Russian language spelling. Moscow State University of Printing Arts
Russian spelling
Russian spelling- a set of rules governing the spelling of words in the Russian language.
Modern Russian spelling.
The main principle of modern orthography of the Russian language is the morphological principle (the same morpheme in phonetically different forms words are spelled the same). Phonetic and other principles in the Russian language are of much lesser importance and are not the main ones. Simultaneous violations of both principles occur in words like shearless, bad taste.
The Russian alphabet, which is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, is used as the alphabet.
Story
Initially, individual spellings dominated the language. One of the most early writings on the theory of spelling is the work of V. K. Trediakovsky, published in 1748, where the principles for constructing the alphabet and spelling are formulated, which even the modern Russian alphabet well corresponds to. M. V. Lomonosov in the "Russian Grammar", published in 1755, which was widely distributed and long years used to teach the Russian language, published spelling rules and fundamental principles such as ease of reading for everyone, proximity to the three main Russian dialects, proximity to morphology and pronunciation: 12-15. The first academic dictionary of the Russian language was published in 1784-1794.
Enough full review spelling rules in their historical perspective was carried out by J. K. Grot in 1873. He considered the main principle to be morphological in combination, to some extent, with phonetic written forms. Subsequently, the primacy of the morphological principle (as opposed to phonetic) in Russian spelling was pointed out by A. N. Gvozdev, A. I. Thomson, M. N. Peterson, D. N. Ushakov: 17-30.
In 1904, a special commission on spelling was created at the Academy of Sciences. Its subcommittee, which included such famous scientists as A. A. Shakhmatov, F. F. Fortunatov, I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, A. I. Sobolevsky, began preparing a spelling reform. The final draft of the reform was ready by 1912, the proposed changes were implemented six years later, with the Russian Spelling Reform of 1918: 262-263. Until 1918, the Russian alphabet had more letters than now. As a result of the reform of 1918, the letters yat, fita, izhitsa, and decimal were removed from the endings of words.
In 1956, the Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation of 1956 were adopted, which changed the spelling of some words and regulated the use of the letter.
Subsequently, under the leadership of V.V. Lopatin, some changes in the rules were put forward, partially reflected in the spelling dictionary edited by him.
The most important rules
Spelling of vowels at the root of words
Unstressed vowels that can be stressedst about ly - st about l
m about l about doi - m about lodost, they say about daytime
to about ditch, to about role, region a ko, b about lotto
In the roots and - and
C and pk, c and rkul, c and tata, c and nga, c and fra … and other borrowed words
Exception words: c s gan on c s kidneys approached s film and c s yelled: "ts s c".
In suffixes and endings - c s - s
Lisitsyn, Kuritsyn; streets
1) w and, sh and - and
h a, sch a - a
h at, sch at - at
AND and know, h a shcha, h at before …
2) After hissing - yo:
H yo rny, w yo light, w yo lx, h yo mouth ...
Exception words: about sh about h, w about roch, capyush about n, krush about n, kryzh about penetrated, sh about ce, sh about colade, w about kay, obj about ra, live about rliv, w about ngler, h about porn, crack about weaving, weaving about ba, sh about mouths, sh about rnik, sh about mpol, sh about vinism, sh about k, w about ra, thicket about ba, h about whipped, h about roll, h about x, h about hom, w about m, f about r, f about x, vech about p, maj about p, maj about rny.
Alternating e - and, o - a at the root of the word1) b e r - b and ra-
t e r - t and ra-
d e r - d and ra-
P e r - p and ra-
m e r - m and ra-
st e l - st and la-
bl e st - bl and become
and e mrs. and ha-
d e ret - sd and breaks
st e pour - zast and layet
mind e p - mind and army
bl e stit - bl and becomes
Exception words: Op. e tânie, op e lingering, word e tânie
2) K about from - to a câ-
l about w - l a ha-
to about sleep - to a sit down
izl about zhenie - izl a goat
Exception word: floor about G
3) P about With - about
R a st - r a sch - a
exp about s, ex a sti, vyr a whelping
Exception words: Raboutstock, Raboutstislav, Raboutstov, raboutseamstress, otrasl
4) M about to - m a to
you m about kick in the rain
m a pour into liquid
5) P about vn - r a ext
R about out - r a clear
(smooth - same)
exp about heed - ur a opinion
Exception word: R a vnina
6) g about r - g a R
zag a r, g about rit
7) h about r - h a R
h a rya, s about ri, z a revo.
Spelling of consonants at the root of words
Deaf and unpronounceable consonants, which can be checked by changing the word or choosing a single-root, in which after the checked consonant there is a vowel or c, l, m, n, p, d1. Table b- table b s
jelly d b - zhelu d and.
2. Gla h ki-gla h threads
ska h ka - ska h points.
3. Zdra in stuy - hello in ie
months t ness - month t about.
Yo and O after sizzling
- Always ё: (n.) bees, bangs, rosaries, acorns, brushes; (adj.) yellow, black, crisp, silky; (vb) walked.
- Exception words: (n.) seam, rustle, hood, gooseberry, shock, shorts, chauvinism, slum, saddler, chokh, pulp, zhor, glutton, burn, ramrod, hood, ratchet, thicket, major; (adj.) gluttonous, prudish, crazy, major; (vb) clink glasses; (adv.) chohom, evening.
In suffix:
- Usually it is written o under stress, without stress - e: (n.) galch onok, hare onok, mouse onok, bear onok, circle OK, wolch OK and bell ek; (adj.) hedgehog ov oh, brocade ov th, canvas ov th and beige ev th; (adv.) hot about, fresh about, good about and smelly e.
- However: (verb) demarcation yov vyvat; (adj.) burn yonn oh, bewitch yonn th.
- Exception word: yet yo.
At the end:
- Usually under stress is written o, without stress - e: (n.) knife ohm, candle oh, doctor ohm and watchman eat, cottages her; (adj.) big wow and good his.
- However: (vb) guard et, live et, oven et.
Difficulties
Among the difficulties of mastering Russian spelling:
- Continuous or separate spelling of nouns with a prefix that turns into adverbs is not regulated strict rules, and is defined by the dictionary ( satiety, but to death; in half, but thirds; in addition, but Finally, on dry land, but by sea).
- Writing about or yo after hissing and c inconsistently: arson(noun) at set fire to(verb), pot at potter.
- The rule of writing "not" with verbs has many exceptions: to hate, to hate, to dislike, to dislike, to miss and etc.
- Writing forms of the word "go" (root - and-) is only defined by the dictionary: go, but come and I will come. The same with the forms of the root - them-/-eat-/-I-: understand, but I will accept, I'll take and take out.
- Unpronounceable, but verifiable consonants are sometimes written, sometimes not, without a special system: “sun”, “hello”, but “pull”, “led”, “potter”.
- The double consonant at the junction of the prefix and the root is sometimes reflected in the letter, sometimes not, without a special system: “pull”, “ring”, “anticipation”, but “open”, “open”.
- A number of exceptions in the spelling "ci" / "qi" ( number, but chick), conjugation of verbs with alternation a/about fundamentally ( grow, but increased; gallop, but burn down; bow, but to worship), writing double n in full adjectives and participles, etc.
Features of spelling compound words
Some compound words violate the rules of Russian graphics:
- words like "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz" (read "Hitler Youth" and "Inyaz");
- words like "telavivets", "costutil" and "mezzanine" (it reads "telyavivets", "costutil" and "beletage").
Criticism
The spelling of the Russian language has been repeatedly criticized by various writers and scholars. A number of opinions were collected by J. K. Grot in the book “Controversial Issues of Russian Spelling from Peter the Great to the Present” (1873). Y. K. Grot himself defended the letter yat, considering it important for distinguishing words, despite the fact that such words were not distinguished in the capital dialects of the oral Russian language. The changes in the standard of writing that have been proposed in this book have been very modest, without affecting commonly used cases with already established spellings. However, for comparatively rare words(for example, “ham”, “wedding”, “cuttlefish”) there was a violation of the morphological nature of their spelling (instead of “vyadchina”, “marriage”, “cuttlefish”).
V. V. Lopatin suggested writing in words like laden, dyed, fried, sheared, wounded always the same n regardless of whether they have syntactically subordinate words or not.
see also
Notes
Literature
- Panov M.V. And yet she's good! : A story about Russian spelling, its advantages and disadvantages / USSR Academy of Sciences .. - M .: Nauka, 1964. - 168 p. - (Popular science series). - 35,000 copies.(reg.)
- Grigoryeva T. M. Three centuries of Russian orthography (XVIII - XX centuries). - M .: Elpis, 2004. - 456 p. - 1,000 copies. - ISBN 5-902872-03-0(in trans.)
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58. Principles of Russian spelling, spelling
SPELLING - a system of spelling rules. The main sections of spelling:
- writing morphemes in various parts of speech,
- continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling of words,
- the use of uppercase and lowercase letters,
- hyphenation.
Principles of Russian spelling. The leading principle of Russian orthography is the morphological principle, the essence of which is that morphemes common to related words retain a single outline in writing, and in speech they can change depending on phonetic conditions. This principle applies to all morphemes: roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings.
Also, on the basis of the morphological principle, a uniform spelling of words related to a certain grammatical form is drawn up. For example, ь (soft sign) is a formal sign of the infinitive.
The second principle of Russian spelling is phonetic spelling, i.e. words are spelled the way they are heard. An example is the spelling of prefixes on z-s (incompetent - restless) or a change in the root of the initial and on s after prefixes ending in a consonant (play).
There is also a differentiating spelling (cf.: burn (n.) - burn (vb)) and traditional spelling (the letter and after the letters zh, sh, ts - live, sew).
A spelling is a case of choice where 1, 2, or more different spellings are possible. It is also a spelling following the spelling rules.
The spelling rule is the spelling rule of the Russian language, which spelling should be chosen depending on the language conditions.
59. Use uppercase and lower case .
cursive letter | lowercase letter |
| - It is written at the beginning of a sentence, paragraph, text (I want to go for a walk. When I do my homework, I will go outside.) - It is written at the beginning of a direct speech (She said: "Come in, please.") | - It is written in the middle and at the end of the word (mother, Russia). - It is written in the middle of a sentence if the word is not a proper name or some kind of name (He arrived late at night). |
| Written with a capital letter | Written with a lowercase letter |
Names of institutions and organizations, incl. international ( The State Duma, United Nations), | - names of ranks, ranks (lieutenant Popov), - the words comrade, citizen, mister, mister, etc. (Mr. Brown, Citizen Petrov) |
60. Word hyphenation rules
- Words are carried by syllables (ma-ma, ba-ra-ban),
- It is impossible to separate the consonant from the subsequent vowel (he-ro "th),
- You can’t put aside on a line or transfer part of a syllable (nothing, nothing - right; empty-yak (wrong),
- You can’t leave one vowel on a line or transfer it, even if it represents a whole syllable (ana-to-miya is right; a-to-mi-ya is wrong),
- It is impossible to tear off b (soft sign) and b (hard sign) from the previous consonant (detour, less),
- The letter and does not come off the previous vowel (rayon),
- When combining several consonants, transfer options are possible (se-stra, ses-tra, sister-ra); in such cases, such a transfer is preferable, in which the morphemes are not parsed (squeeze).
61. Spelling of vowels in the root.
If at the root the vowel is in a weak (unstressed) position, then in writing there is a problem of choosing which letter to write.
- If you can pick up a related word or change the word so that this vowel is stressed, then such a vowel is called tested. For example, pillars - one hundred "lb; reconcile (friends) - mi" r.
