Formation of Russian vocabulary development of borrowed words in the Russian language. Mastering foreign words in Russian

Semantic development is such a process, as a result of which a foreign word enters the system of concepts of the borrowing language.

The vast majority of borrowings used in our speech are semantically mastered. These words are basically the names of those realities, concepts that have entered the life of Russian people for many years, in the process of contacts with other peoples. This is the designation of household items: sconce, sideboard, wardrobe, sofa, carpet, dressing table etc.; names of dishes, drinks: entrecote, vermicelli, goulash, cocoa, pasta, stew, citro etc.; names of types of clothing: pants, blouse, blouson, jeans, tuxedo etc.; political terms: democracy, dictatorship, pluralism, populism etc.; economics terms: share, dividend, loan etc.; titles related to science and art: axiom, hypothesis, theory, vaudeville, dramaturgy, comedy, stage; sport names: basketball, volleyball, hockey, tennis, football; names of modes of transport: bus, metro, taxi, trolleybus etc. At the same time, we can note such cases of semantic assimilation when a borrowed word, denoting a phenomenon that existed before in our system of concepts, introduces additional semantic nuances into the meaning of the corresponding Russian word. Yes, the Latin word opus("work, work") in Russian began to be used for the name of a separate piece of music, denoted by a serial number in a number of other works of this composer. Borrowed from English comfort("convenience") began to denote the totality of household amenities, the well-being and comfort of a home, public institutions, etc.

Along with semantically assimilated words in our speech, there are many such foreign words that denote concepts that are unusual for Russian reality. In the famous story by I.A. Bunin's "The Gentleman from San Francisco" we read: "The route was chosen by the gentleman from San Francisco is extensive. In December and January, he hoped to enjoy the sun of Southern Italy, ancient monuments, tarantella, serenades of itinerant singers..."; "The driver, a scrawny * man with red eyes, in an old jacket with short sleeves and in knocked-down shoes, was hungover - all night playing dice in trattoria, and kept whipping his strong horse, undressed in Sicilian style ... The highlighted words denote realities that reflect the national characteristics of Italian life. Tarantella - the name of an Italian folk dance performed at a fast pace, accompanied by guitar playing, tambourine beats, castanets, and sometimes singing; trattoria - a small restaurant, a tavern, where the menu certainly includes spaghetti with tomato sauce and red dry wine, beloved by Italians.

* Kvoly - frail.

Tarantella, trattoria these are exoticisms, i.e. words denoting objects, phenomena, unusual for Russian life. Exoticisms do not have synonyms in the Russian language, since they reflect the specific that is in the life of another people. Therefore, they can be translated into Russian only descriptively.

Exotic vocabulary reflects the most diverse aspects of the life of a particular country: its life(in the names of dwellings, types of clothing, food, drinks): bungalow, saklya, chum;anorak, bubu, geta, kimono, veil, sari, sombrero;couscous, lobio, mate, spaghetti;culture(in the names of dances, musical instruments, specific literary genres, etc.): Krakowiak, Polonaise, Rumba, Samba, Tarantella;kantele, samisen, trembita;zecca(one of the types of Chinese poetry is a quatrain), tank(an unrhymed quintuple in Japanese poetry), haiku(non-rhyming terse); socio-political groupings,institutions,estates,posts etc.: lobby, Mujahideen, Knesset, ninja, samurai etc. Many exoticisms reflect the realities associated with the religion of a particular people, with its beliefs: guru, Quaker, priest, priest, mullah, muezzin, prelate, rabbi, church, mosque, minaret etc. Exoticisms also include the names of phenomena that reflect the peculiarities of geography and climate: mistral, prairie, simum, sirocco etc.

The listed thematic groups of exoticisms (and this, of course, is by no means all groups) are basically the names of specific concepts. But exoticisms can also denote abstract concepts that exist in the minds of a people as an obligatory element of its culture and are perceived by other people as specific. Such is the exotic hara-kiri, denoting suicide by ripping open the abdomen. But this is not an ordinary suicide, but one that was accepted among the Japanese samurai and was committed by sentence or voluntarily if the honor of the samurai was affected. Japanese bushido("way of the warrior") is the name of the Japanese samurai's code of conduct, which implies loyalty to the overlord, recognizing military affairs as the only occupation worthy of a samurai.

