the individual more closely identifies. Groups whose members hold ideals and beliefs that differ from those accepted in the main body of the society of which they are part are called subculture.
Subcultures are formed on a national, religious, racial basis. Representatives of subcultures may have rigid preferences for a certain type of clothing, food, housing, etc. Conflicts in communication and even breaks may arise due to differences in the cultures of sales workers and buyers.
^ B. Social factors
social classes- these are relatively homogeneous, stable social groups, whose members are united by common values, interests, behavior. Social status is the position of an individual relative to other members of society in terms of some measurable demographic characteristics, such as education, profession, income. As a social class, individuals with the same or similar status are identified. It is believed that people of the same social class have similar values, beliefs, lifestyles, preferences and shopping habits. Understanding the differences between social classes helps companies design different services to meet the different needs of people in different groups.
Thus, the social class consists of people who are close in occupation, values, lifestyle, interests and behavior.
The criterion adopted for the distribution of people according to social class changes with the transition from one society to another (ownership of land, education, etc.).
How many social classes are there? There is no clear answer to this question, but sociologists usually operate with a number of three to six. One of the categories is upper class, formed usually by hereditary aristocrats, who have a fortune that is inherited. They buy houses, get titles, travel the world, tend to buy quality goods.
^ Lower class. Its representatives are characterized by low education and low incomes.
Middle class. In addition to cultural factors, consumer behavior is influenced by such social factors as reference groups, family, role behavior, and statuses.
A group is a collection of people united by common interests. Groups form because people with similar interests, goals, values, or beliefs want to associate with each other, share information, or work towards common goals.
^ Reference groups - these are groups that have (with personal contact) a direct or indirect influence on the attitude of the individual to something (someone) and on his behavior, influence the purchasing decisions of people. Groups whose members have a direct influence on a person are called group-mi membership.
These groups may be primary(family, friends, neighbors, work colleagues - all those communities, the interaction of an individual with members of which is permanent and informal) and secondary(professional groups, religious trade union associations). Communication between a person and their participants is periodic.
Reference groups influence the individual in three ways:
influence the attitude of the individual to life and his idea of himself;
can influence a person's choice of specific products and brands;
encourage people to change their behavior and lifestyle.
Reference groups have the strongest influence on the choice of brands of cars, color televisions, fashionable furniture and clothing sets, when buying beer and cigarettes.
And if the influence of the reference groups is very strong, it is necessary to establish possible methods of influencing the carriers of this opinion. Advertising campaigns, appealing to a particular group, encourage its members to make purchases in order to conform to the norms and values of the group.
^ Opinion Bearers- these are individuals who, in an informal conversation, give interlocutors advice or information on specific product categories (which brand is better to choose or how to use this or that product).
A family- the most important social association of consumers and buyers. There are two types of families:
instructive - consists of the individual's parents and relatives. Here life goals, feelings of self-worth and love are determined, positions on political and economic problems are determined;
generated- this is a spouse and children; this family has a more direct influence on the buyer.
A household with two or more people is a consumer unit. Services such as telephone, cable TV, electricity, garbage collection, security, police, fire protection are offered to households, so changes in household demographics and consumption patterns are usually more important to the supply of these services than changes in the general characteristics of the population.
Role is a set of actions that are expected from a person by the people around him. Thus, role influence is determined by a set of characteristic features and social behavior based on the expectations of other people. All the roles we take on affect our buying behavior. So, a woman in the role of mistress of the house will have the same needs. In the role of a manager, he may feel the need to acquire a strict wardrobe, etc.
Each role corresponds to certain statuses.
Usually people buy goods that are supposed to confirm and strengthen their social status.
^ INTERNAL FACTORS
B. Personal factors
Personal characteristics: age and stage of the family life cycle, work, economic status, lifestyle, features of self-esteem and character, emotions, perception.
Age and life cycle stage
Throughout life, a person acquires a variety of goods and services, which depends on age, changing individual tastes.