- If an unstressed vowel cannot be checked by stress, then such vowels are called unverifiable, and the spelling of words with such vowels must be memorized or checked using a spelling dictionary (potato "fel, elixi" r).
- Russian has a number of roots with alternating vowels. As a rule, the vowel that is heard is written under stress; the choice of a letter in an unstressed position depends on certain conditions:
- from the accent:
Gargor: under stress it is written a (zaga "r, razga" r), without stress - o (tanned "lyy, burnt out), exceptions: you" garki, and "burn, with" burn;
Zar-zor: without stress it is written a (zarni "tsa, illumine" t), under stress - what is heard (zorka, for the "roar"), exception: dawn "t;
Clan-clone: without stress it is written about (bow down, bow down), under stress - what is heard (bow down, bow down);
Creature: without stress, it is written about (create "be, create", under stress - what is heard (your "rchestvo, tva" r), exception: y "creature;
- from subsequent letters or combinations of letters:
Cascos: if the root is followed by a consonant n, then it is written o (to touch, touch), in other cases it is written a (tangential, touch);
Lag lie: before r it is written a (attach, adjective), before w it is written o (application, suggest), exceptions: by "log;
Rast- (-rasch-) - grew up: before st and u it is written a (grow", nara" shchivag), before c it is written o (for "growth, you" grew up), exceptions: o "branch, growth" k, you "rostok, usurers" to. Rosto "in;
Skak-skoch: before k it is written a (jump "be"), before h it is written o (you "jump"), exceptions: jump "to, jump";
- From the presence or absence of the suffix -a- after the root:
Ver-vir-, -der-dir, -mer-mir, -per-feast, -ter-tir, -blest-blist, -zheg-zhig, -stel- became, -chet-chit: before the suffix -a- it is written and (to collect, to light, to lay, to lay), in other cases it is written e (bleat, to light, to), exceptions; to combine, to combine;
Roots with alternation a (i) - im (in): before the suffix -a- it is written im (in) (hush "th, clamp" th), in other cases it is written a (th) (hush "b, clamp" t) ;
- from value:
Mak-mok: -mak- is used in the meaning of "immerse in liquid, make wet" (poppy "to put bread into milk), -mok - in the meaning of" pass liquid "(boots get wet");
Equal-equal: -ravt- is used in the meaning of “equal, identical, on a par” (equal, equal), -equal - in the meaning of “smooth, straight, smooth” (y “level, level”);
- -float-float-float: o is written only in the words pilaf "ts and swimmers" ha, s - only in the word quicksand", in all other cases it is written I (llavu "honor, float" k).
62. Spelling of vowels after hissing and C.
- After the hissing consonants zh, h, sh, u, the vowels a, y, and are written, and the vowels i, u, s (thicket, bold) are never written. This rule does not apply to words of foreign origin (parachute) and compound words in which any combination of letters is possible (Interbureau).
- Under stress after hissing, it is written in, if you can pick up related words or another form of this word, where e is written (yellow - yellowness); if this condition is not met, then it is written about (to clink glasses, rustle).
- It is necessary to distinguish the noun burn and its related words from the past tense verb burn and its related words.
- A fluent vowel sound under stress after hissing is indicated by the letter o (sheath - knife "n").
Spelling of vowels after c.
- At the root after c is written and (civilization, mat); exceptions: gypsies, tiptoe, tsyts, chicks are their cognates.
- The letters i, u are written after ts only in proper names of non-Russian origin (Zurich).
- Under stress after c, it is written o (tso "cat").
Choice of vowels; and or e.
- In foreign words, e (adequate) is usually written; exceptions: mayor, peer, sir and their derivatives.
- If the root begins with the letter e, then it is preserved even after the prefixes or cut by the first part of the compound word (save, three-story).
- After the vowel, e (requiem) is written, after the remaining vowels - e (maestro).
The letter and is written at the beginning of foreign words (iodine, yoga).
63. Spelling of consonants in the root.
- In order to check dubious voiced and deaf consonants, you need to choose such a form or a related word so that these consonants stand in a strong position (before a vowel or sonorant (l, m, and, p)) sound: a fairy tale - to say.
- If a dubious consonant cannot be checked, then its spelling must be remembered or found in a spelling dictionary. ;
- Double consonants are written:
- at the junction of morphemes: prefixes and root (tell), root and suffix (long),
- at the junction of two parts of compound words (maternity hospital),
- in words that you need to remember or determine from a spelling dictionary (reins, yeast, burning, buzz, juniper and words of the same root; words of foreign origin (for example, group, class) and derivatives from them (group, class). - In order to check the spelling of words with unpronounceable consonants that have a combination of letters vet, zdn, ndsk, ntsk, stl, stn, etc. it is necessary to choose such a single-root word or change the form of the word in such a way that after the first or second consonant there is a vowel (sad - to be sad, whistle - whistle); exceptions: flash (although "glisten"), stairs (although "ladder"), splash (although "splash"), bottle (although "glass").
64. Spelling prefixes.
- The spelling of some prefixes must be remembered, they do not change under any conditions (to convey, carry, bring, etc.). The prefix s- also belongs to these prefixes, which is voiced in speech before voiced consonants, but does not change in writing (run away, do).
- In prefixes on e-s (without- - demon-, woz (vz) - - sun- (sun-), from- - is-, bottom- - nis-, times- (rose-) - races (ros- ), through- (through-) - worm- (through-)) is written z before eaon-, which consonants or vowels (anhydrous, flare up), and before deaf consonants it is written with (limitless, rise up).
- Of particular difficulty is the writing of prefixes pre- - pre-. Basically, their difference is based on their lexical meaning.
The prefix pre- is used in the meaning:
- a high degree of quality (it can be replaced by the words "very", "very"): exaggerated (= "very enlarged"), preinteresting (= "very interesting");
- “through”, “in a different way” (this meaning is close to the meaning of the prefix re-): transgress (= “cross over”).
The prefix pri- is used in the meaning:
- spatial proximity (suburban, border);
- approaching, joining (approach, sail);
- incompleteness of action (cover up, stop);
- bringing the action to the end (nail, knock);
- committing an act in someone's interests (hide).
In some words, the pre- and pre-prefixes stand out and the spelling of such words must be remembered: stay (meaning "to be in some place or state"), despise (meaning "hate"), neglect, president (the word foreign origin); device, order, charity (meaning "care"), etc.
4. If the prefix ends with a consonant, and the root begins with a vowel and, then instead of and it is written s (pre-June, to play); exceptions:
- compound words (pedagogical institute), -charge,
- prefixes inter- and super- (inter-institutional, super interesting),
- the word "two-pulse", etc.
- foreign prefixes dez-, counter-, post-, super-, trans-, pan- (counterplay, subindex).
65. Spelling of dividing b and b Spelling of dividing b (solid sign).
1. Separating b (solid sign) is written before the vowels e, e, u, i:
- after a prefix ending in a consonant: entrance, detour;
- in words of foreign origin after prefixes ending in a consonant (ab-, ad-, diz-, in-, inter-, con-, counter-, ob-, sub-, per-, trans-) or after a compound particle pan- : adjutant, trans-European;
- in compound words, the first part of which is the numerals two-, three-, four-: two-tier, three-story;
2. This rule does not apply to compound words: children.
Spelling dividing b (soft sign).
Separating b (soft sign) is written:
- inside the word before the vowels e, e, u, i: peasant, blizzard;
- in some words of foreign origin before the letter o: medallion, champignon.
Spelling of vowels after hissing and q in suffixes and endings.
1. In the endings and suffixes of nouns, adjectives and suffixes of adverbs under stress after hissing and q, it is written o, without stress - e (knife "m, big" go, book "nka, end" m, ring "vy-vat; NO ekila "we press, p" look for, red "zhego, merchants" vtsev, ring "th).
2. After hissing under stress, yo is written:
- in the endings of verbs (neighing, lying),
- in the suffix of the verb -yovyva- (uproot),
- in the noun suffix -ёr- (trainee),
- in the suffix of verbal nouns -yovk- (uprooting),
- with the suffix of passive participles -yon (n) - (slain, harnessed),
- in the suffix of verbal adjectives (zhzhёny) and in words derived from these adjectives (zhzhenka),
- in the pronoun about what,
- words and, by no means.
66. Spelling of nouns.
Spelling of endings in nouns:
- in masculine and neuter nouns, in which a vowel is written before the case ending and, in an unstressed position in P.p. the ending -i is written; for feminine nouns, this rule applies to D.l. and P.p.; I.p. militia, genius, blade R.p. militia, genius, blade D.P. militia, genius, blade V.p. militia, genius, blade etc. militia, genius, P.P. blade about the police, about the genius, about the blade
- in neuter nouns ending in -e in P.p. e is written without stress, and under stress - and: about happiness, in oblivion;
- in nouns ending in -ni with a preceding consonant or and in Gen.p. plural ь (soft sign) is not written at the end: bedroom - bedrooms; exceptions: young ladies, villages, hawks, kitchens.
- in nouns with -ov, -ev, -ev, yn, in, denoting Russian surnames, in Tv.p. singular the ending -im is written, and in nouns na-ov, -in, denoting foreign surnames. -end-om: Ivanov, but Darwin.
- nouns in -ov, -ev, -ii, yn, -ovo, -ino, ыно, denoting the names of residential POINTS, have in T.p. ending -om: near Lvov, behind Khotkovo;
- if the noun with the suffix -isch- is masculine or neuter, then the ending -e is written, if it is feminine - -a: a swamp is a swamp, but a hand is a hand;
- animate nouns with suffixes - ushk-, -yushk-, -im-, -ishk- masculine and feminine nouns with the same suffixes in I.l. have an ending-a: dolyushka, grandfather; inanimate masculine nouns and all neuter nouns with these suffixes end in -o: bread, house;
- in neuter nouns, after the suffix -a-, the letter o is written: chisel, and in animate masculine and neuter nouns - a: chisel.
Spelling of noun suffixes:
1. If the suffix -ik- (-chik-) is written in a noun, then it is also preserved in indirect cases, and if the suffix -ek- (-chek-) is written, then in indirect cases e alternates with zero sound (cf .: piece - piece, finger - finger);
2. In masculine nouns, the suffix -ets- is written, in feminine nouns - the suffix -its-, and in neuter nouns -ets- is written if the stress falls on the ending and -its- if the stress falls on the syllable before the suffix ( cf .: handsome man (m.r.) - beauty (zh.r.) - letter "(cf.r.) - dress" tie;
3. The diminutive suffix -ink- is written in nouns formed from feminine nouns ending in -ina (scratch - scratch, straw - straw); BUT in words denoting females (for example, a refugee, a Frenchwoman), the combination -eik- is written (there is no diminutive meaning);
4. The combination -enk- is also written in words formed from nouns ending in -na or -nya, and not having ь (soft sign) at the end of the word in the genitive plural (cherry - cherries - cherry);
note: if nouns in -na, -nya have the plural at the end of ь (soft sign) in the genitive case, then the combination -enk- (kitchen - kitchen - kitchenette) is written;
5. In affectionate suffixes -one- (written after hard consonants) and -enk- (written after soft consonants, less often after hard ones) after n is written b (soft sign) (for example, kitty, Nadenka),
note: in modern Russian there are no suffixes -ynye-, -other-, -ank-, words with such suffixes are found only in works of art up to the 19th century inclusive and in folklore (for example, lolosynka, Nadinka; cf. modern striped, Nadenka ), Exceptions: good-bye, hare, good-bye (suffix -other-);
6. The suffix -yshk is written in neuter nouns (sun-sun, feather-feather); the suffix -ushk- is written in masculine and feminine nouns (neighbor - neighbor, head - little head); the suffix-yushk-is written in nouns of all genders, formed from nouns pine into a soft consonant (field - field, uncle - uncle); some masculine nouns are formed with the help of suffixes -yshek-, eshek-, ears- (wedges, peg, spools, pimples, sparrows; pebble, edge; the words sparrow, pebble are used in folk, colloquial speech);
7. With nouns denoting people by the nature of their activity, the suffix -chik- is written before the consonants d, t, a, s, f (translator, lbtchik, defector, etc.), and in all other cases the suffix -chik- is written (compositor, typesetter);
note 1: in some words of foreign origin, after t, the suffix -shchik- (flute player, asphalt worker) is written,
note 2: ь (soft sign) is written before the suffix -shchik- only after the consonant l (roofer),
note 3: if the stem ends with the consonants k, c, h, then before the suffix -chik- they are replaced by the consonant t (distribution - distributor);
8. In many female patronymics[ishna] is heard, but it is written -ichna (Ilyinichna, Fominichna).
67. Spelling of adjectives. Spelling of the endings of adjectives.
declension of qualitative and relative adjectives; declension of possessive adjectives with a base on j (for example, fox, bearish); declension of possessive adjectives with suffixes -in-, (-th-), -ov- (-ev-): Lisitsyn, mother.