And here is how one of the specific abstract Japanese concepts is explained kokoro in the book by G. Grigorieva "Born by the Beauty of Japan": " Kokoro - the most important concept of the Japanese mentality. It is difficult for him to find an analogue in our language. Kawabata, speaking about the difference between the spirit of Western and Japanese cultures, saw the difference in "our kokoro". Kokoro - sentient mind and thinking sense. It is through kokoro the process of intuitive knowledge takes place: think with the heart, feel with the mind ... In the explanatory Japanese dictionary Kojien kokoro - knowledge, feeling and will together, a sign of the spirituality of things" *.

* Grigorieva G. Born by the beauty of Japan. M., 1993. S. 39 - 40.

Despite the fact that exoticisms denote words that are not included in the Russian system of concepts, some of them are reflected in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language and in dictionaries of foreign words. These are the exoticisms that occur quite regularly both in original Russian and in translated literature; these include most of the above exotic words. But the meaning of such exoticisms as bushido, sabi, can only be found in special dictionaries, comments*.

* See, for example, in the book: Akutagawa Ryunosuke. Pygmy Words: Stories. Memories. Essay. Letters. – Comments. M., 1992. S. 544 - 592.

The process of semantic development can also occur gradually. The fastest words that enter the system of concepts of the Russian language are those that name specific objects that have come to us from other countries, especially household items. Recall the playful commentary that accompanies A.S. Pushkin's description of Onegin's outfit: "I could describe his outfit before the learned world, Of course, it would be bold, Describe my own business: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest. All these words are not in Russian, But I see, I apologize to you, That even so my poor syllable could be much less colorful With foreign words ... "Pushkin, who had a brilliant sense of language, defends before his supposed opponents the right to use those borrowed words , which, although recently, have already entered the Russian lexicon as the only possible names for realities that appeared in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century*.

* The novelty of these words for the Russian language is also confirmed by the data of dictionaries. Word trousers first recorded in 1834, tailcoat - in 1806, vest - in 1803.

The process of mastering abstract concepts takes longer. In the same "Eugene Onegin" we find the French word comme il faut and English vulgar, transmitted using Latin graphics: commeilfaut, vulgar. Talking about Onegin's meeting with Tatyana at a St. Petersburg ball, Pushkin describes his heroine as follows: "She was unhurried, not cold, not talkative, Without a look, impudent for everyone, Without claims to success, Without these little antics. Without imitative undertakings ... Everything is quiet, it was just in her, She seemed like a sure shot. Du comme il faut...(Shishkov, I'm sorry, I don't know how to translate) ". And a little lower: "No one could call her beautiful; but from head to toe No one could find in her What autocratic fashion In a high London circle Is called vulgar.(I can’t... I love this word very much, But I can’t translate it; It’s new for us for the time being, And it’s unlikely to be honored. It would fit in an epigram...)". estimates borrowed by the Russian aristocracy from European countries in the first quarter of the nineteenth century ( comme il faut - what corresponds to the norms, rules of decency; vulgar - vulgar, trivial, simple, rude, bad taste). And Tatyana's characterization, preceding the use of the word commeilfaut and representing its almost encyclopedic interpretation, and the ironic comments that Pushkin supplements with new words for the Russian reader, allow us to assume with a sufficient degree of probability that in the first third of the 19th century both words only entered the system of Russian concepts and had not yet fully gone through the process of semantic development*.

* This is also confirmed by the data of explanatory dictionaries of the 19th century, in which the word comme il faut first recorded only in 1864, and the word vulgar - in 1837.

In our time, there is also a process of rapid assimilation of words that were quite recently exoticisms. Socio-political, socio-economic transformations in our lives have led to the semantic development of such words as businessman, broker, voucher, vice, marketing, management, mayor, city hall, rating, sponsor, supermarket and many others*.

* Some of these words were used in Russian before, but as a means of diversifying speech.

