The science. The main features of scientific thinking. Natural and social-humanitarian sciences. Lecture course
The science- 1) one of the forms of human knowledge, a system of reliable knowledge about the patterns of development of nature, society, man; 2) the sphere of creative activity aimed at obtaining, substantiating, systematizing, evaluating new knowledge about nature, society, and man.
As a social institution, science includes the following components: the totality of knowledge and its carriers; the presence of specific cognitive goals and objectives; performance of certain functions; availability of specific means of knowledge and institutions; development of forms of control, examination and evaluation of scientific achievements; existence of certain sanctions.
Science as a social institution includes:
- scientists with their knowledge, abilities and experience - representatives of science who carry out meaningful activities to form a scientific picture of the world, whose scientific activities and qualifications in one form or another have been recognized by the scientific community;
– scientific institutions (RAS, scientific centers, state institutes, etc.) and organizations (UNESCO, IUPAC, International Astronomical Union, etc.);
– special equipment (laboratory facilities, space stations, etc.);
– methods of research work (observation, experiment, etc.);
– special language(signs, symbols, formulas, equations, etc.).
Purpose of Science- obtaining scientific knowledge that underlies the scientific picture of the world.
Characteristic features of science: the validity of the statements, the reliability of the results obtained, the systematic nature of the research.
Principles of Science (according to R. Merton)
- universalism - impersonal character, objective nature of scientific knowledge; international and democratic nature of science.
- collectivism - the universal nature of scientific work, which implies the publicity of scientific results, their public domain;
- disinterestedness, due to the common goal of science - the comprehension of truth;
- organized skepticism - a critical attitude towards oneself and the work of one's colleagues; nothing is taken for granted in science.
Properties of Science as a professionally organized cognitive activity: objective objectivity; general validity; validity; certainty; accuracy; verifiability; reproducibility of the subject of knowledge; objective truth; utility.
Functions of Science
1) cultural and ideological - forms a worldview; scientific ideas are part of general education, culture;
2) cognitive-explanatory - science has become a factor production process, the development of technology is increasingly dependent on the success of scientific research;
3) predictive - science data are used to develop plans and programs for social and economic development, to manage cultural processes;
4) practical-effective;
5) social memory, etc.
Classification of modern sciences is produced according to the type of modern sciences, distinguished both by object, and by subject, and by method, and by the degree of generality and fundamental nature of knowledge, and by scope, etc.
1. Sciences are divided into: a) natural(astronomy, astrophysics, cosmochemistry, geology, geophysics, geochemistry, cycle of anthropological sciences, etc.); b) public(social) (sociology, political science, legal, managerial, etc.); in) Humanities(psychology, logic, literary criticism, art criticism, history, sciences about language, etc.); G) technical- (sciences that study the effects of the laws of physics and chemistry in technical devices, and other sciences).
2. In direct relation to the practical activities of science, it is customary to subdivide into fundamental and applied. task fundamental science is the knowledge of the laws that govern the behavior and interaction of the basic structures of nature and culture. Target applied sciences- application of the results of fundamental sciences to solve not only cognitive, but also social and practical problems. Fundamental sciences are ahead of applied sciences in their development, creating a theoretical reserve for them.
Directions of scientific research
Basic scientific research- this is a deep and comprehensive study of the subject in order to obtain new fundamental knowledge, as well as to clarify the patterns of the phenomena being investigated, the results of which are not intended for direct industrial use.
Applied Research- these are studies that use the achievements of fundamental science to solve practical problems. The result of the study is the creation and improvement of new technologies.
Trends in the development of scientific knowledge
Differentiation, i.e., division, fragmentation into ever smaller sections and subsections (for example, a whole family of sciences was formed in physics: mechanics, optics, electrodynamics, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, hydrodynamics, etc.).
Integration scientific knowledge has become the leading pattern of its development and can manifest itself: in the organization of research "at the junction" of related scientific disciplines; in the development of "transdisciplinary" scientific methods that are important for many sciences (spectral analysis, chromatography, computer experiment); in the development of theories that perform general methodological functions in natural science ( general theory systems, cybernetics, synergetics); in changing the nature of the problems solved by modern science - for the most part they become complex, requiring the participation of several disciplines at once (environmental problems, the problem of the origin of life, etc.).
Differentiation and integration in the development of science are complementary trends.
modern science- a complex network of interacting teams, organizations and institutions that are connected not only with each other, but also with other powerful subsystems of society and the state: the economy, education, politics, culture, etc.
To main features modern science can be attributed to: a sharply increased number of scientists; growth of scientific information; changing the world of science (science includes about 15 thousand disciplines that are increasingly interacting with each other); the transformation of scientific activity into a special profession.
The science: 1) helps a person not only to explain the knowledge known to him about the world, but also to build them into an integral system, to consider the phenomena of the surrounding world in their unity and diversity, to develop his own worldview; 2) carries out knowledge and explanation of the structure of the world and the laws of its development; 3) forecasts the consequences of changes in the surrounding world, reveals possible dangerous trends in the development of society, formulates recommendations for overcoming them; 4) performs the direct function of the productive force of society.
Scientific and technological revolution (NTR)- a leap in the development of the productive forces of society (machines, machines, energy sources, etc.) - is a stage in the development of scientific and technological progress (STP), which is associated with the transformation of science into the direct productive force of society (science becomes a constant source of new ideas that determine the path of development of society). Modern scientific and technological revolution is a set of fundamental, qualitative and interconnected transformations in the means of production (tools and means of labor), technology, organization and management of production based on the transformation of science into a direct productive force. Scientific management of the productive forces is a powerful source for the development of society. Technological revolution requires constant retraining, so scientific investment in humans is the most promising.
Social consequences of the scientific and technological revolution
BUT) positive: the growing role of scientific knowledge; the development of education, the use of new types of energy, artificial materials, which in a new way open up the possibility of using natural resources; mastering by a person high speeds, relatively safe opportunities to work in hard-to-reach or harmful conditions; reduction in the number of people employed in production and the amount of energy and raw materials used; changing the image of workers in the sectoral and professional structure, as well as in their qualifications.
B) negative: man-made disasters; rising unemployment, especially among middle-aged people and young people, caused by cyclical downturns in production, the development of automation, economic restructuring; the inability of some workers to master constantly updated knowledge turns them into "superfluous" people; numerous environmental problems.
Scientific activity presupposes the freedom of creativity of scientists. But at the same time he presents them with a certain system of values in science: universal values and prohibitions; ethical norms that imply a disinterested search for and upholding the truth; freedom of scientific research and social responsibility of the scientist.
Already in antiquity, representatives of science showed interest not only in morality, but also formed the moral norms of the scientific community (“Do no harm”) with their views. Often, scientific discoveries and achievements bring new threats to humanity (cloning, means of mass destruction, etc.). It is necessary that scientists always understand what a huge responsibility they bear for the use of their scientific achievements. Conscientiousness as one of the most important requirements for scientific work is manifested:
In careful thought and impeccably accurate conduct of all stages of research
In the evidence of new scientific knowledge, in their repeated verification
In scientific honesty and objectivity (“Plato is my friend, but the truth is dearer”)
In the refusal to introduce unreasonable, untested innovations into science (practice).
Education
self-education- knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by a person independently, without the help of other teaching persons.
Education- one of the ways of becoming a person by acquiring knowledge, acquiring skills, developing mental, cognitive and creative abilities through a system of social institutions such as family, school, and the media. Target- familiarization of the individual with the achievements of human civilization, retransmission and preservation of its cultural heritage.
main institution modern education is the school. Fulfilling the "order" of society, the school, along with educational institutions of other types, trains qualified personnel for various areas human activity.
Principles public policy and legal regulation of relations in the field of education
1) recognition of the priority of the education sector;
2) ensuring the right of everyone to education, inadmissibility of discrimination in the field of education;
3) the humanistic nature of education, the priority of human life and health, the free development of the individual; education of citizenship, diligence, responsibility, respect for the law, individual rights and freedoms, patriotism, respect for nature and the environment, rational nature management;
4) the unity of the educational space on the territory of the Russian Federation; inclusion of Russian education in the world educational space;
5) the secular nature of education in state and municipal educational organizations;
6) freedom in education according to the inclinations and needs of a person, the creation of conditions for the self-realization of each person, etc.
7) ensuring the right to education throughout life in accordance with the needs of the individual, continuity of education; adaptability of the education system to the level of training, developmental characteristics, abilities and interests of a person.
8) autonomy educational organizations, academic rights and freedoms of teachers and students provided for by this Federal Law; information openness and public reporting of educational organizations;
9) democratic, state-public nature of education management;
10) equality of rights and freedoms of participants in relations in the field of education;
11) a combination of state and contractual regulation of relations in the field of education.
Functions of Education
* Transfer of social experience (knowledge, values, norms, etc.).
* Accumulation and storage of the culture of society.
* Socialization of personality. Training of qualified personnel to maintain and increase the survival of society in the constantly changing historical conditions of its existence. Education is the most important channel of social mobility.
* Social selection (selection) of members of society, primarily young people.
* Economic - the formation of the socio-professional structure of society, ensuring the professional orientation of a person.
* Introduction of socio-cultural innovations.
* Social control.
General trends in the development of education
1) Democratization of the education system (education has become accessible to the general population, although differences in the quality and types of educational institutions remain).
2) An increase in the duration of education (modern society needs highly qualified specialists, which lengthens the training period).