In the plural, the endings of all genera are the same.
| 1 type | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | cheerful, early | cheerful, early | fun, early |
| pl. number | funny, early | |||
| type 2 | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fox | fox | fox |
| pl. number | I.p. | fox | ||
| 3 type | ||||
masculine | feminine | neuter gender |
||
| units number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | father, sister | paternal, sisterly |
| pl. number | I.p. | fathers, sisters | ||
Note: accusative case of adjectives in masculine The singular coincides with the genitive case if the adjective refers to an animate noun or pronoun, and with the nominative if the adjective depends on an inanimate noun or pronoun.
- Russians male surnames on -ov (-ev), -in (-yn) in instrumental singular have the ending -y (as well as short adjectives): Pushkin - Pushkin.
- Geographical names ending in -ov, -ev, -yno, -ino, -yn, -in, -ovo, -evo, in the instrumental case of the singular have an ending -om: under the city of Pushkin.
- Adjectives out-of-town, foreign-born, sub-native, suburban have in the nominative case of the singular the endings -y (-th, -ov), and the adjective out-of-town-endings - “i (-th, -ov).
- Adjectives in -yny in short form have the ending -"n (slender - well-built), an exception: worthy - worthy;
- It is possible to have a double spelling and pronunciation of the adjective boundless (-ya, -ee) - boundless (-th, -ov).
Spelling of suffixes imvn adjectives:
1. Under stress, the suffix -iv- is written, without stress - the suffix -ev- (cf.
2. With suffixes -chiv-, -liv- is always written and (ugly, arrogant);
3. Suffixes -ovat-, -ov-, -ovit- are written after hard consonants, and after soft consonants, after hissing and c, suffixes -evat-, -ev-, -vvit- are written (cf., greenish, business - glossy , bluish);
4. In adjectives ending in -chi, formed from nouns ending in -shka before h, under stress is written a, without stress - e (cf.
5. The letter u is written before the suffix -or- if the sound that it denotes belongs to one morpheme (for example, board - plank); if in the generating base before the suffix -k- there are letters hell, s, st, sh, then they are preserved in the new word, and k alternates with h (freckle - freckled);
6. If the base ends with ts, and the suffix begins with h, then ts alternates with t (tile - tiled);
7. Spelling of the suffix -sk-:
- if the stem ends in d or t, then before the suffix -sk- they are preserved (flesh - carnal, cattle - bestial);
- if the base ends in k, h, c, then after them the suffix -sk- is simplified and becomes simply -k-, and k and h change to c (fisherman - fisherman, weaver),
note: in some adjectives, the alternation of k, h with c does not occur (tajik - Tajik, Uglich - Uglich):
- if the stem of a word of foreign origin ends in sk, then before the suffix -sk-k it is omitted and the combination sec is obtained (San Francisco - San Francisco),
Exceptions: Basque, Oscan;
- if the stem ends in s, then it is omitted and only the combination of letters ck (Welsh-Welsh) is written,
- if the stem ends in se, then one s is omitted, since in Russian there cannot be a combination of trbx identical consonants (Odessa-Odessa);
- if the stem ends in -н or -р, then before the suffix -sk-b (the soft sign is omitted),
Exceptions: ь (soft sign) is written
- in adjectives formed from the names of the months (July - July),
- in adjectives formed from some foreign languages geographical names(Taiwanese),
- combined day-to-day,
8. Before the suffix -i-, the final consonants k, c turn into h, and x - into u (boredom - boring, bustle - hectic);
Spelling н and нн in adjective suffixes:
| 1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -in: swan; 2. In adjectives Formed with the help of suffixes -an- (-yan-): leather, silver), Exceptions: wooden, glass, pewter. 3. 8 short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -n- (slender - slender). | 1. In adjectives formed with the suffix -enn: straw, 2. In adjectives formed with the suffix -onn: organizational, 3. In adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from the base to n: sleepy, long. 4. In short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed have -in- (long - long). |
Note 1: They are written n in adjectives: spicy, crimson, rye, drunken, ruddy, young, green, windy, porky.
Note 2: Written windy, but windless.
Note 3. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives oily (for oil, in oil) and oily (soiled, soaked in oil); compare: oil stain - oily hands.
Note 4. It is necessary to distinguish between adjectives windy (day, person), windy (pump) and windy (chicken pox).
68. Spelling compound words.
1. Compound words can be formed using two simple basics, connected by a connecting vowel o (written after the stem to a hard consonant) or e (written after the stem to a soft consonant, hissing or c): whirlpool, birder.
2. Spelling of compound words without a connecting vowel:
- it is necessary to distinguish between compound words formed with the help of a connecting vowel (locomotive) and without it (psychasthenia;
- numerals in the genitive case are part of compound words without a connecting vowel (three-story, two-year);
- Prefixes of foreign origin are written together with the root: anti-, arch-, hyper-, inter-, infra-, counter-, post-, sub-, super-, trans-, ultra-, extra-anti-national, ultra-important, counterattack);
- words ending in -fication are not complex; before this combination of letters, and (gasification) is written.
3. Spelling of compound nouns:
a) are written together:
- compound nouns with the first part: auto-, agro-, aero-, bicycle-, helio-, geo-, hydro-, zoo-, io-, cinema-, stereo-, radio-, macro-, etc. (cinema, stereo system, radio station);
- compound nouns with the first part of the verb ending in and (dashmorda, daredevil),
Exception: tumbleweed;
- all compound words (Sberbank, Balt-fleet).
b) written with a hyphen
- compound nouns without a connecting vowel denoting scientific, technical and socio-political terms and names (stop crane, prime minister);
- names of intermediate directions of the world (southeast, northwest);
- complex owl, denoting the names of plants, having in their composition a verb in a personal form or a union (coltsfoot, love-dislike);
- words with foreign elements: ober-, untr-, life-, staff-, vice-, ex- (vice-president, non-commissioned officer).
4. Spelling of complex adjectives: a) are written together:
- adjectives formed from compound nouns written together (stereosystem - stereosystemic);
- compound adjectives formed from phrases where one word is subordinate to another ( Railway- railway);
- compound adjectives representing scientific and technical terms or belonging to book styles of speech (highly paid, thick-skinned, above);
- compound adjectives, the first part of which cannot be used in speech as an independent word;
b) are written with a hyphen:
- adjectives formed from compound nouns written with a hyphen (southeast-southeast);
- compound adjectives formed from a combination of proper names (Jack-Londonovsky, Petr-Petrovichev);
- compound adjectives formed from combinations of words with equal members connected by a coordinating link (convex-concave);
- complex adjectives denoting shades of colors (pale pink, blue-brown);
- compound adjectives denoting geographical or administrative names and having the first part of the word west-, south-, -hoo-, north-, north-, east- (East European Plain).
69. Spelling of numerals.
- Compound numerals are written together (thirty);
- Compound and fractional numbers are written separately (forty-five, three sevenths);
- Ordinal numbers that end in -thousandth, -millionth, -billionth are written together (thirty-thousandth);
- Numerals five-nineteen and twenty, thirty are written with ь (soft sign) at the end, and numerals fifty - eighty, five hundred - nine hundred b (soft sign) are written in the middle of the word between two bases;
- There are two forms: zero and zero. The second is used in a terminological sense in indirect cases, both forms are found in set expressions.
- The numeral gender is written as part of a compound word
- through a hyphen, if the second part of the word begins with a vowel or with l (half a liter, half a watermelon), or if it is a proper name (half Russia);
- together, if the second part of the compound word begins with a consonant letter (except l): half a kilogram;
- separately, if it has an independent meaning and is torn off from the noun by the definition: half a teaspoon.
Note: the numeral semi- in the composition of complex words is always written together: half-breed, half-dressed.
Spelling of the endings of numerals.
1. Declension of cardinal numbers:
The numeral one is declined in the same way as the adjective in the singular:
Numerals two, three, four have special case endings:
The numerals five, six, seven, eight, nine, ten and the numerals 10 and 2 are declined in the same way as third declension nouns:
| I. p. R. p. D. p. V. p. etc. P. p | six | thirty |
The numerals forty, ninety, one hundred have a special declension (the accusative case coincides with the nominative, in other cases the ending is a):
For quantitative compound numbers, each word is declined:
A special declension for numerals one and a half, one and a half, one and a half hundred:
3. Collective numbers are declined in the same way as plural adjectives:
4. Declension of ordinal numbers:
Ordinal numbers are declined in the same way as adjectives of the first type:
For compound ordinal numbers, only the last word changes during declension:
70. Spelling of pronouns.
1. Spelling of negative pronouns:
- under stress it is written not, but without stress - neither, (cf., kikto "-not" who, not "only" - not "how much");
- if there are no 48 prepositions in negative pronouns, then they are written together, and if there is, then in three words (cf .: someone - no one, nothing - no reason),
- combinations are none other than, nothing more than oppositions and are written separately, and combinations none other, nothing else have this opposition meaning and therefore are written together (cf .. This can be allowed by none other than the headmaster. - no one else could do it better.).
2. Spelling of indefinite pronouns:
- indefinite pronouns that have in their composition particles some-, some-, -something, -or-, -something are written with a hyphen (someone, something, someone),
- if a preposition follows the particle, then the pronoun is written in three words (with someone, because of someone).
71. Spelling of verbs.
Spelling of verb endings.
1. Depending on personal endings, verbs are divided into two large groups: on verbs of I and II conjugations.
II conjugation includes:
- verbs on -it (except for the verbs to shave, lay, build, which belong to the I conjugation),
- 7 verbs in -et (twirl, see, depend, hate, offend, watch, endure),
- 4 verbs in -at (thief, breathe, hold, hear).
Personal endings of verbs in the present or future past tense:
2. There are several different conjugated verbs that do not belong to any of the two conjugations: want, run, eat, create, give.
| unit 1 face read, take 2 person read, take Z face reads, takes plural | want want want We want | running run run run run run | eat eat eating eat eat eat | create create create Let's create create create create | give give will give Let's give give give give |
3. If the verb with the prefix obez- (obes-) is transitive, then it is conjugated according to the II conjugation, and if it is intransitive, then according to the I conjugation (for example, compare the conjugation of the verbs to weaken (someone) and to weaken (himself).