The structure of consumption of an individual depends on the stage of the life cycle of his family. There are nine stages of the family life cycle, each of which is characterized by certain financial situations and typical purchases.
Modern research has established the existence of psychological stages in the human life cycle, when each person experiences certain psychological "transitions" or "transformations".
Genus classes and economic position
Companies that sell goods should identify professional groups interested in purchasing specific goods and services. Producers of goods, the sale of which depends on the level of income of buyers, constantly monitor trends in changes in personal incomes of the population, savings rates and interest rates.
And if economic indicators indicate a reduction in the income of the population, then companies can take steps to change the characteristics of the product, its price, positioning, so that the product is still of value to the consumer.
Style life
This is a form of human being in the world, expressed in his activities, interests, opinions.
Usually there are five main lifestyles.
hedonic It's an addiction to entertainment.
Economic- addiction to housework, work in the country, etc.
workaholic- a very high rating of work, the desire for self-improvement: reading fiction, watching TV, passive rest, computer games, etc.
Communicative- like to spend time with family, friends, visit theaters, museums, travel.
Neutral- with this lifestyle, the rating of favorite activities is close to the average values.
Depending on the psychographic characteristics, consumer groups are distinguished.
Thus, Americans are divided into the following consumer groups.
Implementing- successful, developed, active. Not afraid to take responsibility. Their purchases speak of refined taste and a liking for expensive, high-quality goods targeted at specific consumer groups.
Completed- people are mature, wealthy and contented with life. They often spend time in thought and contemplation. The product value strength, functionality and value.
Reaching- succeed, make a career, the main thing for them is work. They choose a prestigious product that tells colleagues about the success achieved by its owner.
Experimenters- young, full of energy and enthusiasm, impulsive, rebels. They direct a relatively large part of their income to the purchase of clothes, visits to restaurants, cinemas, and the purchase of video films.
Convinced- Conservatives, committed to tradition, unremarkable. They prefer familiar products and well-known brands.
Trying- not self-confident, feel insecure, seek approval for their actions, their capabilities are limited. They prefer stylish goods that are bought by people with more wealth than they have.
Doing- are practical, self-sufficient, traditional, family-oriented. They buy only goods that have practical or functional value: tools, fishing accessories, etc.
resisters- older, pensioners, passive, preoccupied, their opportunities are limited. Cautious buyers who prefer familiar brands.
Schemes that classify life styles are not universal. For example, the London Ms Cann - Frickson London believes that the British are divided into avant-gardists (interested in change), dogmatists (traditionalists), chameleons (follow the crowd), sleepwalkers (happy losers).
McDonald identified six types of buyers:
evaluating- those interested in finding the optimal ratio of price and quality;
mods- are interested in the latest models, focused on their own image;
loyal- constantly buy products of the same respectable firms, pay attention to both image and quality;
variety lovers- fickle, capricious, inconsistent;
holiday shoppers- Appreciate the pleasures associated with the acquisition of purchases;
emotional- often confused, impulsive, not systematic in their addictions.
In 1992, the advertising agency D "Arcy, Ma sins, Benton & Bowles published a study "Russian consumer: a new perspective and marketing approach", which describes five categories of Russian consumers: merchants (merchants), Cossacks (ambitious, interested in raising status), students, company executives and Russians at heart (passive, afraid to make a choice) - this primitive idea of Western specialists must, of course, be overcome.
The stereotypes of consumer behavior of the representatives of the Russian middle class turn out to be more complex than those of the “new Russians” and the “poor”.
The middle class includes professionals, managers, freelancers, most of the employees. The middle class in today's society is people who live according to the standards of the aristocrats of a hundred years ago.
Criteria for distinguishing the middle class from other groups: high education, income of 100-3000 dollars a month, they set the norms of behavior in society, are the standard of culture, lifestyle.