Along with exoticisms, barbarisms are often found in our speech. Barbarisms are foreign words denoting realities, phenomena that exist in our life and are included in the system of concepts of the Russian language. Unlike exoticisms, barbarisms can be translated into Russian with a single word without any semantic loss: good fight(English), orevoir(fr.), Chao(igal.) - goodbye!; sorry(fr.), sorry(English) - I'm sorry, I'm sorry; quantum tantum(lat.) - insofar as; et cetera(lat.) - and so on; cito(lat.) - urgently; ego(lat.) - I; nihil(lat.) - nothing, etc.

Barbarisms can be displayed in writing both with the help of Russian letters, and while maintaining the graphics of the source language (see the examples above), and sometimes they are found in two spellings: de facto(lat. "in fact, put on") - de facto;de jure(lat. "legally, by right") - de jure; All will be o "keu - o" kay(the last version conveys the graphic image of one of the headings of the Moskovsky Komsomolets newspaper).

Barbarisms are not recorded in explanatory dictionaries of the Russian language. The exception is the Dictionary of D.M. Ushakov, at the end of the 4th volume of which an appendix "Foreign words and expressions" is given, which includes foreign words found in Russian texts in non-Russian spelling. Dictionaries of foreign words usually end with the same appendix. In addition, there are specialized reference manuals that contain barbarisms used (or used) in Russian literature. The most famous is the two-volume dictionary by A.M. Babkina, V.V. Shendetsova*.

* Babkin A.M., Shendetsov V.V. Dictionary of foreign expressions and words. Vol. 1, 2. 2nd ed. M.; L. 1981 - 1987.

semantic development of borrowings

O.A. FROLOVA

SEMANTIC DEVELOPMENT of borrowings

One of the signs of the entry of a foreign word into the borrowing language is semantic development, namely, the certainty of meaning, the differentiation of meanings and their shades between the words and borrowings that existed in the language.

Keywords: adaptation; borrowing; LSV; polysemy; semantics; transterminologization.

One of the features of a foreign word entering the borrowing language is its semantic development, i.e. definiteness of the meaning, differentiation of meanings and their shades among words and borrowings existing in the language.

Keywords: adaptation; borrowing; LSV (lexi-co-semantic variant); polysemy; semantics; transterminologization.

The semantic development of borrowings in the Russian language is their inclusion in the lexical-semantic system of the host language, in various series and chains of dependencies inherent in the vocabulary of the recipient language. In modern Russian, this process is very active. Depending on the measure of semantic assimilation, two groups of borrowings can be distinguished: 1) words that have hardly undergone rethinking; 2) words in the semantics of which certain changes have occurred (selectivity of meaning, narrowing of meaning, expansion of meaning, acquisition of a new meaning).

In Russian, most borrowings retain the semantics characteristic of the source language, i.e. the meanings of the source language are completely transferred to the semantics of the recipient language. This group includes words such as genesis (Greek genesis origin, occurrence); duel (fr. duel duel); dune (fr. dune sand drift); distributor (English distributor distributor); realtor (eng. realtor real estate agent); provider (eng. provider supplier, supplier), etc.

At the same time, linguists are aware of the processes of lexico-semantic changes that occur during the adaptation of borrowed words. Let us note those of them to which the extensive language material that is available today points us.

There is a group of borrowings with a selectively coinciding meaning, which illustrates the selective mastering of the semantics of the source language. Foreign words of this group are polysemic, however, when a lexeme passes into Russian, the latter does not borrow all the meanings, but only one or several of them. For example: business (English business activity, profession, commercial activity, transaction); service (eng. service occupation, service, service, communication); site (English site place, area, site); image (English image image, reflection, sculpture, copy, embodiment, reputation); clearing (clearing clarification, explanation, clearing); collage (fr. collage gluing); installation (it. Installation installation, installation); showman (English showman is the owner of a circus, an attraction, a specialist in organizing public spectacles); ring (eng. ring ring, circle, circus arena, wrestling ground); racket (English racket - a wild lifestyle, blackmail, extortion, fraud, easy money, a dubious source of income), etc.