4. In the verbs of conjugation I, in the form of the future tense, the ending is written - “those”, and in the form of the imperative mood - the ending -ite (cf .: You will send this letter tomorrow. - Send this document urgently.)
b (soft sign) in verb forms.
1. b (soft sign) is written:
- in the infinitive (write, wish, want, wash),
- in the endings of the 2nd person singular of the present or simple future tense (choose, wash, do, wash),
- in the imperative mood (correct, hide), BUT lie down, lie down,
- in the return particle, which is after the vowel (bent, turned, I will return);
2. b (soft sign) is not written:
- in the form of the 3rd person singular of the present or simple future tense (washes, is done).
Spelling of verb suffixes
1. If in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -th (-th), then in the infinitive and in the form of the past tense, suffixes -ova-, -eva- are written (I manage - manage, managed, fight - fight, fought );
if in the 1st person of the present or simple future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivay, then the suffixes -yva-, -iva- (I impose - impose, impose) are written in the infinitive and in the past tense.
2. Verbs in -five, -vayu have the same vowel before the suffix -va- as in the infinitive without this suffix (extend - extend).
Exception: if the adjective begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (open),
- if the nouns from which adverbs are formed are not used independently in modern Russian (locked up, shattered),
- adverbs with a spatial meaning, formed from nouns such as distance, height, beginning, etc. (far away, first)
note: if the sentence contains an explanation for the noun, then such words are no longer adverbs, but combinations of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (from the beginning of the book),
- if it is impossible to put a definition between the prefix-preposition and the noun from which the adverb is formed, but if this can be done, then these words are a combination of a noun with a preposition and are written separately (cf .: exhaust completely - come to the horses of the corridor):
4. Adverbs are written with a hyphen:
- if they are formed with the prefix po- from full adjectives or adverbs ending in -ome, -him, -ni, ii (in my opinion, no-old, in Russian, in cat-like),
- if they are formed using the prefix v- (in-) from ordinal numbers (firstly, secondly, thirdly),
- if they are formed by repeating the same adverb or by adding synonymous words (barely, quietly, quietly);
5. Adverbial combinations are written separately:
- if they consist of nouns with a preposition between them (from gas to eye, shoulder to captivity),
- if they are combinations with prepositions without, before, on, with, etc. (without restraint, on the run, immediately),
- if the noun in this combination has retained some meaning of the case form (abroad, conscientiously),
- if the adjective from which the adverb is formed begins with a vowel, then the preposition в is written separately (in the open).
74. Spelling of prepositions.
The spelling of prepositions must be remembered or checked in a spelling dictionary. Sometimes for the correct spelling of a word it is very important to determine whether it is a preposition or not.
- Complex prepositions iechza, from under, because of, etc. are written through a hyphen. (due to illness, from under steel);
- Such prepositions are written together, as in view of, instead of, like, over, due to (due to absence, like a hole), BUT include in the consequence;
- Such prepositions are written separately, such as in the form, in connection, etc.
- Prepositions continue, during, due to have at the end e (during the lesson), BUT during the river.
75. Spelling unions.
1. They are written together:
- union so that (He asked me to come early.); it is necessary to distinguish between the union so that and the combination of the pronoun and the particle what (Whatever you say, I don’t believe you);
note: remember! no matter what,
- unions are also written together (Will you also / also go to the concert?); it is necessary to distinguish between conjunctions also, also with combinations of a pronoun with a particle (the same) and an adverb with a particle (also): if the particle can be omitted or put in another place in the sentence, then these combinations are written separately (you brought the same (same), and me too.);
- particles something, some, something, either-, -something, -ka, -de, -s, -tka, -tko, -the same (yes, somebody, give it, he-de, enough),
Particle spelling NOT with different parts of speech
| Part of speech | separately |
|
| noun | 1. if it is not used without (ignorant, adversity), 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (untruth is a lie, an enemy is a friend), | 1. if there is or is implied opposition; not a friend, but an enemy), 2. in an interrogative predzhenin with a logical underlining of negation (Your father arranged for you here, didn't he? |
| adj. | 1. if the bases are not used (sloppy, nondescript). 2. if you can choose a synonym without not (rather big - big, gvmslodoy - old), 3. if there is a contrast with the union but (the river is not ugly, but cold), 4. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are written in a non-continuously low - low) | 1. if there is or is implied opposition with the union a (not big, small), 2. with relative adjectives (the sky here is southern), 3. with short adjectives, if the full adjectives from which they are formed are not written separately (the book is not interesting, but boring) |
| num. | with indefinite and negative pronouns without prepositions (several, no one, something) | always written separately (not three, not the seventh) |
| pronoun | with other categories of pronouns (not in my class, not on our floor) | |
| verb | if without not not used (to hate, be perplexed) note: verbs such as oversight are written together, since they include a single prefix under-, | with all other verbs (not to know, to cry |
| ger. | if without not not used (hating, perplexed) note: gerunds formed from verbs with a prefix are underwritten together, just like verbs (overlooked) | with all the other participles (not knowing, on crying) |
| participle |
| communion | if full participles do not have dependent words with them (non-coming student) | one . if full participles have dependent words (a student who did not come on time), 2. with short participles ( test papers not verified) if there is or is supposed to be a contrast (not finished, but only started work) |
| adverb | one . if without is not used (absurdly, carelessly), 2. adverbs in -o, -e, if you can choose a synonym for bel not (not stupid - smart) | 1. adverbs in -o, -e, if there is or is meant to be an opposition (not funny, but sad), 2, adverbs in -o, -e, if they have explanatory words not at all, not at all, far from not at all (not at all funny). 3. if the adverb is written with a hyphen (not in Russian) |
Particle spelling NOT and NI
1. Unstressed vowel at the root.
To check an unstressed vowel in the root, you need to change the form of the word or choose a single-root word so that the stress falls on it.
G about ra - g about ry
B about rolled - b about retsya
Not applicable and rimy - m and R
2. Vowel alternation at the root.
in the roots mountains - gar the letter A is written under stress, without stress - O (zag a r - zag about relay)
Fundamentally zor - zar, the vowel that is heard is written under stress, without stress - A (z a revo, s a rnitsa, oz a ryat, s about rka)
Fundamentally clone - clan the vowel that is heard is written under stress, without stress - O (skl about thread, class a snuggle, snuggle about n, on about thread)
in the roots kos - kas the letter A is written, if there is a suffix A after the root, if this suffix is not present, then the letter O is written. (to a sled, prik about fell asleep)
in the roots lag - lies A is written before G, O is written before F (proposition a say, offer about live)
in the roots grow - grew before ST, U, the letter A is written. If there is no ST, U, the letter O is written (p a stet, por about sl) Exceptions: sprout, industry, Rostov, Rostislav.
in the roots Ber - bir, der - dir, mer - peace, per - fir, tertir, shine - blist, burn - burn, stel - steel the letter A is written if after the root there is a suffix A. (I will collect - collect, lay - lay)
3.Vowels O - E (Yo) after hissing and C in different parts of the word.
1.Fundamentally words after hissing under stress, the letter E (Yo) is written. (in related words and forms of this word, the letter E is written without stress (evening - evening, cheap - cheaper) Exceptions: seam, rustle, saddler, hood, gooseberry, glutton, thicket, major
It should be distinguished:
A) noun - burn, arson, verbs - burn, set fire
B) in words of foreign origin:
jockey, juggler, shock, highway, driver.
C) in proper names: Pechora, Pechorin, Shostakovich
2. After C, the letter o is written under stress in the root. unstressed
the vowel after C must be checked with an accent. (basement, whole -
whole)
3.In endings, suffixes nouns and
adjectives after hissing and C under stress, the letter O is written, without stress - E (chest, hut, big, red, jackdaw, wrestler, crimson)
4 .At the end of adverbs, the letter O is written under stress, without
accents - E (hot, ebullient)
5 .Under the stress, the letter Yo is written
a) in the endings of verbs (we save, bake),
b) in the verbal suffix -yovyva (shade)
c) in the suffix –ёr of nouns (conductor, trainee)
d) in suffixes -yonn, -yon of passive participles,
verbal adjectives, if they are formed from
verb on -it (completed - complete, stewed - stew)
e) in pronouns (about anything, nothing)
4. Vowels ы, and after Ц in different parts of the word.
1. At the root of the word after C, the letter I is written (number, circus) Exceptions:
gypsy, chick, chick, chick, chick)
2. In words ending on - tion letter i is written
(acacia, lecture, delegation)
3.In suffixes and endings the letter Y is written (birds, pages,
Sinitsyn)
5. Voiced and voiceless consonants.
To check the spelling of pairs consonants b-p, v-f, g-k, d-t, w-sh, you need to change the word so that after this consonant there is a vowel. (tooth - teeth, light - light)
6. Unpronounceable consonants at the root of the word. (combinations of vstv, ndsk, stl, stn, etc.)
The word must be changed or a single-root word chosen so that this consonant is heard clearly. (joyful - joy, whistle - whistle)
But: sn- miraculous - miracles.
7. Separating b and b
Kommersant
b
1. Before letters E,Yo, Yu, I
after prefixes
into a consonant
(bypass, disengage)
1. Before the letters E, Yo, Yu, I, And
in roots, suffixes, endings.
(barrier, blizzard, fox, nightingale)
In compound words
(three-tier, inter-tier)
In foreign words:
adjutant, object, subject, etc. broth, battalion, signor, etc.
8. Soft sign after hissing.
b is spelled
b is not written
1. In feminine nouns
kinda (night, rye)
1. In masculine nouns (knife, rook)
2. In all forms of the verb
(write, ignite, smile)
2. In nouns, plural. numbers
(many clouds, near puddles)
3. In adverbs for Zh, Sh, Ch (jump,
entirely) Exceptions: already, married,
unbearable
3. In short adjectives (hot,
good, strong)
4. In particles (only, ish, bish)
9. Vowels Y-I after prefixes.
After consonant prefix a letter is written S, if the word from which it is formed begins with the letter I (unprincipled - idea, sum up - result, play - game)
After prefixes over-, sub-, trans-, inter- letter is written AND ( inter-institutional, superinteresting, sub-inspector).
10. Continuous and hyphenated spelling of complex adjectives.
Slitno:
1. Formed from a subordinating phrase (ancient Greek - Ancient Greece, wagon repair - repair of wagons)
2. Used as terms or expressions in bookish language (the above, the undersigned)
Through a hyphen:
1. Designate a shade of color (light pink, red-brown)
2. Formed from a hyphenated noun (southwest - southwest)
3. Between parts of the adjective, you can insert the union "and" (Russian-German - Russian and German, convex-concave - convex and concave).
4. Formed from a combination of a noun and an adjective, but with a rearrangement of these elements (literary and artistic - fiction)
5. Having at the end of the first base a combination -iko (chemical-pharmaceutical).
Separately:
Phrases are written separately, consisting of an adverb and an adjective. The adverb acts as a member of the sentence, indicating the degree of the sign expressed by the adjective (genuinely friendly, sharply hostile) or in what respect the sign is considered (socially dangerous, i.e. dangerous to society). Adverbs in -ski in the meaning of "similarity" (damn cunning).
11. Not with different parts of speech.
Slitno
Separately
Not used without NOT ( all parts of speech)
can't, hate, unseen
There is a contrast with the union "A" or it is implied (noun, adjective, adverb on O, E)
not true but false
Can be replaced by a synonym or a close expression ( noun, adjective, adverb in o,e)
untruth - a lie, unknown - someone else's)
There are words “not far”, “not at all”, “not at all”, “not at all”, etc.