3) Continuity of education (under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, an employee must be able to quickly switch to new or related types of work, to new technologies).
4) Humanization of education (attention of the school, teachers to the personality of the student, his interests, requests, individual characteristics).
5) Humanitarianization of education (increasing the role of social disciplines in the educational process: economic theory, sociology, political science, fundamentals of legal knowledge).
6) Internationalization of the educational process (creation unified system education for different countries, integration of educational systems).
7) Computerization of the education process (use of new modern learning technologies, telecommunication networks on a global scale).
The education system includes:
1) federal state educational standards and federal state requirements, educational standards established by universities; educational programs of various types, levels and directions;
2) organizations engaged in educational activities, teaching staff, students and their parents (legal representatives);
3) organs state power and bodies local government those exercising management in the field of education, the advisory, advisory and other bodies created by them;
4) organizations that carry out scientific and methodological, methodological, resource and information technology support educational activities and management of the education system, assessment of the quality of education;
5) associations legal entities, employers and their associations, public associations operating in the field of education.
Education is subdivided for general education, vocational education, additional education and vocational training, ensuring the possibility of realizing the right to education throughout life (continuing education).
The Russian Federation establishes the following levels of education: 1) preschool education; 2) primary general education; 3) basic general education; 4) secondary general education; 5) secondary vocational education; 6) higher education- bachelor's degree; 7) higher education - training of a specialist, master's degree; 8) higher education - training of highly qualified personnel.
General education allows you to master the basics of scientific knowledge necessary for understanding the world around you, participating in public life and work. In the process of schooling, a person learns the norms, values and ideals of the culture of the society in which he lives, as well as the rules of everyday behavior on the basis of the universal material of the historical experience of mankind.
Professional education It trains the creators of new cultural values and is carried out mainly in specialized areas of public life (economic, political, legal, etc.). Vocational education is conditioned by the social division of labor and consists in the assimilation of special knowledge, practical skills and skills of productive activity in the chosen field.
Taking into account the needs and abilities of students, education can be obtained in different forms: full-time, part-time (evening), part-time, family education, self-education, external studies. Combination allowed various forms getting an education. For all forms of education within a specific basic general education or basic professional educational program, a single state educational standard is in force.
According to the Law of the Russian Federation "On Education in the Russian Federation", education is a purposeful process of education, training and development in the interests of a person, society and the state.
Religion
Religion is a belief in the supernatural; a set of views and ideas, a system of beliefs and rituals that unites people who recognize them into a single community; one of the forms of adaptation of a person to the world around him, the satisfaction of his spiritual needs, characteristic of culture.
Religion is a public institution that occupies an important place in the structure of society; acts as a form public consciousness expressing certain ideas and regulating social relations; exists in the form of a system of norms and prescriptions for human behavior in society.
There are the following groups of definitions of religion:
1. Theological- definitions accepted in theology.
2. philosophical allow us to look at religion as a special entity that performs important functions in society.
* I. Kant distinguished between moral and statuary religions. Moral religions are based on the faith of "pure reason", in which a person, with the help of his own mind, cognizes the divine will in himself. Statue religions are based on historical tradition;
* G. Hegel believed that religion is one of the forms of self-knowledge of the Absolute Spirit;
* Marxist philosophy defines religion as belief in the supernatural; religion is a fantastic reflection in the minds of people of those external forces that dominate them in real life.
Psychological
* W. James believed that the truth of religion is determined by its usefulness;
* Freud called religion great illusion»;
* K. Jung believed that in addition to the individual unconscious, there is a collective unconscious, which is expressed in archetypes and embodied in the images of mythology and religion.
The main elements of religion: religious consciousness (ideology and religious psychology); religious cult (relationships); religious organizations.
Religious ideology is a systematic view of the existence supernatural power that creates the world and reigns supreme in it. At present, religious ideology, in particular, includes: dogmatics; theology; the doctrine of cults (exegetics); church archeology; the doctrine of the church fathers (patrology); the history of the holy books of the church; rules for conducting services (homiletics).
religious consciousness can be defined as a reflection of reality in fantastic images. The main features of religious consciousness are sensual visibility, the combination of content adequate to reality with illusions, faith, symbolism, emotional richness. The central element of religious consciousness is religious faith - this is a special mental state that occurs in conditions of lack of accurate information and contributes to the effective activity of the individual.
Religious psychology implies the emotional relationship of believers to God and his attributes, religious organizations, to each other, to the state, society, nature. Predominant among them are feelings of utter dependence on God's will, obligation, guilt, and fear of God.
religious cult is a set of prescriptions indicating what, how and when to do in order to be pleasing to God. Ancient religious cults include: exaltation of gods, saints, ancestors, relics; sacrifice, donation, charity; worship, sacraments, prayers; consecration of church buildings, utensils, etc.; propaganda of the doctrine, books, figures, martyrs for the faith, etc.; A kind of cult is magic (witchcraft) - a complex of ritual rites aimed at influencing the forces hidden from a person in order to obtain material and other results. Cult acts: incantations of spirits, ritual dances, bows, kneeling, prostration, bowing of the head, sermon, prayer, confession, pilgrimage, etc.
religious organization implies the division of believers into the rank and file and their leaders, i.e. into the flock and pastors, or the laity and the clergy. The clergy unite the following religious leaders: patriarch, pope, ayatollah, and others; synod, college of cardinals, imamate, etc.; clergy. Religious organizations also act in the form of various associations of pastors and flocks: monastic orders, religious brotherhoods, communities of believers, etc.
religious culture- this is a part of the spiritual culture of mankind, generated by the religious needs of people and designed to satisfy them. Components: elements of artistic creativity (religious art, literature, journalism), religious educational establishments, libraries and publishing houses, religious philosophical and political thought, moral standards. Specialized level of religious culture - religious teachings and confessions, esotericism; ordinary - mysticism, household magic and superstition.
Types of religion arising from the periodization of its development
* polydemonism (paganism):
Animism- an expression of faith in spirits and the soul or the universal spirituality of nature.
Fetishism- worship of material objects - "fetishes", which are attributed to supernatural properties.
totemism- worship of any kind, tribe, animal or plant as its mythical ancestor and protector.
Pantheism- "philosophical" form of religion, identifying the absolute with nature. Deism views nature and God as coexisting principles. In theism, God is understood as an infinite, personal, transcendent principle that created the world in a free act of will from nothing.
* national religions that emerged at the stage of the formation of a class society and the formation of the state (Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, Shintoism, Judaism), express the national specifics of the people and, easily adapting to the changing world, are able to satisfy the religious needs of citizens even in modern society. Only those who belong to this people can profess such a religion.
* World religions, which include Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, can be practiced by any person, regardless of nationality.
Signs of world religions: huge number of followers all over the world; egalitarianism (preaching the equality of all people, addressed to representatives of all social groups); propaganda activity; cosmopolitan (inter- and supra-ethnic character; go beyond nations and states).
world religions
BUT) Buddhism- the most ancient world religion (originated in the 6th century BC in India, is currently widespread in the countries of South, Southeast, Central Asia and the Far East). Tradition links the emergence of Buddhism with the name of Prince Siddhartha Gautama. Main ideas: 1) life is suffering, the cause of which is the desires and passions of people; to get rid of suffering, it is necessary to renounce earthly passions and desires; 2) rebirth after death; 3) one must strive for nirvana, that is, dispassion and peace, which are achieved by renunciation of earthly attachments. Unlike Christianity and Islam, Buddhism lacks the idea of God as the creator of the world and its ruler. The essence of the doctrine of Buddhism boils down to a call to every person to embark on the path of seeking inner freedom.
B) Christianity arose in the 1st century. n. e. in the eastern part of the Roman Empire - Palestine - as a religion addressed to all the humiliated, thirsting for justice. It is based on the idea of messianism - the hope for the Divine deliverer of the world from everything bad that is on Earth. The holy book of Christians is the Bible, which consists of two parts: the Old Testament and the New Testament. Christianity is divided into three branches: Orthodoxy, Catholicism, Protestantism. Protestantism has three main currents: Anglicanism, Calvinism and Lutheranism.
AT) Islam originated in the 7th century. n. e. among the Arab tribes Arabian Peninsula. Holy book of Muslims Quran. Sunnah is a collection of instructive stories about the life of the prophet, Shariah is a set of principles and rules of conduct that are mandatory for Muslims. The place of worship for Muslims is called a mosque. There is no clear division between clergy and laity in Islam. Any Muslim can become a mullah (priest) knowing the Koran, Muslim laws and rules of worship.
Types of religion by the number of gods worshiped by representatives of a particular religion:
* Monotheistic religions affirm belief in one God: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
* Polytheistic religions affirm belief in multiple gods. These include all other religions of the world, including the world religion of Buddhism.
Church- a social institution of society, a religious organization, which is based on a single Creed (doctrine), which determines religious ethics and religious activity, a system for managing life, the behavior of believers. Factors contributing to the formation of the church: common dogma; religious activities; the church as a social phenomenon; a system for managing the life, activities and behavior of believers. The church has a certain system of norms (religious morality, canon law, etc.), values, patterns, and sanctions.
Basic Functions of Religion
1) worldview sets the "ultimate" criteria, absolutes, from the point of view of which the world, society, and man are comprehended.
2) Compensatory(therapeutic) compensates for the limitations, dependence, impotence of people in terms of restructuring consciousness, changing the objective conditions of existence. The psychological aspect of compensation is important - stress relief, consolation, meditation, spiritual pleasure.