Other semantic processes, such as: narrowing the meaning, expanding the meaning, acquiring a new meaning, are represented in the Russian language to a lesser extent.

During adaptation, there may be an expansion of the meaning of the English etymon, which is explained by a number of reasons. For example, English. bluff "deceit, intimidation" -bluff "invention for the purpose of showing off or to intimidate someone"; "in card game poker is a technique when a player acts in such a way that his opponents consider his cards to be winning” - there was an expansion of the meaning, a complication of the semantic structure due to the development of a secondary meaning. The word hattrick was first borrowed to mean "three goals scored by one player in one game." Later, the Russian language borrowed another LSV - "a situation where one athlete or one team takes first place in three types of competition."

AT recent times updated in a special sense the word summary. It has long and firmly been mastered by the Russian language in the sense of “a brief conclusion from what was said, written or read” and is recorded in all modern explanatory dictionaries, starting with the dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov. AT modern language it acquired a special meaning, particular in relation to the noted general: the text, which is achievement list and other data about the job seeker, including the size of the desired wages, any preferences and gender. Such resumes are usually compiled by the applicants themselves. This has become relevant in recent years, when the Internet has become the most common way to find a job.

The word boutique is borrowed from the French language: boutique - shop, shop, small shop, workshop. It is interesting that in the very French it was replaced by the noun magazine (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when French trade was being restructured on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) no longer suited sellers who needed spacious and roomy stores. In Russian, this word “increased in rank” began to mean a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language called an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object. A boutique is not necessarily a small store (although one of the original meanings was that it was a small store, usually located in the same building as a workshop of a particular company). Originally in Russian, a boutique store of fashionable exclusive clothes. By the end of the 90s of the XX century, the meaning of the lexeme expanded: the word boutique began to mean not only a clothing store, but also many other goods (finishing materials boutique, mobile boutiques, jewelry boutique, antique boutique, perfume boutique, flower boutique, souvenir boutique, shoe boutique, etc.).

The noun defile (French defile - the passage of troops at a review, a string, a procession, a gorge, a gorge, a passage) entered the Russian language long ago and was first recorded in the explanatory dictionary edited by D.N. Ushakov in the meaning of “gorge; tight, narrow passage. AT modern dictionaries the defile lexeme is given with the mark military. In the explanatory dictionary of foreign words L.P. Rat is given the following definition: defile - a gorge or a narrow passage (between mountains, swamps, etc.), usually used to detain the enemy. In the last ten-

this noun defile began to be used in a different meaning - “showing fashion clothes”, but gradually it expands. The following combinations became possible: teaching defile, picture defile, teaching defile, setting up defile, etc. The language fashion "pushes" the active use of the word, and the language fashion, especially in initial stage occurrences of a word, can expand and "somewhat lubricate" the linguistic meaning.

There are many examples of this kind: experiencing a pragmatic need to name new concepts, the language seeks to “load” with the meanings those sound complexes (formatives) that it has already absorbed. An interesting example in this regard is the word happeninging, which first appeared in the meaning of "a kind of dramatic performance", and recently the main meaning of the etymon was re-borrowed - "something that happened, happened."

The expansion of the semantic volume occurs due to transterminologization different values. In this respect, the borrowing of English dumping is indicative: the specialization of its two meanings in the process of adaptation is confirmed not only by different LSVs of non-coinciding term systems, but also by their different pronunciation / spelling - dumping (economic) - export of goods at bargain prices and dumping (technical) - technology disposal of industrial waste.

There is also an expansion of the semantic structure of borrowings due to a change in the subject-conceptual correlation of the word in connection with a change in the designated realities: driver, server, rating, etc. Separate words associated with the computer sphere receive new meanings, for example, start - “start sending / receiving a fax”, page - “in the meaning of the home page”, click - “click the mouse button”.

A more advanced stage of adaptation characterizes the appearance figurative meaning in a number of Anglicisms it is on Russian soil. Let's take the word Sherpa as an example. AT English language it is a monosemantic and means "a representative of one of the peoples living in the Himalayas and having a special skill in overcoming mountain routes." Recently, it has acquired a figurative specialized meaning - "(in diplomacy) a specialist who prepares the ground for negotiations between senior government officials." A similar process is observed in body, which is also a monosemantic in English: the Russian semantic system codified body only as “fashionable lingerie”.