(adjective, adverb in O, E)
Not at all interesting, not at all beautiful
No dependent words and opposition with the union "A"
(participle)
unglued, unspoken
There are dependent words or opposition with the union "A" (participle)
not spoken in time
With verbs, adverbs
(didn't find it, didn't find out)
With adverbs not in -O, E (not comradely)
With negative and indefinite adverbs and pronouns (no one, a few, nowhere)
With negative pronouns, if there is a pretext (no one, no one)
12. One and two letters H in suffixes.
Parts of speech
HH
Nouns
Living room, worker, herbalist
At the junction of morphemes
Fifty dollars, window sill
adjectives
In suffixes -in, -an, -yan
Gus in th, leather en th
Excl.: pewter, wood, glass
1) in adjectives formed with the suffix -n- from nouns with a stem on H (fog n th)
2) in adjectives formed from nouns with the help of suffixes -onn, -enn (arts enn th, aviation he N th)
Excl.: windy
Participles and verbal adjectives
1) in brief passive participles(error corrected en a)
2) in full participles and verbal adjectives formed from verbs are not perfect look(crush en yy - no prefix and dependent word)
excl.: slow, desired, sacred, unexpected, unseen, unheard, unexpected)
1) if the word has a prefix other than non- (dried)
2) if they include dependent words (sown through a sieve)
3) if the word has a suffix -ova, -eva (zinc ovann th)
4) if the word is formed from a perfective verb yonn th - deprive)
Adverb
In adverbs, the same number of N is written as in the adjectives from which they are formed
(tuma nn o - fog nn oh, excited nn o - excited nn th)
23. Letters E, I case endings nouns.
1. nouns have 1 declension in the dative and prepositional cases(in the grass - 1 fold, p.p., on the road - 1 fold, d.p.)
1. nouns have 1 declension in the genitive case (near the river - 1 declension, R.p.)
2. nouns have 2 declensions in the prepositional case (in the house - 2 cl, P.p.)
2. nouns have 3 declensions (at mother, at night)
3. for nouns in -th, -th, -th, -me in the genitive, dative and prepositional cases
(attach to a stirrup (on - me)), pluck from an acacia (on - ia))
24. Conjugation of verbs, spelling of personal endings of verbs.
Put the verb in the indefinite form (what to do? what to do?)
II conjugation I conjugation
on -it on -et, -at, -ut, -yt, -ty, -who
except for: shaving, laying (1 ref.) except for:
drive, hold, hear, breathe
endure, twirl, offend, depend,
hate, see, look (2 sp.)
At the end, the letter is written And at the end, the letter E is written
beautiful it– red it count em - count ot, rut it–gn at(excl.)
when finding indefinite form take the verb of the same form (decorate - decorate)
Spelling prefixes.
1. Letters З-С at the end of prefixes.
In prefixes voz-vos, bez-bes, from -is, bottom -nis, once - races, through - through before voiced letters are written in consonants W, before deaf consonants - letter FROM.
(Ra h give - ra With bite, be h sonorous - be With cordial)
There are no prefixes Z: knock down, cut down, run away
In the words here, building, health there is no prefix.
In the prefix times (races) - roses (grew), the letter A is written without stress, the letter O is written under stress. (break up - sledge, scatter - placer)
2. Prefixes pre-, pre-
Pre-
at-
1. It is possible to replace the prefix with the word very, very.
(very large - very large)
1. Spatial proximity
(about) - school, seaside
2. Approximation, joining,
addition (arrive, screw,
join)
2. Close to the meaning of "re"
(transform, block)
3. Incomplete action (slightly open)
4. Bringing the action to the end
(come up with)
Spelling of suffixes
1. Suffixes -EK, -IK of nouns
To correctly write a suffix, you need to decline the word (put it in the genitive case form). If the vowel drops out, then the suffix -EK is written, if it doesn’t drop out, then the suffix -IK should be written (lock - lock, finger - finger)
2. Verb suffixes -ova (-eva), -yva (iva)
If in the present or future tense the verb ends in -yva, -ivay, then you need to write the suffixes -yva, -iva.
If it ends in -th, -th, then you need to write the suffixes -ova, -eva.
(conversations ova l, conversations ova t - conversations wow, story yva l - story I am)
3. Suffixes of participles -usch, -yushch, -ashch, -yashch.
If the participle is formed from the verb of the 1st conjugation, then the suffixes -usch, -yushch should be written.
If the participle is formed from the verb of the 2nd conjugation, then you need to write the suffixes -ash, -ash.
(stabbing - stabbing (1 ref.), coloring - dyeing (2 ref.))
4. Participle suffixes -EM, -OM, -IM
If the participle is formed from the verb of the 1st conjugation, then we write the suffix -EM, -OM, if from the verb of the 2nd conjugation, then the suffix -IM
(visible - see (2 ref.), burned - burn (1 ref.))
5. The letters O, A at the end of adverbs with prefixes -FROM, -TO, -C
If adverbs are formed from adjectives that do not have these prefixes, then we write the letter A.
If adverbs are formed from adjectives that have these prefixes, then we write the letter O.
(before dry - dry, before urgently - before urgent)
On the muffled , in left (no prefixes -from, -to, -s)
6. Suffixes -K-, -SK- adjectives.
The suffix -K- is written:
1) in adjectives that have a short form (col to iy - kolok, elm to ii - knit)
2) in adjectives formed from some nouns with a base on k, h, c (German to ij - German, weaver to ii - weaver)
In other cases, the suffix -SK- is written (French sk y - French h)
7. Suffixes -CHIK-, -SHIK-
After the letters d - t, z - s, w, the letter Ch is written. In other cases, u is written. (cover tchik, stone box- No letters d, t, h, s, g)
8. Vowels before -Н, -НН in participle suffixes, before the past tense verb suffix -Л-.
If the participle or verbal adjective is formed from the verb in -at, -yat, then before H, HH it is written letter A, Z(wow a ny - vesh at).
If the participle or verbal adjective is formed from verbs ending not in -at, -yat, then the letter E is written before H, HH
(zasuch e nny - zauch it, crush e ny - red it).
A hyphen between parts of words.
Hyphenated adverbs.
With a hyphen between the parts of the word, adverbs are written that have in their composition:
1) prefix in - and suffixes -om, -him, -and (in a new way, in a comradely way)
2) the prefix in-, in- and suffixes -s, -them (secondly, thirdly)
3) prefix something (somehow)
4) suffixes -something, -either, -something (colda-either, somewhere)
5) complex adverbs, which have the same roots (little by little)
Indefinite pronouns with the prefix something and suffixes something-, something are written with a hyphen (someone, some)
Compound words with half- are written with a hyphen if the second root begins with L, with a capital letter, with a vowel. In other cases, the floor in complex words is written together. (half moon, half watermelon, half Volga, half house,)
interjection, formed by repeating the basics (ooh-ooh)
Particles - something are attached to other words with a hyphen. (became something, take it)
Consolidated and separate spelling of homonymous independent and functional words.
Prepositions with other words are written separately. (on the river, on me, by five)
Derived prepositions, formed on the basis of adverbs, are written together (to go towards the delegates).
Derived prepositions are written together: in view of (= due to), like (= similar), about (= about), instead, like, due to ( due to)
Talk about exams but to put money in the account (n.)
Derivative prepositions are written separately during, in continuation, according to
reason, for the purpose, on the part).
Unions also, too, to are written fluently. They should be distinguished from combinations in the same way, the same as. In these combinations, the particles, however, could be omitted or rearranged to another place.
Mother studied at the institute. My father also studied there.
The same word, but not so to say.
Morphology(parts of speech).
Grammar signs independent parts of speech.
Part of speech
Gram. meaning
Question to the beginning form
Non-permanent signs
Syntax
role in the proposal
Noun
Subject
Who? what?
Odush.-indush., own. or common noun, gender, declension
Case, number
Subject
Addition
Adjective
sign
Which? Whose?
Qualitative, relative possessive; full - short, degrees of comparison
gender, number, case
Definition, predicate
(short adj.)
Numeral
Quantity, order when counting
How? Which the?
Simple-composite, quantitative, ordinal, collective
Case, number, gender (for ordinals)
As part of any member of the sentence, definition (ordinal)
Pronoun
Meaning of the part of speech instead of which it is used
Who? What? Which? How? Which the?
Rank, person (for personal)
Case (for some), number, gender
Any member of the proposal
Verb
action, state
What to do? what to do?
View, transitivity, conjugation, recurrence
Mood, tense, number, person or gender
Personal forms - predicate, n.f. - any part of the proposal
Participle
Sign of an object by action
Which?
Doing what? What has done? and etc.
Real or passive, time, type
Case, number, gender, full or short
Definition
gerund
Additional action
What do you do? Having done what?
How?
Type, recurrence
Not
circumstance
Adverb
Sign of action or other sign
How? Where? Where? When? What for? and etc.
Degrees of comparison
Not
circumstance
Classes of adjectives.
Discharge
signs
Examples
quality
1. Answer the questions Which one? Which? Which?
2. denote various qualities of objects: color, internal qualities of a person, state of mind, age, size of an object; qualities perceived by the senses, etc.
3. may have diminutive suffixes –ist, -ovat, -enk, etc.
4. may have a short form and degrees of comparison
5. compound adjectives and adjectives are formed. With prefix not-
6. combined with adverbs very, extremely, etc.
nicer
sick
Too light light - light
difficult
relative
1.answer questions what? Which? Which?
2. designate the material from which the object is made; time, place, purpose of the object, etc.
3. have suffixes –an, -yan, -sk-, -ov-,
4. do not have a short form, do not form degrees of comparison
5. do not combine with adverbs very, too.
Wood
Nautical
Possessive
Whose? Whose? Whose? Whose?
2. denote belonging to a person or animal
3. have suffixes –ov, -ev, -in, -yn, -й
Foxy, fathers, wolf
Classes of pronouns.
Discharge
Pronouns
personal
1st person: I, we
2nd person: you
3rd person: he, she, it, they
returnable
Myself
Possessive
Mine, yours, ours, yours, yours
Interrogative-relative
Who, what, which, what, whose, which, how much
Undefined
Someone, something, some, several, some, something, etc.
Negative
Nobody, nothing, none, no one, not at all, no one, nothing
pointing
That, this, such, such, such, so much
Determinants
Himself, most, everyone, all, each, any, other, other
Discharges of names of numerals.
By appointment
By structure
quantitative
Ordinal
Simple
Complex
composite
whole
Fractional
Collecting
Three,
Twenty five
One third,
one and a half
Two
Three
seven
third, thirty-fifth
fourteen, thirtieth
Five hundred, one hundred thousandth
One hundred seventy-three, three point eight
Mood and tense of the verb.
indicative
Conditional
imperative
Denotes an action that is happening, has happened or will actually happen.
Denotes an action that is possible under some condition (would read, would read)
Denotes an action to which the speaker encourages someone (advises, asks, orders)
present tense
Past tense
Future time
What is he doing?
What have you been doing?
What did you do?
What will do? (future complex)
What will he do? (future simple)
Is reading
read, told
will read
Participle formation
From the stem of the present tense verb
From the stem of the infinitive
Present participles
Past participles
Valid
Passive
Valid
passive
1 ref.
2 ref.
1 ref.
2 ref.
Vsh
Enn
Hn
Usch, - yusch
Ash
crate
Eat
Ohm
Them
Ym
Bole Yusch uy
Creech ash uy
Ozar eat th
Storage them th
Skaka vsh uy
nes sh uy
Pulled out enn th
crowning nn th
vymy t th
Formation of gerunds
Imperfect participles
Perfect participles
Suffixes -a, -i
Suffixes
Vsh
Lice
lie down - lie down a
We sit - sit I
think - think in, thought lice
Get carried away - carried away shea camping
Classes of adverbs by meaning.