3) Communicative provides two plans of communication: believers with each other; believers - with God, angels, souls of the dead, saints in liturgy, prayer, meditation, etc.
4) Regulatory arranges in a certain way the thoughts, aspirations of people, their activities.
5) Integrating unites individuals, groups, if they recognize a more or less common, common religion, which contributes to the preservation of stability, stability of the individual, social groups, institutions and society as a whole (integrating function). It separates individuals, groups, if in their religious consciousness and behavior tendencies are found that do not agree with each other, if there are different and opposing confessions in social groups and society (disintegrating function).
6) cultural broadcasting contributes to the development of certain foundations of culture - writing, printing, art; ensures the protection and development of the values of religious culture; transfers the accumulated heritage from generation to generation.
7) legitimizing legitimizes some public orders, institutions (state, political, legal, etc.), relations, norms.
8) Gnoseological (cognitive)- in its own way answers questions that science cannot elucidate.
9) ethical- substantiates morality, moral values and ideals of society.
10) Social- integrates, unites people not by kinship, nationality or racial characteristics, but according to spiritual-dogmatic, which is much wider;
11) Spiritual- fills life with meaning, opens up the prospect of personal self-improvement and eternal life, immortality, answers the question about the meaning of human life and being.
Religion, being an integral part of spiritual culture, has had a tremendous impact on its entire development: religion has bestowed on humanity the "holy books" (Vedas, the Bible, the Koran); European "architecture and sculpture of the Middle Ages was a "Bible in stone" ( Pitirim Sorokin); the music was almost exclusively religious in nature; painting was largely based on religious subjects; Byzantine and Old Russian schools of icon painting were a notable phenomenon in the history of world culture. The church played an important role in the spread of literacy. Temples were not only a place of worship, but also remarkable historical and architectural monuments, some cathedrals had libraries, chronicles were kept. Churches carried out merciful and charitable activities, helping the sick, the disabled, the poor, the poor. The monasteries carried out significant economic work, often developing new lands and engaging in productive agriculture (the monastery on the Solovetsky Islands, etc.). The church acted as a powerful source of patriotism. Known role Sergius of Radonezh in the liberation of Russia from the foreign yoke. From the very beginning of the Great Patriotic War the activities of the clergy contributed to the nationwide struggle against the invaders.
The role of religion in the modern world:
1. A huge number of people living on Earth are religious people.
2. The influence of religion on political life modern society remains significant. A number of states recognize religion as a state and obligatory one.
3. Religion remains one of the most important sources of moral values and norms, regulates everyday life people, keeps the principles of universal morality.
4. Religious contradictions continue to be a source and breeding ground for bloody conflicts, terrorism, a force of division and confrontation.
Modern world religions strive to contribute to the peaceful coexistence of states on the planet, are engaged in charitable activities, and strive to maintain their moral authority.
Art
Art 1) in a narrow sense - this is a specific form of practical-spiritual exploration of the world; 2) in a wide - highest level skills, skills, regardless of the sphere in which they manifest themselves (the art of a stove-maker, doctor, baker, etc.).
Art- a special subsystem of the spiritual sphere of society, which is a creative reproduction of reality in artistic images; one of the forms of social consciousness, the most important component of spiritual culture; artistic-figurative form of human cognitive activity, a way of aesthetic expression of one's inner state.
Versions of the relationship between nature and art
a) Kant reduced art to imitation.
b) Schelling and german romantics put art above nature.
in) Hegel put art below philosophy and religion, believing that it is burdened with sensuality, that is, it expresses a spiritual idea in a form that is inadequate to it.
Theories on the origin of art
1. Biological- the origin of art from the need to attract the attention of the opposite sex. Art arises from emotional excitement, the psyche, which is in a state of conflict, at the moments of transformation and switching of the energy of elementary inclinations to the goals of high creative activity.
2. gaming- the reasons for the emergence of art in the need for a person to spend energy unspent in labor activity, in the need for training to master social roles.
3. Magic: art is a form of various types of magic introduced into the daily activities of primitive man.
4. Labor: art is the result of labor (the useful qualities of the produced objects become an object of artistic enjoyment).
Differences between art and other forms of social consciousness
– Art cognizes the world through figurative thinking (if reality appears in art as a whole, then the essence appears in the richness of its sensual manifestations, single and unique).
- Art does not aim to give any special information about private branches of social practice and to reveal their laws, such as physical, economic and others. Art, as a special specific branch of spiritual production, masters reality aesthetically, from the standpoint of the main aesthetic categories: “beautiful”, “sublime”, “tragic” and “comic”.
– Holistic-figurative and aesthetic principles of artistic consciousness distinguish art from morality.
Functions of art
1) socially transforming- exerting an ideological and aesthetic impact on people, includes them in directed activities to transform society;
2) artistic and conceptual- analyzes the state of the environment;
3) educational- forms the personality, feelings and thoughts of people; educates the humanistic qualities of the human personality;
4) aesthetic- forms aesthetic tastes and human needs;
5) consolatory-compensatory- restores in the sphere of the spirit the harmony lost by a person in reality, contributes to the preservation and restoration of the mental balance of the individual;
6) anticipation- anticipates the future;
7) inspiring- affects the subconscious of people, the human psyche;
8) hedonistic(from Greek pleasure) - gives people pleasure; teaches people to treat the world positively, look to the future with optimism;
9) cognitive-heuristic- reflects and masters those aspects of life that are difficult for science;
10) synthesizing- is a treasury of images and symbols that express values that are significant for a person;
11) communicative- binds people together, serves as a means of communication and communication;
12) recreational- serves as a means of relaxation, liberation from everyday work and worries.
The main category of art is artistic image. An artistic image is a part or component of a work of art; way of being a work of art taken as a whole. The inseparable connection of artistic meaning with material, sensual embodiment distinguishes an artistic image from a scientific concept, an abstract thought. The meaning that makes up the content artistic image, created by the artist with the expectation that it will be shared, is available to others. The material sensually perceived form (visual and sound) provides such an opportunity and acts as a sign.
Under sign refers to any material phenomenon created or used with the aim of conveying any information with its help. it pictorial, expressive, verbal and conventional signs. The peculiarity of artistic signs is that no matter what they depict, express or designate, they themselves should always cause aesthetic pleasure. The spiritual content of an artistic image can be tragic, comical, etc., but the impression of its symbolic material form represents the experience of beauty, beauty. The sign form of the artistic image is subject not only to the communicative and aesthetic principle, but also to the psychological requirement to attract, hold and switch the attention of the viewer and listener.
Classification
1) by the amount of funds used: a) simple (painting, sculpture, poetry, music); b) complex, or synthetic (ballet, theater, cinema);
2) according to the ratio of works of art and reality: a) pictorial, depicting reality, copying it (realistic painting, sculpture, photography); b) expressive, where the fantasy and imagination of the artist create a new reality (ornament, music);
3) in relation to space and time: a) spatial ( art, sculpture, architecture); b) temporary (literature, music); c) spatio-temporal (theatre, cinema);
4) by time of occurrence: a) traditional (poetry, dance, music); b) new (photography, cinema, television, video), usually using rather complex technical means to build an image;
5) according to the degree of applicability in everyday life: a) applied (arts and crafts); b) graceful (music, dance).
In the spatial arts, there are three types: easel(easel painting, easel graphics, etc.), monumental(monumental sculpture, wall painting, etc.) and applied(typical mass architecture, small plastic arts, miniature painting, industrial graphics, posters, etc.).
In the verbal-temporal arts, three types are distinguished: epic(novel, poem, etc.) lyrics(poems, etc.) and drama(various plays, etc.).
Kinds of art- these are historically established forms of artistic reflection of the world, using special means to build an image - sound, color, body movement, word, etc. Each type of art has its own special varieties - genera and genres, which together provide a variety of artistic attitudes to reality . Let us briefly consider the main types of art and some of their varieties.
* The primary form of art was a special syncretic (undifferentiated) complex of creative activity. For primitive man, there was no separate music, or literature, or theater. Everything was merged together in a single ritual action. Later, separate types of art began to stand out from this syncretic action.
* Literature uses verbal and written means to build images. The main genres of literature: drama, epic and lyrics. Genres: tragedy, comedy, novel, story, poem, elegy, short story, essay, feuilleton, etc.
* Music uses sound media. Music is divided into vocal (intended for singing) and instrumental. Genres: opera, symphony, overture, suite, romance, sonata, etc.
* Dance uses the means of plastic movements to build images. Allocate ritual, folk, ballroom, modern dances, ballet. Directions and styles of dance: waltz, tango, foxtrot, samba, polonaise, etc.
* Painting reflects reality on a plane by means of color. Genres: portrait, still life, landscape, domestic, animalistic (image of animals), historical.
* Architecture forms the spatial environment in the form of structures and buildings for human life. It is divided into residential, public, landscape gardening, industrial, etc. Architectural styles: Gothic, Baroque, Rococo, Art Nouveau, Classicism, etc.
* Sculpture creates works of art having volume and three-dimensional shape. Sculpture is round (bust, statue) and relief (convex image); by size: easel, decorative, monumental.
* Decorative and applied art is connected with applied needs. This includes art objects that can be used in everyday life - dishes, fabrics, tools, furniture, clothes, jewelry, etc.
* The theater organizes a special stage performance through the play of actors. The theater can be dramatic, opera, puppet, etc.