Moreover, an oilman can earn more or as much as a novice manager, but he spends money in a different way, he has different ideas about how to dress, what books to read, how to spend leisure time. He will not meticulously look for shoes of his company, he will not save on daily meals in order to visit his favorite club.
The position of the middle class in the labor market is determined by qualifications and the fact that money will not fall on them unexpectedly. As consumers, they are price sensitive, their behavior is determined by strict economic calculation, they do not want to spend just like that and pay too much. They are educated people, have a "sense" of aesthetics and product quality. The level of their consumption is focused on prestige, economy, rationality.
According to one of the marketers, "the middle class is the most demanding customer, he needs to be pleased in terms of fashion, comfort, and practicality." Their behavior is demonstrative, but they need to show their status.
In Russia, representatives of the middle class are divided into three groups depending on their income level:
1% of the population - 1000-3000 dollars
5-10% $300 - $800
15-20% approximately $100.
2.1 Needs and their classification. The law of the rise of needs.
Need- this is a state of dissatisfaction, the need for something necessary to maintain the life of an individual, social group, society.
There are various classifications of needs. According to one of them, there are:
- primary needs- vital material needs (food, clothing, housing, health). These needs are related to human survival, which is why they are also called physiological needs. Primary needs are indispensable.
- secondary needs - are set by the level of development of social production and are expressed through social and spiritual needs. Social needs associated with the existence of a person in society, this is the need for communication, friendship, love, leisure. spiritual needs due to the intellectual development of a person - these are the needs for creativity, self-expression.
Allocate also economic needs- those for the satisfaction of which production is necessary.
The most famous is the classification of needs proposed by the American psychologist and sociologist Abraham Maslow. He identified five groups of needs:
physiological needs (hunger, thirst, shelter, warmth, sleep, procreation, etc.),
security needs (family security, health, employment, stability),
needs for belonging and love (friendship, family, belonging to a group, communication),
need for respect, recognition (self-esteem, the attitude of others),
needs of self-actualization, or needs of personal improvement (self-expression, personal development).
These groups form a hierarchy (see Fig. 2.1), that is, as soon as a person satisfies the needs of one level, the needs of a higher level become relevant for him.
Hierarchy of needs according to A. Maslow demonstrates law of exaltation of needs: as needs are met, incomes grow, culture develops, technology progresses, needs change, new, more complex and rich in manifestation occur. The term elevation emphasizes that needs grow not only quantitatively, but also change qualitatively, new needs appear.
When needs are realized, motivation for activity arises, needs take the form of economic interest. . Economic interest - it is an incentive to action.
2.2 Resources and factors of production, their classification and characteristics. Labor, land, capital and entrepreneurial ability.
Economic resources- everything that can be used in the process of production of goods and services.
Resource types:
labor resources - able-bodied population aged 16 to 55 for women and 60 for men;
natural- land, its subsoil, minerals, forests and waters, etc.;
material- means of production created by man, including means of labor and objects of labor;
financial- funds directed to production;
information - science, technology, information.
Factors of production are the resources that involved into the production process.
In modern economic theory, there are five main factors of production: land, labor, capital, entrepreneurial talent and information/knowledge.
Earth - the benefits of nature used by man in the production process: land, subsoil, water, forest, biological, agro-climatic and all other types of natural resources.
Work- a set of skills, abilities, physical and intellectual capabilities of a person, that is, his labor force, which he uses in the production process
Capital- all means of production created by man: production facilities, equipment, machines, materials, tools, semi-finished products, as well as borrowed funds, that is, money capital intended for organizing production.
Entrepreneurship- a special factor of production, which consists in the ability to most effectively combine all factors of production. The functions of entrepreneurship include: the initiative to combine factors of production in order to make a profit, the organization of the production process, responsibility for the results of production, innovation (the introduction of new technologies, the development of new products), risk.
Information- a system of knowledge about production (achievements of science, information, technology, scientific and technological progress). The level of technology development determines the efficiency of the use of production factors, their productivity.