Class of adverbs
Questions answered by adverbs
Examples
Mode of action and degree
How?
How?
Fast, fun, new, often, great
Measures and degrees
How? How many times?
In what degree?
To what extent? How much?
A little, a little, a little, five times, too much, completely, completely, twice
Places
Where?
Where?
Where?
Far, near, around, from within, from afar, everywhere
time
When?
How long?
Since when?
How long?
Now, soon, long ago, now, the day before, in the afternoon, at night, in the summer, early
The reasons
Why?
From what?
For what reason?
Hastily, blindly, reluctantly
Goals
What for?
For what?
For what purpose?
On purpose, out of spite, on purpose
special group make up pronominal adverbs:
Demonstrative adverbs - here, there, there, from there, then
Indefinite adverbs - somewhere, somewhere, somewhere, somewhere
Negative adverbs - nowhere, never, nowhere, nowhere
Interrogative-relative adverbs - where, where, when, why, why.
Lilac blossoms (when?) spring. (adverb)
beyond the spring(When? For what?) Summer will come. (noun)
Adverbs with prefixes must be distinguished from consonant combinations of nouns, adjectives and pronouns with prepositions.
First it was difficult. (when? - circumstance - adverb)
First year (noun with a preposition, because there is a dependent word).
got sick, that's why and didn't come. (adverb why?)
That's why the bridge is closed to traffic. (adj., over the bridge (what?) - definition)
In the distance blue spinning sand. (in what? where?)
away the shepherd played importunately. (adverb where?)
Condition Category Words - represent the state of nature environment, living beings, human (damp, cloudy, insulting, funny, joyful). They are used in one-part impersonal sentences and are predicates.
Formation of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs .
Parts of speech
comparative
Superlatives
Simple
Composite
Simple
Composite
Adjective
Her(s)
She
Stronger
Before
less often
more…
less…
Much stronger
Less strict
Ash(y)
Yeish (yy)
the strictest
strongest
all (everyone)..
most…
least…
Deepest, highest quality
Adverb
Her(s)
She
Stronger, earlier, less
more…
less…
More strongly
Less strict
Aisha
eishe
Strictly
all (everyone)..
most…
least…
deeper than all
the highest quality
To distinguish the comparative degree of an adjective from the comparative degree of an adverb, you need to look at which word in the sentence the form of the comparative degree depends on. If it depends on the noun, then this is the comparative degree of the adjective (it is a predicate in the sentence) - person thinner, Class friendlier.
If it depends on the verb, then this is an adverb (it is a circumstance in a sentence) - cut thinner, sing friendlier.
Service parts of speech.
Pretext - serves to connect words in a phrase and sentence. There are simple and composite, derivatives and non-derivatives.
non-derivative
Derivatives from
Adverbs
noun
Participles
B, k, s, y, o, on, with, for, from, through, etc.
Along, opposite, ahead, according to, around
Due to, like, in continuation, during, in relation to, in contrast to, towards, in view of, in conclusion, over, in connection with, due to
thankfully, later, in spite of, in spite of, on the basis of
Union - serves to communicate homogeneous members and parts complex sentence. There are simple and compound, coordinating and subordinating.
Ranks of unions by value.
writing
Subordinating
1. Connecting (both this and that): and, yes, also, also, not only…but also, like…and
1. Explanatory: what, as if to
2. Opposite (not that, but this): but, but, yes, but, however,
2. Circumstantial:
Time: when, just, while, barely , as soon as, after, before, only
Target: in order to, in order to, in order to, in order to
Comparison: as, as if, as if, exactly
Cause: because, since, since, for
Condition: if (if), if
Consequence: so
Concession: though, despite the fact that, let, let
3. Dividing (either this or that): or, either, neither ... neither, then ... that, either ... either, not that ... not that
Particle - conveys shades of meaning and serves to form certain forms of independent words. By meaning, there are formative, semantic. By category - simple, complex, compound.
(even, just, after all, just, hardly, no matter how, etc.)
Discharges of particles by value and function.
semantic (express various meanings)
Form-building
(form word forms)
1. Negative: not, not
1. shape conditional mood verb: would, b
2. Statement: yes, so, exactly, how, aha, uh-huh, definitely
2. form of the imperative mood of the verb: let, let, yes, let's, let's
3. Reinforcement: even, even and, already, and, already, yet, still, after all, well
3.shape comparative and superlatives adj.: more, less, most
4. Question: is it really, is it, or something, but, what, how, well, how, and what if
Exclamation: what the, how, well
Doubt: hardly, hardly, maybe
7. Clarification: exactly, exactly, exactly, directly, a little, just, at least, at least, almost
8. Isolation, restriction: only, only, only only, almost, exclusively
9. Indication: here, here, out, and out, this
10. Relaxation of the requirement: -ka
Distinguishing He and Ni Particles
Particle NOT
Particle NI
Not - the meaning of negation
Misha not went to the rink.
Not Misha went to the skating rink, and Yura.
Ni is a negative particle with an amplifying value:
A) strengthening denial
In the sky not It was neither one lumen.
Not neither wind, neither sun, neither noise.
In the sky neither cloud.
Two particles NOT - the meaning of the statement
Not can not talk about this trip. - I must tell.
B) assertion strengthening
Where neither I look around, thick rye everywhere. (I'll look everywhere)
There may be words: no matter where, no one, no matter and etc.
Interjection - does not apply to either independent or official parts of speech. Interjections are used to express:
Feelings, emotions (fear, joy, doubt, surprise, sadness, delight, sadness, etc.): oh, yes, bravo, my God, wow, God is with you.
Speech etiquette (greetings, farewells, wishes, thanks, requests, etc.): thank you, thank you, goodbye, goodbye, sorry, please, all the best, hello.
Commands, orders, requests: on, face, shh, hello, bye-bye, stop, chick-chick.
Syntax.
phrase – several words related in meaning and grammatically.
According to the main word, phrases are nominal (the main word is an adjective, noun, pronoun), verbal (the main word is a verb, participle, participle), adverbial (the main word is an adverb).
Types of connection of words in phrases (by dependent word).
Coordination
Control
adjoining
The dependent word is used in the same gender, number and case (adj., participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal number)
The dependent word is put in the case required by the main (noun, pronoun = noun)
The dependent word is related to the main word only in meaning.
(adverb, adverb)
prepositional
(with a suggestion)
Unprepositional (no preposition)
For an experienced teacher
Growing up on the road
Land development
Work passionately
Types of offers.
Offer types
Examples
By the nature of the expressed relationship to reality
Affirmative(Affirm the connection between the subject of speech and what is said about it).
Negative(the connection between the subject of speech and what is said about it is denied).
Sad long evening in October. (I. Bunin)
No, I don't treasure rebellious pleasure. (A. Pushkin)
By the number of grammatical bases
Simple (consist of one grammatical basis)
Complex (consist of two or more grammatical bases)
A breeze rushes along the narrow, clean street. (N.Rubtsov)
Dawn says goodbye to the earth, steam falls at the bottom of the valley. (A. Fet)
According to the nature of the grammatical basis
Bipartite(the grammatical basis consists of a subject and a predicate)
One-piece(the grammatical basis consists either only of the subject, or only of the predicate)
I loved late autumn in Russia. (I. Bunin)
It's already quite light. (K. Fedin)
By the presence of secondary members
Common(have in their composition grammatical basis and secondary members of the sentence)
Uncommon(have only grammatical basis)
Two drops splashed into the glass. (A. Fet)
The lake was white. (I. Bunin)
According to the context and speech situation
Full(all necessary members of the proposal are present)
Incomplete(one or more sentence members omitted)
The whole city lay in darkness. (A. Fadeev)
Everything is obedient to me, but I am nothing. (A. Pushkin)
Types of predicate.
simple verb expressed in one verb form
composite
verb auxiliary be able, wish, want, start, continue, end or short adj. Glad, ready, able, must, intend+ infinitive
Nominal
linking verb to be, to become, to become, to appear, to become, to appear, to be called+ nominal part: noun, adj., numeral, place, short adverb, adverb
Changed in childhood rainbow rain. (S. Marshak)
The monkey decided to work. (I. Krylov)
The gold of the cross became white. (S. Marshak)
Secondary members of the sentence.
Definition
(what? what? what? what? whose? whose? whose? whose? whose?) is underlined by a wavy line
Addition
(whom? What? To whom? What? Whom? What? By whom? What? About whom? About what?) is underlined with a dotted line
Circumstance
(where? When? Where? Where? Why? Why? How?)
underlined with dotted line
Agreed
(adjective, participle, pronoun = adj., ordinal)
Direct (vin. case without preposition)
Mode of action (how? In what way?)
inconsistent
(noun)
Indirect (indirect cases or wine case with a preposition)
Places (where? Where? From?)
Time (when? Since when? Until when? How long?)
Reasons (why? For what reason?)
Measures and degrees (To what extent? To what extent?)
Goals (why? For what purpose?)
Conditions (under what condition?)
Concessions (against what?)
Kinds one-part sentences and ways of expressing the main member of the sentence.
Nominal
Verbs
denominative sentence (the main member of the sentence is the subject, the noun in I.p.)
Midnight. Mist and wind.
Definitely personal(verb 1,2 person, singular, plural; indicative, imperative mood)
I'm going. Will you go for a walk? Come with me.
Indefinite-personal(verb 3rd person, plural, present, weekday; plural past tense)
Vitya was given a player.
Impersonal (impersonal verb, personal verb in the meaning of the impersonal, infinitive, words of the category of state, short strad participle, word No)
It's getting dark. It's cold outside.
generalized-personal(verb 2 persons, singular; 3 persons plural present or bud.; 2 persons led inclinations)
Do not count your chickens before they are hatched.
Types of definitions.
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Characterize the object on the one hand (between them you can put the union And)
They characterize an object from different sides, for example, by color and size (a big red ball), you cannot put a union between them And)
Depend on one word and answer the same question
They explain each other, that is, one of the definitions depends on the phrase, which includes the defined noun. and another definition (red ball which? big)
They are interconnected by a compositional connection, i.e. do not depend on each other
Lacking enumerative intonation
Pronounced with enumerative intonation
Separate members of the proposal.
I. Separate definitions .
Any definitions in the form of a phrase (adjective turnover, adjectival phrase) or individual words are separated by commas on one side or on two (inside a sentence) if:
Relate to personal pronoun
Exhausted, dirty, wet we have reached the shore.
They come after the noun they define.
Forest, finally shaking off the remnants of the darkness of the night stood up in all its glory. (B. Polevoy)
Before the noun being defined, if they express the reason.
Driven by spring rays, from the surrounding mountains the snow had already fled in muddy streams to the flooded meadows. (A. Pushkin)
II. Standalone Applications .
Applications in a letter are separated by a comma or two commas within a sentence if:
They refer to the personal pronoun
Us, doctors, this truly boundless patience is amazing. (N. Ostrovsky)
Common applications after the noun being defined.
A pineapple,wonderful gift of the nature of the tropics , looks like a large cedar cone weighing two to three kilograms.
Applications before the noun being defined, if it has a causal meaning.
native sailor, Voropaev first saw the sea as an adult. (P.Pavlenko)
ІІІ Separate circumstances.
1. Circumstances expressed by the gerund and participle turnover, are always separated by commas in the letter.
Suddenly she ran past me singing something else.