* Circus is a spectacular and entertaining action with unusual, risky and funny numbers in a special arena: acrobatics, tightrope walking, gymnastics, horse riding, juggling, magic tricks, pantomime, clowning, animal training, etc.
* Cinema is the development of theatrical action based on modern technical audiovisual means. The types of cinematography include fiction, documentary films, animation. By genre: comedy, drama, melodrama, adventure film, detective, thriller, etc.
* Photography captures documentary visual images with the help of technical means - optical and chemical or digital. The genres of photography correspond to the genres of painting.
* Variety includes small forms of performing arts - dramaturgy, music, choreography, illusions, circus performances, original performances, etc.
To the listed types of art, you can add graphics, radio art, etc.
In different eras and in different artistic directions, the boundaries between genres are more strict (for example, in classicism), in others they are less (romanticism) or even conditional (realism). AT contemporary art there is a tendency to deny the genre as a stable form of artistic creativity (postmodernism).
True art is always elitist. True art, as the essence of religion and philosophy, is open to everyone and created for everyone.
Spiritual is creativity in everything, and philosophy and Vera- poetry of the spirit. Berdyaev defines philosophy as "the art of knowing in freedom through the creation of ideas...". Creativity is not a service to metaphysics and ethics, but permeates them, fills them with life. Beauty is just as important for the integral spiritual development of a person as truth and goodness: harmony is created by their unity in love. That is why the great Russian writer and thinker F. M. Dostoevsky, repeating the thought of Plato, said that "beauty will save the world."
Morality
Morality- 1) a form of social consciousness, consisting of a system of values and requirements that regulate people's behavior; 2) the system of norms, ideals, principles accepted in society, and its expression in the real life of people. Moral- principles of real practical behavior of people. Ethics- Philosophical science, the subject of which is morality, morality.
Approaches to the origin of morality
– Naturalistic: considers morality as a simple continuation, a complication of the group feelings of animals that ensure the survival of the species in the struggle for existence. Representatives of naturalism in ethics reduce the social to the biological, erase the qualitative line that distinguishes the human psyche from the animal.
– Religious-idealistic: regards morality as a gift from God.
– Sociological: considers morality as a phenomenon that arose along with communication and collective labor actions and ensures their regulation. The main reasons that caused the need for moral regulation are the development and complication of social relations: the appearance of a surplus product and the need to distribute it; gender and age division of labor; singling out clans within a tribe; streamlining sexual relations, etc.
Morality rests on three major foundations:
* Traditions, customs, mores that have developed in a given society, among a given class, social group. A person learns these mores, traditional norms of behavior that become a habit become property spiritual world personality. They are realized in his behavior, the motives of which are formulated as follows: “this is the way it is accepted” or “this is not accepted”, “everyone does this”, “like people, so do I”, “this is how it was done from time immemorial”, etc.
* Based on the power of public opinion which, through the approval of some actions and the condemnation of others, regulates the behavior of the individual, teaches him to observe moral standards. The instruments of public opinion are, on the one hand, honor, good name, public recognition, which are the result of a conscientious fulfillment by a person of his duties, his steady observance of the moral norms of a given society; on the other hand, shame, shame of a person who has violated moral norms.
* Based on consciousness of each individual on its understanding of the need to reconcile personal and public interests. This determines a voluntary choice, voluntary behavior, which takes place when conscience becomes a solid basis for the moral behavior of a person.
In relation to the personality of a person, morality is an internal form of self-regulation by an individual of his behavior. Morality is disinterested, personal, represents a special kind of knowledge, is an essential characteristic of spiritual knowledge.
moral consciousness is of value. It focuses on some absolute moral ideal that arises in society, but is taken out of it, acting as a criterion and evaluation, as social phenomena and individual behavior of a person and his motives.
moral norm It is aimed at forming certain moral qualities in a person: striving for goodness and self-improvement, helping people around, courage, being ready to endure hardships and fight for the truth. A norm is understood as such an instruction (decision, instruction, instruction, directive, order, program, etc.), with which a certain action must (can or cannot) be performed to achieve the specified goals.
moral norm defines socially necessary typical variants of moral behavior; a vehicle that gives orientation to the human personality, indicates which offenses are permissible and preferable and which should be avoided.
The main property of moral norms is their imperativeness. (imperative). They express moral requirements. One and the same norm, say, the demand for justice, can be expressed both in the form of a prohibition and as a positive prescription: “do not lie”, “tell only the truth”. Norms are addressed to a person, to his activity and behavior. A conscious set of norms is defined as moral code. The main elements of the moral code are the following: socially significant prescriptions, attitude-orientation, the readiness of the individual to the proper requirements and objective conditions that allow the implementation of appropriate proper behavior.
Another component of the moral code is value orientations: 1) moral significance, dignity of an individual (a group of individuals, a team) and her actions or moral characteristics of public institutions; 2) value ideas related to the field of moral consciousness - ideals, concepts of good and evil, justice, happiness.
Motivation, evaluation and self-esteem. Motivation, evaluation and self-esteem - important ways moral regulation of human behavior. A motive is a morally conscious impulse to activities related to satisfying the needs of the subject. Motivation- a system of interrelated motives in a certain way, meaning the preference for certain values, goals in the moral choice of the individual, the conscious determination of the line of one's behavior.
Moral assessment allows you to determine the value of the act, the behavior of the individual, their compliance with certain norms, principles, ideals; this is an independent determination of the value of one's behavior, one's motives and actions. It is closely related to a sense of conscience and duty and acts as an important tool for self-control.
Conscience- the ability of a person to exercise moral self-control, independently formulate moral duties for himself, demand from himself their fulfillment and make a self-assessment of the actions performed; is an expression of moral self-consciousness and well-being of the individual; allows a person to realize his moral responsibility to himself as a subject of moral choice and to other people, society as a whole.
Duty is the relation of the individual to society. The individual acts here as an active bearer of certain moral obligations to society.
Functions of morality
* Worldview. Morality develops a system of value orientations: norms, prohibitions, assessments, ideals, which become a necessary component of social consciousness, orient the individual, express preference for certain norms and the command to act in accordance with them.
* Cognitive. It is not identical to scientific knowledge, it orients a person in the world of surrounding cultural values, predetermines the preference for those that meet his needs and interests.
* Regulatory. Morality acts as a way to regulate people's behavior at work, in everyday life, in politics, in science, in family, intra-group and other relations. It authorizes and supports certain social foundations, the way of life, or requires their change. Morality is based on the power of public opinion. Moral sanctions are more flexible, diverse, and act in the form of not only coercion, persuasion, but also approval by public opinion.
* Estimated. Morality considers the world, phenomena and processes from the point of view of their humanistic potential. A morally evaluative attitude to reality is its comprehension in terms of good and evil, as well as in other concepts adjacent to them or derived from them (“justice” and “injustice”, “honor” and “disgrace”, “nobility” and “baseness” etc.). At the same time, the specific form of expressing a moral assessment can be different: praise, consent, censure, criticism, expressed in value judgments; expression of approval or disapproval.
* Educational. Concentrating the moral experience of mankind, morality makes it the property of each new generation of people. Morality permeates all types of education insofar as it gives them the correct social orientation through moral ideals and goals, which ensures a harmonious combination of personal and social interests.
* Motivational. Moral principles motivate human behavior, that is, they act as causes and motives that cause a person to want to do something or not to do something.
* Controlling. Control over the implementation of norms based on public condemnation and / or the conscience of the person himself.
* Coordination. Morality ensures the unity and consistency of human interaction in a wide variety of circumstances.
* Integrating. Maintaining the unity of mankind and the integrity of the spiritual world of man.
Moral requirements and representations
- norms of behavior (“do not lie”, “do not steal”, “do not kill”, “honor elders”, etc.);
- moral qualities (goodwill, justice, wisdom, etc.);
- moral principles (collectivism - individualism; egoism - altruism, etc.);
- moral and psychological mechanisms (duty, conscience);
- the highest moral values (goodness, the meaning of life, freedom, happiness).
Moral culture of the individual- the degree of perception by the individual of the moral consciousness and culture of society. Structure moral culture personality: culture of ethical thinking, culture of feelings, culture of behavior, etiquette.
Morality manifests itself in understanding the opposition of good and evil. Kindness is understood as the most important personal and social value and correlates with a person's desire to maintain the unity of interpersonal relationships and to achieve moral perfection. If good is creative, then evil is everything that destroys interpersonal ties and decomposes the inner world of a person.
The freedom of man, his ability to choose between good and evil, is called moral choice. For the consequences of a moral choice, a person is responsible to society and to himself (his conscience).
Differences between moral norms and customs and legal norms: 1) following the custom implies unquestioning and literal obedience to its requirements, moral norms imply a meaningful and free choice of a person; 2) customs are different for different peoples, eras, social groups, morality is universal, it sets the general norms for all mankind; 3) the implementation of customs is often based on habit and fear of the disapproval of others, morality is based on a sense of duty and is supported by a sense of shame and remorse.
Unlike other manifestations of the spiritual life of society (science, art, religion), morality is not a sphere of organized activity: there are no institutions in society that would ensure the functioning and development of morality. Moral requirements and assessments penetrate into all spheres of human life and activity.
Universal moral principles
1. Talion principle. AT Old Testament The talion formula is expressed as follows: "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." AT primitive society talion was carried out in the form of blood feud, while the punishment had to strictly correspond to the harm caused.