The waves are rushing thundering and sparkling, alien stars look from above.
2. Circumstances expressed by a noun with a preposition in spite ofIn houses,despite the early hour , lamps lit.
Note:
do not separate
Germs with the meaning of adverbs. Yazykov covered his face with his palm and satnot moving . (not moving = still)
Set combinations and phraseological units, which include gerunds. He workedtirelessly .
IV. Separate clarifying members of the sentence.
An additional question can be posed to the clarifying isolated member of the sentence Where exactly? How exactly? Who exactly? When exactly?
1. Circumstances of place and time: Left,at the dam , knocked axes.
2. Definitions: It was dominated by brown,almost red , the color of the soil and unbearably blue tint seas.
3 . Separate clarifying members of a sentence can be joined using conjunctionsthat is, or, as well as words especially, especially, even, mainly, in particular, for example .
He's pretty good even with some special pronunciation , spoke Russian .
Additions with prepositions except for, in addition to, instead of, excluding, except for, along with, beyond, etc..
Everyone has , with the exception of the Commissioner, things were going well.
Introductory words and sentences.
Groups of introductory words by meaning
example
Different degrees of certainty:
a) a high degree of certainty (of course, of course, indisputably, undoubtedly, indeed, etc.)
b) a lesser degree of certainty (seems, probably, obviously, perhaps, perhaps)
Mountain air, without any doubts, has a beneficial effect on human health.
Seems, your story there made a lot of noise.
Various feelings (fortunately, to the general joy, unfortunately, to surprise)
Luckily, our horses were not exhausted.
Source of the message (according to someone, according to someone, in someone's opinion)
According to the doctor The patient will be discharged from the hospital in a week.
The order of thoughts and their connection (firstly, secondly, finally, therefore, therefore, so, vice versa, for example, etc.)
Firstly you have to learn the rule.
So, one desire for good made me print this passage. (M. Lermontov)
Remarks on the ways of shaping thoughts (in a word, in other words, it is better to say, etc.)
In a word, this person had a desire to create a case for himself. (A. Chekhov)
Introductory words and sentences should be distinguished from other members of the sentence ( introductory words are not a member of the sentence, they are not grammatically related to other words, they can be removed from the sentence).
Printout pages:
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11,16 17,10
9,18 19,8
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3,24 25,2
1,26
COLLECTION
RULES
IN RUSSIAN
Modern Russian spelling is based on the Code of Rules published in 1956. The rules of the Russian language are reflected in Russian grammars and spelling dictionaries. Special school spelling dictionaries are published for schoolchildren.
Language changes as society changes. There are many new words and expressions, their own and borrowed. The rules for writing new words are established by the Spelling Commission and fixed by spelling dictionaries. The most complete modern spelling dictionary was compiled under the editorship of the spelling scientist V.V. Lopatin (M., 2000).
Russian spelling is a system of spelling rules.
It consists of five main sections:
1) transmission by letters of the phonemic composition of words;
2) fused, separate and hyphenated (semi-fused) spellings of words and their parts;
3) the use of uppercase and lowercase letters;
4) transfer of a part of a word from one line to another;
5) graphic abbreviations of words.
Spelling sections
are large groups of spelling rules associated with different types difficulties in translating words into writing. Each section of spelling is characterized by certain principles that underlie the spelling system.
Principles of Russian spelling
Modern Russian orthography is based on several principles. The main one is MORPHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE, whose essence is as follows:
morpheme
(significant part words: root, prefix, suffix, ending) retains a single spelling
, although the sounds included in this morpheme may change during pronunciation.
Yes, root. bread in all related words it is written the same way, but it is pronounced differently depending on what place the vowel or consonant sounds occupy in the word, cf .: [chl "ieba], [chl" bavos]; console under- in the words file and knock out the same, despite the different pronunciation, cf .: [patp "il" it"] [padb "it"]; adjectives mocking and boastful have the same suffix -living- ; unstressed endings and stressed endings are denoted the same way: in the table - in the book, big - great, blue - mine etc.
Guided precisely by this principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.
The role of the morphological principle in spelling is great, if we keep in mind that the Russian language has a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations due to various reasons.
Along with morphological, there is also PHONETIC PRINCIPLE, according to which words or parts of them are spelled as they are pronounced
.
For example, attachments for h change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before the voiced consonant, the letter is heard and written in prefixes h (without-, air-, from-, bottom-, times-, roses-, through-, through-), and before a deaf consonant in the same prefixes, the letter is heard and written With , compare: object - exclaim, beat - drink, overthrow - send down etc.
The operation of the phonetic principle also explains the spelling of vowels about - yo after hissing in suffixes and endings of different parts of speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf .: a scrap - a knife, brocade - nomadic, a candle - a cloud etc.
root vowel and after Russian prefixes on a consonant it turns into s and is denoted by this letter also in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. it is written as it is heard and pronounced: backstory, pre-July, hoax, prank etc.
Valid in our spelling also HISTORICAL, or TRADITIONAL PRINCIPLE, according to which words are written as they were written before, in the old days .
So, writing vowels and , a , at after hissing - this is an echo of the ancient state phonetic system Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written according to the same principle. Such spellings can be explained only with the involvement of the historical laws of the development of the language as a whole.
Exists in modern orthography and THE PRINCIPLE OF DIFFERENTIATED SCRIPTING (semantic principle), Whereby words are spelled according to their lexical meaning , compare: burn(verb) and burn(noun), company(a group of people) and campaign(any event) ball(dance party) and score(unit of assessment).
In addition to those named in spelling, it should be noted PRINCIPLE OF CONTINUOUS, HYPHENIC AND SEPARATE SCRIPTING: we write compound words together or with a hyphen, and word combinations - separately.
Summing up, we can say that the variety of Russian spelling rules is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and, on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.
morphological principle, the essence of which is as follows: the morpheme (the significant part of the word: root, prefix, suffix, ending) retains a single letter spelling, although the sounds included in this morpheme may change during pronunciation. So, the root bread in all related words is written the same way, but is pronounced differently depending on what place the vowel or consonant sounds occupy in the word, cf.: [khl "and e ba], [khl" lbavo s]; the prefix under- in the words file and knock out is the same, despite the different pronunciation, cf.: [ptp"il"and t"] [padb"and t"]; adjectives derisive and boastful have the same suffix -liv - ; unstressed ending and percussion are denoted the same way: in the table e - in the book, big - lead someone, blue - mine etc.Guided precisely by this principle, we check the truth of a particular morpheme by selecting related words or changing the form of the word so that the Morpheme is in a strong position (under stress, before p, l, m, n, j, etc.), those. would be clearly marked.
The role of the morphological principle in spelling is great, if we keep in mind that the Russian language has a widely developed system of intramorphemic alternations due to various reasons.
Along with morphological, there is also phonetic principle, according to which words or their parts are written as they are pronounced. For example, prefixes on z change depending on the quality of the consonant following the prefix: before the voiced consonant, the letter z is heard and written in prefixes ( without-, air-, from-, bottom-, times-, roses-, through-, through-), and before a deaf consonant in the same prefixes, the letter c is heard and written, cf .: to object - to exclaim, to beat - to drink, to throw down - to send down etc.
The operation of the phonetic principle also explains the spelling of vowels o - ё after hissing in suffixes and endings of different parts of speech, where the choice of the corresponding vowel depends on the stress, cf .: kloch OK- but Zhichek, brocade about in th - koche in th, candle oh- the one whose etc.
The root vowel, even after Russian prefixes to a consonant, passes into ы and is also indicated by this letter in accordance with the phonetic principle, i.e. it is written as it is heard and pronounced: backstory, pre-July, hoax, prank etc.
There is also a historical, or traditional, principle in our orthography, according to which words are written the way they were written before, in the old days. So, the spelling of vowels and, a, u after hissing is an echo of the ancient state of the phonetic system of the Russian language. Dictionary words, as well as borrowed ones, are written according to the same principle. Such spellings can be explained only with the involvement of the historical laws of the development of the language as a whole.
Exists in modern orthography and differential spelling principle(semantic principle), according to which words are written depending on their lexical meaning, cf .: burn (verb) and burn (noun), company (group of people) and campaign (any event), ball (dance evening) and ball (unit of assessment).
In addition to those named in spelling, it is necessary to note the principle of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling: we write complex words together or with a hyphen, and word combinations separately.
Summing up, we can say that the variety of Russian spelling rules is explained, on the one hand, by the peculiarities of the phonetic and grammatical structure of the Russian language, the specifics of its development, and, on the other hand, by interaction with other languages, both Slavic and non-Slavic. The result of the latter is a large number of words of non-Russian origin, the spelling of which has to be memorized.
Spelling of vowels in the root
Checked unstressed vowels
In an unstressed position, the same vowel is written at the root as in the corresponding stressed syllable of the same-root word: reconcile (peace) - try on (trying on), weed (weeding) - blurt out (fuse), sing (sing) - drink down (wash down), rinse (rinse) - caress (weasel), shine (light) - dedicate (holiness), tremble (tremble) - annoy (teasing), dry out (dry out) - cut (slash), winter (winter) - earth (on the ground), ghost (bringing) - ghost (seeing), fluttering (breathing) - developing (development), reluctantly (clip) - gritting teeth (creaking), etc.
In some cases, such a verification technique cannot be used, since the different spelling of words with the same root is explained by their reference to different languages. So, unstressed non-vowel combinations ra, la ( gate, cut, reins, head, cloud, drag etc.) are always written with the letter a - these are Old Slavonic words in origin; in Russian roots, such combinations correspond to full-vowel oro, olo ( gate, short, furrow, head, drag).
You cannot check the unstressed vowel o in the roots of perfective verbs with imperfective forms. In the words of o drink, be late, swallow and other vowel o is checked by cognate words n o zdno, sip, two, then pchet although there are verbs to flood, to be late, to swallow, to double.
This rule does not apply to foreign words, since in them the tested and test vowels can refer to morphemes of different origin. So, in the word accompaniment e ment suffix -ment French descent, and in the verb accompaniment and rove the suffix -irova- is German. Wed: subscriber e ment - subscribe, engagement e ment - engagement; words intel and genie and int e lect in Latin are formed from different stems of the same root.
Exercise 1. Place the stress in the words and explain the spelling of unstressed vowels by choosing related words with stressed vowels.
Scourge, goodwill, far away, get well, stay up late, decrepit, single, stab, harden, sing, wear out, break, reign, lecturer, stucco, miner, weld , anvil, fence, flood, whale, softening, take off, old-timer, cautious, be surprised, encouraged, dressed venerable, retire, seal, pay, bounty.
Exercise 2
1. The sea after the storm still breathed cold ... house and did not let the sun heat ... pour air. When a thick cloud floated on the sun, the grater intensified. The tr...pinka at first smoldered among the low h...lms, then straight and strongly pulled upwards, through a thick, f...thick walnut forest (Nag.). 2. In nature, animals, birds, insects are divided into day ... out and night .... Can it be that people, in whom all nature is gathered, have, over a relatively short time of their existence on earth, smoothed out this radical difference in themselves? (Prishv.). 3. Mikhail pulled out his lips and tried to imitate the nightingale (Alex.). 4. The music that I heard as a child, twisted ... froze in me, froze ... did not, and those of her ups to the sky, to the stars ... here, from which I once cried, dissolved ... rushed into the heart (Ast.). 5. At midnight, over the city ... the house ... rolled a heavy ... yellow rumble. The wind owned ... the bodies through the window, blew the curtains ... the weights and rushed off again (Paust.). 6. The pike flickered ... rushed, the fisherman ... sank into the ice water, but did not let go of the spear, disappeared under the water ..., emerged near the ice, crawled out ... and pulled out the catch ... pike (Prishv.).