2. The principle of morality. The golden rule of morality can be found among the sayings of the ancient sages: Buddha, Confucius, Thales, Mohammed, Christ. In its most general form, this rule looks like this: "(Do not) act towards others as you (not) would like them to act towards you." The commandment of love becomes the basic universal principle in Christianity.
3. The principle of the golden mean presented in works Aristotle: Avoid extremes and observe the measure. All moral virtues are the middle between two vices (for example, courage is located between cowardice and recklessness) and go back to the virtue of moderation, which allows a person to curb his passions with the help of reason.
4. The Principle of Greatest Happiness (I. Bentham, J. Mill): everyone should behave in such a way as to provide the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. An act is moral if the benefit outweighs the harm.
5. The principle of justice (J. Rawls): everyone should have equal rights with respect to fundamental freedoms; social and economic inequalities must be arranged for the benefit of the poor.
Each universal principle expresses a certain moral ideal, which is basically understood as philanthropy.
Amoralism
In modern society in popular culture and through the media, the belief is often introduced that there are different moralities, that what was previously considered immoral can now be quite acceptable and permissible. This testifies to the blurring of the strictness of the moral criterion, the clarity and clarity in the distinction between good and evil. The loss of morality leads to the destruction of the very foundation of sociality, relationships between people, laws and norms. As a result, the entire social system collapses, imperceptibly and gradually undermined from within.
Immorality associated with the concepts of selfishness, passion and sin. Passions (spiritual, bodily) - this is what leads along the path opposite to virtue and self-knowledge.
In order for society to progress in its development, cohesion is necessary civil society and his fight against immorality in all its manifestations. It should be conducted through upbringing, education, spiritual development, persuasion and enlightenment. Violence is impossible in the sphere of morality, just as kindness with fists is impossible, although it should be active.
Similar information.
Cognition is the process of reflecting the world in the minds of people, moving from ignorance to knowledge, from incomplete and inaccurate knowledge to more complete and accurate.
Cognition is one of the most important human activities. At all times, people have sought to know the world around them, society and themselves. Initially, human knowledge was very imperfect, it was embodied in various practical skills and mythological ideas. However, with the advent of philosophy, and then the first sciences - mathematics, physics, biology, socio-political doctrines, progress in human knowledge began, the fruits of which more and more significantly influenced the development of human civilization.
KNOWLEDGE - the result of cognition of reality confirmed by practice, the result of the cognitive process that led to the acquisition of truth. Knowledge characterizes a relatively true reflection of reality in human thinking. It demonstrates the possession of experience and understanding, allows you to master the world around you. In a general sense, knowledge is opposed to ignorance, ignorance. Within the cognitive process, knowledge, on the one hand, is opposed to an opinion that cannot claim to be the full truth and expresses only a subjective conviction.
On the other hand, knowledge is opposed to faith, which also claims to be the full truth, but relies on other grounds, on the certainty that this is the case. The most essential question of knowledge is how true it is, that is, whether it can really be a real guide in the practical activities of people.
Knowledge claims to be an adequate reflection of reality. It reproduces natural connections and relations of the real world, tends to reject misconceptions and false, unverified information.
Knowledge is based on scientific facts. "The facts, taken from the side of their reliability, determine what is knowledge and what is science" (Thomas Hobbes).
A powerful craving for knowledge is a purely human need. Any living being on earth accepts the world as it is. Only a person tries to understand how this world works, what laws govern it, what determines its dynamics. Why does a person need it? It is not easy to answer this question. Sometimes they say; knowledge helps a person to survive. But this is not entirely true, because it is knowledge that can lead humanity to destruction... It is no coincidence that Ecclesiastes teaches us: much knowledge multiplies sorrow...
Nevertheless, already ancient man discovered in himself a powerful desire to penetrate the secrets of the Universe, to understand its secrets, to feel the laws of the universe. This striving penetrated deeper and deeper into a person, more and more captured him. Human nature is reflected in this irresistible desire for knowledge. It would seem that why should an individual, personally me, know whether there is life on other planets, how history unfolds, whether it is possible to find the smallest unit of matter, what is the mystery of living thinking substance. However, having tasted the fruits of knowledge, a person can no longer refuse them. On the contrary, he is ready to go to the stake for the sake of truth. "Those who have innate knowledge are the highest. They are followed by those who acquire knowledge through learning. Next are those who start learning when they encounter difficulties. Those who, when they encounter difficulties, do not learn, are ranked lower. all" (Confucius).
Three different sciences are engaged in the study of knowledge: the theory of knowledge (or epistemology), the psychology of knowledge, and logic. And this is not surprising: knowledge is a very complex subject, and in various sciences, not all the content of this subject is studied, but only one or another side of it.
The theory of knowledge is the theory of truth. It examines knowledge from the side of truth. It explores the relationship between knowledge by the subject of knowledge, i.e. between the object of knowledge and the being about which knowledge is expressed. "The real form in which truth exists can only be its scientific system." (Georg Hegel). It studies the question of whether truth is relative or absolute and considers such properties of truth as, for example, universal validity and its necessity. It is an exploration of the meaning of knowledge. In other words, the range of interests of the theory of knowledge can be defined as follows: it studies the objective (logical) side of knowledge.
The theory of knowledge, in order to construct a theory of truth, must conduct a preparatory study consisting in the analysis of the composition of knowledge, and since all knowledge is realized in consciousness, it also has to deal with the analysis of the composition of consciousness in general and develop some kind of doctrine about the structure of consciousness.
There are various ways and methods by which the truth of knowledge is verified. They are called criteria of truth.
The main such criteria are the experimental verification of knowledge, the possibility of its application in practice and its logical consistency.
Experimental verification of knowledge is characteristic, first of all, for science. The assessment of the truth of knowledge can also be carried out with the help of practice. For example, on the basis of certain knowledge, people can create some technical device, implement certain economic reforms or treat people. If this technical device will function successfully, the reforms will give the expected results, and the sick will be healed, then this will be an important indicator of the truth of knowledge.
First, the acquired knowledge should not be confused and internally contradictory.
Second, it must logically agree with well-tested and valid theories. For example, if someone puts forward a theory of heredity that is fundamentally incompatible with modern genetics, then it can be assumed that it is unlikely to be true.
It should be noted that the modern theory of knowledge believes that there are no universal and unambiguous criteria for truth. Experiment cannot be completely accurate, practice changes and develops, and logical consistency is related to relationships within knowledge, and not to the relationship of knowledge and reality.
Therefore, even the knowledge that passes the test according to the specified criteria cannot be considered absolutely true and established once and for all.
The form of cognition is a way of cognizing the surrounding reality, which has a conceptual, sensory-figurative or symbolic basis. Thus, they distinguish between scientific knowledge based on rationality and logic, and non-scientific knowledge based on sensory-figurative or symbolic perception of the world.
Scientific knowledge of such an object as society includes social knowledge (a sociological approach to the process of cognition) and humanitarian knowledge (a universal approach).
However, in the modern world, not all phenomena are known to the end. There is a lot of unexplainable from the point of view of science. And where science is powerless, unscientific knowledge comes to the rescue:
proper non-scientific knowledge - disparate, non-systematic knowledge that is not described by laws and is in conflict with the scientific picture of the world;
pre-scientific - a prototype, a prerequisite for the emergence of scientific knowledge;
parascientific - incompatible with existing scientific knowledge;
pseudoscientific - consciously exploiting conjectures and prejudices;
anti-scientific - utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of reality.
Scientific research is a special form of the process of cognition, such a systematic and purposeful study of objects, in which the means and methods of sciences are used and which ends with the formation of knowledge about the objects under study.
Another form of cognition is spontaneous-empirical cognition. Spontaneous-empirical knowledge is primary. It has always existed and still exists today. This is such knowledge, in which the acquisition of knowledge is not separated from the social and practical activities of people. The sources of knowledge are various practical actions with objects. From their own experience, people learn the properties of these objects, learn the best ways to deal with them - their processing, use. In this way, in ancient times, people learned the properties of useful cereals and the rules for their cultivation. Nor did they expect the advent of scientific medicine. A lot of useful recipes and knowledge about the healing properties of plants are stored in the memory of the people, and many of such knowledge are not outdated to this day. "Life and knowledge are consubstantial and inseparable in their highest standards" (Vladimir Solovyov). Spontaneous empirical knowledge retains its significance even in the era of the scientific and technological revolution. This is not some second-rate, but full-fledged knowledge, proven by centuries of experience.
In the process of cognition, various cognitive abilities of a person are used. People learn a lot in the course of their ordinary life and practical activities, but they also created a special form of cognitive activity - science, the main objective which consists in achieving reliable and objective true knowledge. Science is not a warehouse of ready-made and exhaustive truths, but the process of achieving them, a movement from limited, approximate knowledge to more and more general, deep, and precise knowledge. This process is limitless.
Science is a systematic knowledge of reality, based on the observation and study of facts and seeking to establish the laws of the studied things and phenomena. The purpose of science is to obtain true knowledge about the world. In the most general way, science is defined as a sphere of human activity, the function of which is the development and theoretical systematization of objective knowledge about reality.
Science is the understanding of the world in which we live. This comprehension is fixed in the form of knowledge as a mental (conceptual, conceptual, intellectual) modeling of reality. "Science is nothing but a reflection of reality" (Francis Bacon).
The immediate goals of science are the description, explanation and prediction of the processes and phenomena of reality that constitute the subject of its study on the basis of the laws it discovers.
The system of sciences can be conditionally divided into natural, humanitarian, social and technical sciences. Accordingly, the objects of study of science are nature, non-material aspects of human activity, society and material aspects of human activity and society.
The highest form of scientific knowledge is scientific theory.
A scientific theory is a logically interconnected system of knowledge that reflects essential, regular and general connections in a particular subject area.
There are many theories that have changed people's ideas about the world. These are, for example, the theory of Copernicus, Newton's theory of universal gravitation, Darwin's theory of evolution, Einstein's theory of relativity. Such theories form a scientific picture of the world, which plays an important role in the worldview of people.
Each subsequent scientific theory in comparison with the previous one is more complete and deeper knowledge. The old theory is interpreted in the composition new theory as a relative truth and thus as a special case of a more complete and accurate theory (for example, the classical mechanics of I. Newton and the theory of relativity of A. Einstein). Such a relationship between theories in their historical development has received in science the name of the correspondence principle.
But in order to build theories, scientists rely on experience, experiment, factual data about the surrounding reality. Science is built from facts like a house from bricks.
Thus, a scientific fact is a fragment of objective reality or an event, the simplest element scientific theory. "The facts, taken from the side of their reliability, determine what is knowledge and what is science" (Thomas Hobbes).
Where it is not always possible to obtain scientific facts (for example, in astronomy, history), estimates are used - scientific assumptions and hypotheses that are close to reality and claim to be true.
Part of the scientific theory, built on scientific facts, is an area of true knowledge, on the basis of which axioms, theorems are built and the main phenomena of this science are explained. The assessment part of scientific theory is the problem area of this science, within which scientific research is usually conducted. The goal of scientific research is to turn assessments into scientific facts, i.e. striving for the truth of knowledge.
The specificity of scientific knowledge, in contrast to spontaneous empirical knowledge, lies primarily in the fact that cognitive activity in science is carried out not by everyone, but by specially trained groups of people - scientists. The form of its implementation and development is scientific research.
Science, in contrast to the spontaneous-empirical process of cognition, studies not only those subjects with which people deal in their direct practice, but also those that are revealed in the course of the development of science itself. Often their study precedes practical use. "A systematic whole of knowledge can, by the mere fact that it is systematic, be called science, and if the unification of knowledge in this system is a connection of foundations and consequences, even rational science" (Immanuel Kant). For example, practical application The energy of the atom was preceded by a rather long period of study of the structure of the atom as an object of science.
In science, they begin to specifically study the very results of cognitive activity - scientific knowledge. Criteria are being developed according to which scientific knowledge can be separated from spontaneous empirical knowledge, from opinions, from speculative, speculative reasoning, etc.
Scientific knowledge is fixed not only on natural language, as it always happens in spontaneous-empirical knowledge. Often used (for example, in mathematics, chemistry) specially created symbolic and logical means.
The discursiveness of scientific knowledge is based on a forced sequence of concepts and judgments, given by the logical structure of knowledge (causal structure), forms a feeling of subjective conviction in the possession of truth. Therefore, acts of scientific knowledge are accompanied by the confidence of the subject in the reliability of its content. That is why knowledge is understood as a form of subjective right to truth. Under the conditions of science, this right turns into the obligation of the subject to recognize a logically justified, discursively proven, organized, systematically connected truth.
In the history of science, special means of cognition, methods of scientific research are created and developed, while spontaneous empirical cognition does not have such means. The means of scientific knowledge include, for example, modeling, the use of idealized models, the creation of theories, hypotheses, and experimentation.
Finally, the cardinal difference between scientific knowledge and spontaneous empirical knowledge lies in the fact that scientific research is systematic and purposeful. It is aimed at solving problems that are consciously formulated as a goal.
Scientific knowledge differs from other forms of knowledge (everyday knowledge, philosophical knowledge, etc.) in that science carefully checks the results of knowledge in observation and experiment.
Empirical knowledge, if it is included in the system of science, loses its elemental character. “I have no doubt at all that real science can and does cognize the necessary relations or laws of phenomena, but the only question is: does it remain in this cognition on an exclusively empirical basis ... does it not include other cognitive elements, besides to which his abstract empiricism wants to limit? (Vladimir Solovyov).
The most important empirical methods are observation, measurement and experiment.
Observation in science differs from simple contemplation of things and phenomena. Scientists always set a specific goal and task for observation. They strive for impartiality and objectivity of observation, accurately record its results. In some sciences, complex instruments (microscopes, telescopes, etc.) have been developed that make it possible to observe phenomena that are inaccessible to the naked eye.
Measurement is a method by which the quantitative characteristics of the objects under study are established. Accurate measurement plays a big role in physics, chemistry and other natural sciences, however, in modern social sciences, primarily in economics and sociology, measurements of various economic indicators and social facts are widespread.
An experiment is an “artificial” situation designed by a scientist, in which presumptive knowledge (hypothesis) is confirmed or refuted by experience. Experiments often use precise measurement methods and sophisticated instruments to test knowledge as accurately as possible. Very complex equipment is often used in a scientific experiment.
Empirical methods, firstly, make it possible to establish facts, and secondly, to test the truth of hypotheses and theories by correlating them with the results of observations and the facts established in the experiment.
Take, for example, the science of society. Empirical research methods play an important role in modern sociology. Sociology must be based on concrete data about social facts and processes. Scientists obtain these data using various empirical methods - observations, opinion polls, public opinion studies, statistical data, experiments on the interaction of people in social groups, etc. In this way, sociology collects numerous facts that form the basis of theoretical hypotheses and conclusions.
Scientists don't stop at observation and fact-finding. They seek to find laws that link numerous facts. To establish these laws, theoretical research methods are applied. Theoretical research is connected with the improvement and development of the conceptual apparatus of science and is aimed at a comprehensive knowledge of objective reality through this apparatus in its essential connections and patterns.
These are methods of analysis and generalization of empirical facts, methods of putting forward hypotheses, methods of rational reasoning, which allow one to derive one knowledge from another.
The most famous, classic theoretical methods are induction and deduction.
The inductive method is a method of deriving patterns based on the generalization of many individual facts. For example, a sociologist, on the basis of a generalization of empirical facts, can discover some stable, repetitive forms of people's social behavior. These will be the primary social patterns. The inductive method is a movement from the particular to the general, from facts to law.
The deductive method is a movement from the general to the particular. If we have some general law, then we can deduce more specific consequences from it. Deduction, for example, is widely used in mathematics in proving theorems from general axioms.
It is important to emphasize that the methods of science are interconnected. Without the establishment of empirical facts, it is impossible to build a theory; without theories, scientists would have only a huge number of unrelated facts. Therefore, in scientific knowledge, various theoretical and empirical methods are used in their inseparable connection.
Science is built on objective and material evidence. Analytical consciousness absorbs many-sided life experience and is always open for clarifications. We can talk about scientific knowledge only when it is generally valid. The obligatory nature of the result is a concrete sign of science. Science is also universal in spirit. There is no area that could fence itself off from it for a long time. Everything that happens in the world is subject to observation, consideration, research - natural phenomena, actions or statements of people, their creations and destinies.
The modern development of science leads to further transformations of the entire system of human life. Science exists not only to reflect reality, but also so that the results of this reflection can be used by people.
Particularly impressive is its impact on the development of technology and the latest technologies, the impact of scientific and technological progress on people's lives.
Science creates a new environment for human existence. Science is influenced by a certain form of culture in which it is formed. The style of scientific thinking is developed on the basis of not only social, but also philosophical ideas that generalize the development of both science and all human practice.
Foresight is one of the most important functions of science. At one time, W. Ostwald brilliantly spoke on this issue: “... A penetrating understanding of science: science is the art of foresight. Its whole value lies in the extent to which and with what certainty it can predict future events. Any knowledge that says nothing about the future is dead, and such knowledge should be denied the honorary title of science.” Skachkov Yu.V. Polyfunctionality of science. “Questions of Philosophy”, 1995, No. 11
All human practice is actually based on foresight. Involving in any type of activity, a person presupposes (foresees) getting some quite definite results. Human activity is basically organized and purposeful, and in such an organization of his actions, a person relies on knowledge. It is knowledge that allows him to expand the area of his existence, without which his life cannot continue. Knowledge makes it possible to foresee the course of events, since it is invariably included in the structure of the methods of action themselves. Methods characterize any type of human activity, and they are based on the development of special tools, means of activity. Both the development of tools of activity and their “applications” are based on knowledge, which makes it possible to successfully foresee the results of this activity.
tracing social parameter science as an activity, we see the diversity of its “sections”. This activity is inscribed in a specific historical socio-cultural context. It is subject to the norms developed by the community of scientists. (In particular, one who enters this community is called upon to produce new knowledge, and the “prohibition on repetition” invariably gravitates over him.) Another level represents involvement in a school or direction, in a social circle, entering which an individual becomes a man of science.
Science, as a living system, is the production of not only ideas, but also the people who create them. Within the system itself, an invisible, continuous work is going on to build minds capable of solving its brewing problems. The school, as a unity of research, communication and teaching creativity, is one of the main forms of scientific and social associations, moreover, the oldest form characteristic of cognition at all levels of its evolution. In contrast to organizations such as scientific - research institutions, the school in science is informal, i.e. association without legal status. Its organization is not planned in advance and is not regulated by regulations.
There are also such associations of scientists as "invisible colleges". This term denotes a network of personal contacts between scientists that has no clear boundaries and procedures for the mutual exchange of information (for example, the so-called preprints, i.e. information about research results that have not yet been published).