Unchecked unstressed vowels
There are many words in Russian whose root vowels cannot be checked by stress. The spelling of such words is determined by the spelling dictionary. This includes both native Russian and borrowed words. Here is some of them: aboriginal, antagonism, badminton, beefsteak, briolin, vestibule, vinaigrette, bagpipes, range, delicacy, airship, demagogue, dependency, initiative, bondage, cannonade, burner, criminology, holster, koschey, macaque, waste paper, obsession, charm, occasion, optimism, panorama, panegyric, privilege, front garden, plasticine, confusion, tunnel, utilitarian, Esperanto.
Exercise 3. Rewrite with missing letters. Check the spelling of words with missing vowels in a dictionary.
I. 1. K... nareika twirled a pretty x... shaved head, tilting it down and to one side (Kupr.). 2. Sometimes these loud voices birds poured in and a quiet song to ... noplyanki (M. G.). 3. Green garlands of oak leaves, mixed with bouquets of asters, g... orgins, l... vkoev and gv... zdiki, twisted around the steel body of the machine (Kupr.). 4. Gypsies occupied everything, who brought a whole t ... bun of horses covered with p ... pony (Bui). 5. The cruiser is gone. Only a cloud of steam and smoke thickly swirled over the place, to ... t ... stanzas (N.-Prib.). 6. The time will come (and it is not far off), the Russian language will be studied in all m...r...dians the globe(A.T.) 7. The sea surrounded the shore with continuously rotating shafts (Bun.). 8. The forest is generous with entertainment. Either a squirrel will jump from branch to branch, then, deafeningly flapping its wings, a grater will break out of a walnut bush (Sol.). 9. We went down to the length ... and, as soon as we found water, we immediately stopped among the oak woodlands (Are.). 10. The moon has already disappeared behind the close city ... region ... an umbrella of black mountains that were visible to the right, and threw their weak and trembling half-light on the tops, sharply opposite to the impenetrable darkness that covered their soles (L. T.).
II. Av...kado, alg...rhythm, b...calaur, ch...diator, d...ndrariy, k...n...paty, m...rinist, curse... macia, v...n...gret, g...relief, zab...tint, k...l...ncha, k...rogaz, k...mp...new, lum...n...scene, f...salt, b...kl...zhan, g...rpun, gr...m...zdit, closed...chanel, l. ..sq...dir, m...sol, burnt, p...rl...mutr, forward...rd, aqua...rel, b...athlon, c. ..trushka, in ... rn ... soot.
III. Zaind...vely, k...rburator, k...rosin, k...gorta, l...wanda, m...l...nholik, m...zaika, n... cturne, p...mflet, p...t...cantrop, v...deville, d...letant, id...alzation, k...nguru, n... in ... dzhenie, ... heat, per ... scope, r ... zeda, f ... rvater, g ... g ... moniya.
Alternating vowels in roots
Writing alternating vowels in roots e/i; o/a; a/i/im; a/i/in depends on the accent the nature of the consonant before which there is a vowel in the root; from the suffix following the root; from the lexical meaning of roots.
1. Emphasis, i.e. according to the phonetic principle, the spelling of vowels is determined in the following roots:
Gar - / - mountains - - it is written under stress a: zag a r, uga r, naga r; without accent - o: zag o rely, burn, burn, burn, burnout.
Exceptions: in s(specialist.), and sg r(dial.), pr and g r(colloquial);
Zar-/-zor- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: z a revo, dawn, dawn; without accent - a : s and rya, zarnitsa, illumine, illumination, behind the roar, zaryanka.
Exception: h oh roar;
Clan-/-clone- - the vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: cl but to get down, bow n; without accent - o: pok bow down, bow down, bow down and etc.;
Tvar-/-tvor- - a vowel is written under stress in accordance with the pronunciation: tv o rchestvo, creature; without accent - o:tv to turn, to turn, to shut up and etc.
Exception: approved a p(non-derivative);
Plav-/-plov- - in an unstressed position, the letter o is written in only two words: pl oh vec, swimmer. In other cases, it is written a: pl a vuchiy, float wok, swimmer, swimmer( swimming beetle). In the word pl s wun(special) is written ы in accordance with the pronunciation.
2. The quality of the consonant before which the root vowel is located determines the spelling of the roots:
Cas-/-kos(n)-- before the consonant n is written about: k o dream, touch; in other cases - a : k but to sit, tangent;
Lag-/-false-- before the consonant g is written a: speculate, suppose, speculate; before the consonant w it is written about: izl o live, offer to live, put to live.
Exception: log (non-derivative);
Rast-/- rasch-/-ros-- in an unstressed position is written only before the following st and u: you grow, grown, overgrowth, sprouted, age, plant; in other cases - o: ex o sla, water sli, poro sl.
Exception: neg a sl(although there is no combination of st); R o stock, usurer, Rostov, Rostislav(although there is a combination of st) and derivatives from them;
Skak-/-skoch- - without stress but is written only before k: presk how to jump, jump on, jump on; before h it is written about: zask ochit, upstart.
Note. It is necessary to distinguish in writing the form of the 1st person of the future tense, as well as the imperative mood of the verbs zask and kat(start jumping) and zask about chit(go in for a while); respectively: zask a chu and zask a chi- zask oh choo and zask oh chi.
3. The spelling of the roots depends on the suffix following the root: -bar-/-ber-, -dir-/-der-, -mir-/-mer-, -fir-/-per-, -tir-/-ter-, -blist-/-glitter-, -zhig -/-burned-, -steel-/-steel-, -chit-/-even-- a vowel and is written if the suffix -a- follows the root; in other cases, it is written e: prib and ra t - take ru; zadi ra t - zade ru; freeze - freeze - die - die - die; lock up - lock up; erase - erase - wipe; to shine - to shine, to shine, to shine, to shine; survive ga t - higher than g; zast la t - zastit pour; subtract - subtract t, subtract(but: vych and tat - calculation- from h and thief).
Exceptions : combine, combination, match(from the root -even-);
In alternating roots im / a (P.), in / a (P.), combinations are written im, in, if the root is followed by the suffix -a-: szh ima - compress, charge - take, hug - hug, occupy - take, pay attention - take in, take in - take in.
4. The spelling of the roots differs in meaning:
Mok-(-moch-)/-poppy- - in words with the meaning “to pass liquid; lose their qualities for a long time in the water "the root is written -mok-(-moch-): prom rolling paper, waterproof raincoat, soaked fish; in words with the meaning "immerse in liquid" the root is written -mak-: m and roll bread in sour cream, dip the brush in paint;
Equal- / -even- - in words with the meaning "equal, on a par, the same" the root is written -equal-: then but to join the truck, height alignment; in words with the meaning "straight, smooth, even" the root is written -even-: vyr o listen to the flower beds, leveled area, trim the bangs.
Exceptions: p and vnina, peer, poro vnu, level.
Note. If the verb is followed by an addition with the preposition c, then the root is always written -equal-: Do not compare but get along with him; however, in obsolete circulation cf. oh heed with the earth(destroy to the ground) is written about.
Exercise 4. Write by inserting the missing letters. Underline the roots in the underlined words.
Pl ... sounding bridge, freeze ... freeze; out of fear, look at the tops of the trees, get ready ... to go on the road, lock the door, a brilliant answer, a green river ... a drain, a dress on the cut ... st, stop. .. make a bed, bow ... to talent, evening starry ... drop in ... for an hour, skip ... chi around the room, edema ... chi to the side, find fault with everything , hopping gait, unacceptable intercourse, difficult exercise, equivalent values, take ... to take into account opponents, state ... to live facts, imported light ... jackdaw, constant cash ... knowledge, copious expiration ... talent, admirers of talent, terrible disgust .. .shchenie, wash ... whip in the rain, unthinkable o ... building, kindle ... hostility, disposition ... of the army, ur ... heed in rights, sit back ... rshis.
Exercise 5. Insert the missing spellings. Explain your choice.
1. The kitten is only a few hours old, it still cannot swim, it sticks upright in the water, like a float ... wok, but this newborn is seven meters long and weighs five tons. And the miracle baby will begin to p ... sti not by the day, but by the hour (Nad.). 2. Koshevoi and the foremen took off their hats and bowed ... bowed in all directions (G.). 3. Quickly and deftly, she spread ... shed hay, cut ... heeded him, turned the wounded man over (Closed). 4. About ten years ago, several thousand acres ... were won in Polissya and still have not been paid ... (T.). 5. 3 ... rya blazed with fire and engulfed half the sky (T.). 6. In the hand, a glossy high cylinder shines (Bl.). 7. All the officers were counted by seventeen people (L.T.). 8. Two minutes later, we ... got together with a man (P.). 9. The doctor put an end to it, blew ... a blue prom ... with a porridge written and raised his eyes (Ast.). 10. At first, Mumu was very weak, frail and ugly, but little by little she managed and straightened out ... (T.). 11. The birch trees were all white, without shine, white, like freshly fallen snow, to which the coldly playing ray of the winter sun had not yet touched (T.).
Exercise 6. Rewrite with missing letters. Explain the spelling of words with missing letters.
1. Quietly died ... fogs over the river (Ast.). 2. From dawn to dawn, the fire did not go out behind Igritsia (Alex.). 3. With the first sounds, with the awakening of people, the mists ... were removed into the logs, gorges ... (Ast). 4. In its swaying reflections, every now and then ... the bent figure of a worker became (Alex.). 5. In some places we crouched ... to crawl under ... a leaning pine, saxifrages intertwined in the bushes ... (Ast.). 6. He stood, listened and looked down ... at the sea ... of the fiery tops of the forest that spread out before him under the mountain ... (L.T.). 7. The birds were louder and busier ... running in the thicket (L.T.). 8. I shuddered, cringed, licked the bitter drops from my lips, and my grandmother wiped ... my cropped head with her palm ... assuring that from r ... sy and from the rain people r ... get big, big (Ast .). 9. The fog pressed closer and closer to the ground... (Ast.). 10. In two rows on both sides ... anises lined up ... (Alex.). 11. A long time ago, created ... the world lived its own unique complex and eternal life (Alex.). 12. In front of the windows, the Small Meadows immediately began ... stretching ... to the Saltykovskaya Mountain turning blue in the distance (Alex.). 13. From the coastal dawns ... the sley rose wild ducks(Alex.). 14. The forest answered him with the submissive rustle of yellowing leaves, growing with the noise of falling trees (Alex.). 15. Mikhail stretched out his lips and tried to imitate the nightingale (Alex.). 16. ... And in the end, frozen ... the roar for a moment, crumbled into a large hail ... (Alex.). 17. The music that I heard in childhood broke in me, froze ... froze, and those of its ups to the sky, to the star, from which I once cried, ... dissolved in my heart (Ast). 18. In the intervals of perfect silence, a flurry of last year's leaves was heard (L.T.). 9 .... Weasel, shuddering, carefully stepped over a few steps and, folding her head to one side, began to listen (L.T.). 20. Before Ulka had time to think through to the end, as a guy since ... he took up with her and blocked the road (Alex.). 21. His cheeks turned red, his eyes lit up ... and angrily, almost angrily, stared at her (Bob.). 22. Tenacious, always cold hop leaves fell asleep on my face (Ast.). 23. I freeze ... paradise in delight (Lesk.). 24. There the fire of the car goes out and another one is lit ... the fire of the hearth or fireplace (Hound.). 25. All victories begin with victories over oneself (Leon.).