"Invisible College" refers to the secondary - extensive - period of growth of scientific knowledge. It brings together scientists focused on solving a set of interrelated problems after a research program has been formed in the bowels of a small compact group. The “college” has a productive “core”, which is overgrown with many authors who reproduce in their publications, preprints, informal oral contacts, etc. really innovative ideas of this “core”, the shell around the core can grow arbitrarily, leading to the reproduction of knowledge that has already entered the fund of science.
The sociopsychological factors of scientific creativity include the opponent circle of the scientist. The concept of it was introduced in order to analyze the scientist's communications from the point of view of the dependence of the dynamics of his work on confrontational relations with colleagues. From the etymology of the term "opponent" it is clear that it means "the one who objects", who acts as a contestant of someone's opinion. It will be about the relationship of scientists who object, refute or challenge someone's ideas, hypotheses, conclusions. Each researcher has “his” opponent circle. It can be initiated by a scientist when he challenges colleagues. But it is created by these colleagues themselves, who do not accept the ideas of the scientist, perceive them as a threat to their views (and thus their position in science) and therefore defend them in the form of opposition.
Since confrontation and opposition take place in the zone controlled by the scientific community, which is judging its members, the scientist is forced not only to take into account the opinion and position of opponents in order to clarify for himself the degree of reliability of his data that has come under fire of criticism, but also to respond to opponents. Controversy, even if hidden, becomes a catalyst for the work of thought.
Meanwhile, just as behind every product of scientific work there are invisible processes taking place in the creative laboratory of a scientist, they usually include the construction of hypotheses, the activity of the imagination, the power of abstraction, etc., opponents, with whom he engages in covert polemics. It is obvious that hidden controversy acquires the greatest intensity in those cases when an idea is put forward that claims to radically change the established body of knowledge. And this is not surprising. The community must have some kind of “ defense mechanism”, which would prevent the “omnivorous”, the immediate assimilation of any opinion. Hence the natural resistance of society, which has to be experienced by anyone who claims to be recognized for his achievements of an innovative nature.
Recognizing the social nature of scientific creativity, it should be borne in mind that along with the macroscopic aspect (which covers both social norms and principles of organization of the world of science, and a complex set of relations between this world and society), there is a microsocial one. It is represented, in particular, in the opponent's circle. But in it, as in other microsocial phenomena, the personal principle of creativity is also expressed. At the level of the emergence of new knowledge - whether it is a discovery, a fact, a theory or a research direction, in line with which they work various groups and schools - we find ourselves face to face with the creative individuality of the scientist.
Scientific information about things merges with information about the opinions of others about these things. In a broad sense, both obtaining information about things and obtaining information about the opinions of others about these things can be called information activity. It is as old as science itself. In order to successfully complete your main social role(which is the production of new knowledge), the scientist must be informed about what was known before him. Otherwise, he may find himself in the position of a discoverer of already established truths.
Literature
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2. Karlov N.V. About fundamental and applied in science and education. // "Questions of Philosophy", 1995, No. 12
3. Pechenkin A.A. Substantiation of scientific theory. Classic and modern. - M., Nauka, 1991
4. Popper K. Logic and growth of scientific knowledge. - M.: Nauka, 1993.
5. Skachkov Yu.V. Polyfunctionality of science. “Questions of Philosophy”, 1995, No. 11
6. Philosophy of science: History and methodology. - M., Publishing Center "Academy", 2001.
7. Philosophical encyclopedia. v.1-5. - M., 1993.
The science modern science- sphere research activities, aimed at the production of new knowledge about nature, society and thinking, including all the conditions and moments of this production: scientists with their knowledge and abilities, qualifications and experience, with the division and cooperation of scientific labor; scientific institutions, experimental and laboratory equipment; research methods; conceptual and categorical apparatus, a system of scientific information, as well as the entire amount of available knowledge, acting as a prerequisite, or means, or result of scientific research. These results can act as Science is not limited to natural science or the exact sciences. It is considered as an integral system of knowledge, including a historically mobile ratio of parts, natural science and social science, philosophy and natural science, method and theory, theoretical and applied research. The science Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution The main thing appointment scientific activity The science- this is: 1. One of the forms of social consciousness. 2. 3. 4. Functions of Science Scientific knowledge:
Ways of constructing scientific novelty.
Scientific novelty- this is a criterion of scientific research, which determines the degree of transformation, addition, specification of scientific data. Construction of scientific novelty- the fundamental moment of any scientific search, which determines the entire process of scientific creativity of a scientist. Elements novelties in scientific research in sociology:
New or improved criteria for evaluating the studied social processes, based on indicators obtained empirically;
First posed and solved practically social problems;
New foreign or domestic concepts, for the first time involved in solving theoretical problems;
Terms and concepts introduced into the scientific circulation of domestic sociology for the first time;
Academicism as a style of scientific communication.
Academicism- communication style, which includes:
A special scientific language, devoid of emotionality and frivolous turns;
Restrained and constructive nature of criticism and discussion;
Respect for other members of the scientific community.
Academicism requires the ability to:
Doubt established truths;
Defend your own views;
Fight scientific stereotypes.
Tactics of scientific controversy.
Scientific discussion is understood as a special method of cognition, the essence of which is the discussion and development of opposing ideas in order to reveal the truth or achieve general agreement. A scientific dispute arises when there is a significant difference in the views of the interlocutors, while each of them seeks to defend his own opinion. The logical aspect of the dispute- proof or refutation. dispute mechanism- one person puts forward some thesis and tries to substantiate its truth, the other attacks this thesis and tries to refute its truth. scientific dispute- rational. It takes place if: 1) there is a dispute; 2) there is a real opposite of the points of view of the parties regarding the subject of the dispute; 3) the general basis of the dispute is presented (principles, provisions that are recognized, shared by both parties); 4) there is some knowledge about the subject of the dispute; 5) respect for the interlocutor is expected. Dispute rules for "talkers":- benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor; - courtesy towards the listener; - modesty in self-assessments, unobtrusiveness; - following the logic of the text deployment; - brevity of the statement; - skillful use of auxiliary means. Dispute rules for "listeners":- the ability to listen; - patient and friendly attitude towards the speaker; - giving the speaker the opportunity to express themselves; - emphasizing interest in the speaker.
Science as a process of obtaining new knowledge.
The science- this is a human activity in the development, systematization and verification of knowledge. Knowledge allows you to explain and understand the processes under study, to make predictions for the future and relevant scientific recommendations. Science is the basis for the formation of an industrial society. Science has moved away from ordinary knowledge but cannot exist without it. Science finds in everyday knowledge material for further processing, without which it cannot do. modern science The science- a necessary consequence of the social division of labor, it arises after the separation of mental labor from physical. Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution there is a new radical restructuring of science as a system. In order for science to meet the needs of modern production, it turns into a social institution, so that scientific knowledge becomes the property of a large army of specialists, organizers, engineers and workers. If before science developed as separate part social whole, now it begins to permeate all spheres of life. The main thing appointment scientific activity- obtaining knowledge about reality. Humanity has been accumulating them for a long time. However, most of the modern knowledge has been obtained in just the last two centuries. Such unevenness is due to the fact that it was during this period in science that its many possibilities were revealed. The science- this is: 1. One of the forms of social consciousness. 2. Designation for individual branches of knowledge. 3. A social institution that: - integrates and coordinates the cognitive activity of many people; - arranges social relations in the scientific sphere of public life. 4. A special type of human cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systematically organized and substantiated knowledge about the world. Functions of Science in society: - description, - explanation, - prediction of the processes and phenomena of the surrounding world, based on the laws it discovers. Scientific knowledge:- subject, objective and systematized way of viewing the world; - goes beyond "direct practice and experience". The truth of knowledge at the level of scientific knowledge is verified using special logical procedures for obtaining and substantiating knowledge, methods of proving and refuting it.
Man, which consists in collecting data about the world, then in their systematization and analysis and, based on the above, in the synthesis of new knowledge. Also in the field of science is the promotion of hypotheses and theories, as well as their further confirmation or refutation with the help of experiments.
Science appeared when writing appeared. When five thousand years ago, some ancient Sumerian carved pictograms on a stone, where he depicted how his leader attacked a tribe of ancient Jews, and how many cows he took away, history was born.
Then he knocked out more and more useful facts about livestock, about the stars and the moon, about the construction of a cart and a hut; and newborns of biology, astronomy, physics and architecture, medicine and mathematics appeared.
AT modern form sciences began to be distinguished after the 17th century. Before that, as soon as they were not called - craft, writing, being, life and other near-scientific terms. And the sciences themselves were more different types of techniques and technologies. The main driving force behind the development of science are scientific and industrial revolutions. For example, the invention of the steam engine gave a powerful impetus to the development of science in the 18th century and caused the first scientific and technological revolution.
Classification of sciences.
There have been many attempts to classify sciences. Aristotle, if not the first, then one of the first, divided the sciences into theoretical knowledge, practical knowledge and creative. Modern classification Sciences also divides them into three types:
- Natural Sciences, that is, the sciences of natural phenomena, objects and processes (biology, geography, astronomy, physics, chemistry, mathematics, geology, etc.). For the most part, the natural sciences are responsible for the accumulation of experience and knowledge about nature and man. The scientists who collected the primary data were called natural scientists.
- Technical science- sciences responsible for the development of engineering and technology, as well as for the practical application of the knowledge accumulated by the natural sciences (agronomy, computer science, architecture, mechanics, electrical engineering).
- Social and Human Sciences- sciences about a person, society (psychology, philology, sociology, political science, history, cultural studies, linguistics, as well as social science, etc.).
The functions of science.
Researchers identify four social functions of science:
- Cognitive. It consists in the knowledge of the world, its laws and phenomena.
- educational. It consists not only in training, but also in social motivation, the development of values.
- cultural. Science is a public good and a key element of human culture.
- Practical. The function of producing material and social benefits, as well as applying knowledge in practice.
Speaking of science, it is worth mentioning such a term as "pseudoscience" (or "pseudoscience").
Pseudoscience - This is a type of activity that depicts scientific activity, but is not it. Pseudoscience may arise as:
- fight against official science (ufology);
- delusions due to lack of scientific knowledge (graphology, for example. And yes: it's still not a science!);
- element of creativity (humor). (See Discovery's "Brainbreakers").
Science includes scientists with their knowledge and abilities, scientific institutions and has as its task the study (on the basis of certain methods of cognition) of the objective laws of nature, society and thinking in order to foresee and transform reality in the interests of society. [Burgen M.S. Introduction to the modern exact methodology of science. Structures of knowledge systems. M.: 1994].
On the other hand, science is also a story about what exists in this world and, in principle, can be, but what “should be” in the world in social terms, it does not say - leaving it for choice by the “majority” humanity.
Scientific activity includes the following elements: subject (scientists), object (all states of being of nature and man), goal (goals) - as a complex system of expected results of scientific activity, means (methods of thinking, scientific instruments, laboratories), final product ( indicator of scientific activity carried out - scientific knowledge), social conditions (organization of scientific activity in society), activity of the subject - without the initiative actions of scientists, scientific communities, scientific creativity cannot be realized.
Today, the goals of science are diverse - this is a description, explanation, prediction, interpretation of those processes and phenomena that have become its objects (subjects), as well as the systematization of knowledge and the implementation of the results obtained in management, production and other areas of public life, in improving its quality.
Science is not only a form of social consciousness aimed at an objective reflection of the world and providing humanity with an understanding of patterns. Science, in fact, is a social phenomenon, its beginnings appeared in antiquity, about 2.5 thousand years ago. An important prerequisite for the formation of science as a social institution is the systematic education of the younger generation.
In ancient Greece, scientists organized philosophical schools, such as Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, and engaged in research of their own free will. In the famous Pythagorean Union, founded by Pythagoras, young people had to spend the whole day at school under the supervision of teachers and obey the rules of social life.
The social stimulus for the development of science was the growing capitalist production, which required new natural resources and machines. Science was needed as the productive force of society. If ancient Greek science was a speculative study (translated from Greek, “theory” means speculation), little connected with practical problems, then only in the 17th century. science began to be regarded as a means of ensuring the dominance of man over nature. Rene Descartes wrote:
“It is possible, instead of speculative philosophy, which only in retrospect conceptually dissects a pre-given truth, to find one that directly proceeds to being and steps on it so that we gain knowledge about power ... Then ... realize and apply this knowledge for all the purposes for which they are suitable, and thus this knowledge (these new ways of representation) will make us the masters and possessors of nature ”(Descartes R. Reasoning about the method. Izbr. Proizvod. M., 1950, p. 305).
It was in Western Europe that science arose as a social institution in the 17th century. and began to claim a certain autonomy, i.e. there was a recognition of the social status of science. In 1662, the Royal Society of London was founded, and in 1666, the Paris Academy of Sciences.
Important prerequisites for such recognition can be seen in the creation of medieval monasteries, schools and universities. The first universities of the Middle Ages date back to the 12th century, but they were dominated by a religious paradigm of worldview, teachers were representatives of religion. Secular influence penetrates the universities only after 400 years.
As a social institution, science includes not only a system of knowledge and scientific activity, but also a system of relations in science (scientists create and enter into various social relations), scientific institutions and organizations.
Institute (from Latin institut - establishment, device, custom) implies a complex of norms, principles, rules, behaviors that regulate human activity and is woven into the functioning of society; this phenomenon is above the individual level, its norms and values prevail over individuals acting within its framework. R. Merton is considered to be the founder of this institutional approach in science. The concept of "social institution" reflects the degree of fixation of a particular type of human activity - there are political, social, religious institutions, as well as institutions of the family, school, marriage, etc.
The methods of social organization of scientists are subject to change, and this is due both to the peculiarities of the development of science itself and to changes in its social status in society. Science as a social institution depends on other social institutions that provide the necessary material and social conditions for its development. Institutionality provides support for those activities and those projects that contribute to the strengthening of a particular value system.
The social conditions of science are a set of elements of the organization of scientific activity in society, the state. These include: the need of society and the state for true knowledge, the creation of a network of scientific institutions (academies, ministries, research institutes and associations), public and private financial support for science, material and energy support, communication (publishing monographs, journals, holding conferences), training of scientific personnel.
Currently none of scientific institutes does not preserve and does not embody in its structure principles of dialectical materialism or biblical revelation, as well as the connection of science with parascientific types of knowledge.
Modern science is characterized by the transformation of scientific activity into a special profession. An unwritten rule in this profession is the prohibition of turning to the authorities in order to use the mechanism of coercion and subordination in resolving scientific problems. A scientist is required to constantly confirm his professionalism, through an objective assessment system (publications, academic degrees), and through public recognition (titles, awards), i.e. the requirement of scientific competence becomes the leading one for a scientist, and only professionals or groups of professionals can be arbitrators and experts in evaluating the results of scientific research. Science assumes the function of translating the personal achievements of a scientist into a collective property.
But until the end of the 19th century. for the vast majority of scientists, scientific activity was not the main source of their material support. As a rule, scientific research was carried out at universities, and scientists supported themselves by paying for their teaching work. One of the first scientific laboratories that brought significant income was the laboratory created by the German chemist J. Liebig in 1825. The first award for scientific research (the Copley medal) was approved by the Royal Society of London in 1731.
Since 1901, the Nobel Prize has been the highest prestigious award in the field of physics, chemistry, medicine and physiology. The history of the Nobel Prizes is described in the book The Testament of Alfred Nobel. The first Nobel Prize winner (1901) in the field of physics was V.K. Roentgen (Germany) for the discovery of the rays named after him.
Today, science cannot do without the help of society and the state. In developed countries today, 2-3% of the total GNP is spent on science. But often commercial interests, the interests of politicians influence the priorities in the field of scientific and technical research today. Society encroaches on the choice of research methods, and even on the evaluation of the results.
The institutional approach to the development of science is now one of the dominant ones in the world. And although its main shortcomings are considered to be the exaggeration of the role of formal moments, insufficient attention to the basics of people's behavior, the rigid prescriptive nature of scientific activity, ignoring informal development opportunities, however, the compliance of members of the scientific community with the norms and values accepted in science is supplemented ethos of science as an important characteristic of the institutional understanding of science. According to Merton, the following features of scientific ethos should be distinguished:
Universalism- the objective nature of scientific knowledge, the content of which does not depend on who and when it was received, only reliability is important, confirmed by accepted scientific procedures;
Collectivism- the universal nature of scientific work, which implies the publicity of scientific results, their public domain;
Unselfishness, due to the common goal of science - the comprehension of truth (without considerations of a prestigious order, personal gain, mutual responsibility, competition, etc.);
Organized skepticism- a critical attitude towards oneself and the work of one's colleagues, nothing is taken for granted in science, and the moment of denying the results obtained is considered as an element of scientific research.
scientific norms. In science, there are certain norms and ideals of scientific character, their own standards of research work, and although they are historically changeable, they still retain a certain invariant of such norms, due to the unity of the style of thinking formulated back in ancient Greece. It is customary to call him rational. This style of thinking is based essentially on two fundamental ideas:
Natural order, i.e. recognition of the existence of universal, regular and accessible to reason causal relationships;
Formal proof as the main means of justifying knowledge.
Within the rational style of thinking, scientific knowledge is characterized by the following methodological criteria (norms). It is these norms of scientific character that are constantly included in the standard of scientific knowledge.
versatility, i.e. exclusion of any specifics - place, time, subject, etc.
- consistency or consistency, provided by the deductive way of deploying the knowledge system;
- simplicity; a theory that explains the widest possible range of phenomena, based on the minimum number of scientific principles, is considered good;
- explanatory potential;
- having predictive power.
Scientific criteria. For science, the following question is always relevant: what kind of knowledge is really scientific? In natural science, character is of the utmost importance. the validity of the theory by empirical facts .
When characterizing a natural science theory, it is not the term "truth" that is used, but the term "verifiability". The scientist must strive for the accuracy of expressions and not use ambiguous terms. The main criterion for the scientific character of natural science in this regard is the verifiability of the theory. The terms "truth", "truth" have a broader interpretation and are used in natural science, in the humanities, in logic, and in mathematics, and in religion, i.e. he does not express the specifics of natural science in comparison with the term "confirmability", which is of paramount importance for natural science.
In the humanities theories are ranked according to their effectiveness .
In the XX century. define two requirements of scientific knowledge:
1) knowledge should allow understanding the studied phenomena,
2) to carry out retrotelling of the past and prediction of the future about them.
These requirements are met by the natural sciences through concepts. hypothetical-deductive method and based on the criterion of confirmation , and the humanities - thanks to reliance on value representations, pragmatic method and performance criteria - which are the three main scientific foundations of the humanities.