Examples of other semantic transformations: narrowing, concretization of meaning - lat. votum "desire" - a vote "a decision taken by a vote" (a vote of no confidence); change of meaning - it. der Maler - "painter" and Russian. painter - “worker for painting buildings, interior spaces”; fr. hasarad - "case" and Russian. passion - "passion, passion, ardor"; Turkic tavar - "cattle, domestic animal" (as an object of exchange) - Russian. goods - “everything that is the subject of trade”, respectively - tavar + is (goods + search) - “companion in the exchange of livestock” and Russian. comrade - "friend, friend."

The description of the process of semantic adaptation will be incomplete without mentioning such a linguistic phenomenon as semantic borrowing. Some words are more early period, which came to English and Russian from Latin, Greek and French, in the recent past expanded their semantic structure, first in English, and then it was these new meanings that appeared

lis in the corresponding Russian words. So, the new LSV of the word menu means “a list of options, usually displayed on a computer screen and offering a set of commands and actions”, and a pirate has acquired the meaning of “a person who infringes on copyright in the field of video and audio products or any other copyright products”.

The process of adaptation is subjected not only to the denotative component of the meaning, but also to the connotative one. As the analysis of the factual material showed, the correlation of new components of the value does not have an unambiguous relationship. For example, the word sequel, which is neutral in English, in Russian acquired a negative assessment of “usually an unsuccessful continuation of a movie or book”, probably under the influence of TV serials. soap operas. Over time, it, like its etymon, became neutral. And, conversely, the word speech, having appeared in the borrowing language with a positive connotation (speech = official short speech), subsequently changed the sign of the assessment from plus to minus. There are also examples of how both the etymon and the loanword retain a negative connotation: skinhead - skinhead (skin).

Note that most of The latest borrowings are distributed among actively developing thematic and semantic fields existing in the language, such as fashion, sports, computer terminology, economics, etc., so their adaptation is much faster.

most large group currently form words that have not yet become, and many of which will never become facts of the language - foreign inclusions.

Semantic adaptation is a long and complex process associated with the transfer of properties of the original vocabulary to borrowed words, which manifests itself in the gradual (gradual-gradual) formation of lexico-semantic, stylistic, derivational, phraseological and other connections in the system of the borrowing language. These connections are confirmed by new lexico-semantic variants that arise in the semantic structure of a borrowed word as a result of the acquired ability to semantic shifts.

Literature

1. Burova E.A. Lexical gallicisms in modern Russian: a pragmatic aspect: Abstract of the thesis. diss. ... cand. philol. Sciences. - Rostov-on-Don, 2004.

2. Efremova T. F. New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language. -M., 2000.

3. Krysin L.P. Dictionary foreign words. - M., 2001.

4. Maksimova T.V. Borrowings in the context of linguistic cultures: Anglo-Russian parallels // Tauride National University, 2004. - http://www.crimea.edu/

5. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: In 4 volumes / Ed. D.N. Ushakov. - M., 1995.

In order to become a borrowing, a word that came from a foreign language must gain a foothold in a new language for itself, firmly enter its vocabulary - as many foreign words entered the Russian language, such as bread,mug,umbrella,score,cat,horse,dog,monkey,tie,compote,tractor,tank,harbor,sail,icon,church,choir,sport,market,bazaar,music,railway station,the car,Goal,hut,glass,herring,soup,cucumber,tomato,cutlet,potato,pot,plate,tea,sugar etc., many of which turned out to be so mastered by the Russian language that only linguists know about their foreign language origin.

When borrowing, the word is adapted to the phonological system of the borrowing language, i.e. the missing sounds in it are replaced by the closest ones. This adaptation can occur gradually: sometimes foreign words for some time retain sounds in their pronunciation that are absent in this language - as, for example, in the German words Chance, Restorant borrowed from the "prestigious" French language (both words are pronounced "in the French manner » with a nasal vowel). In a borrowed from the same French Russian word jury also pronounced missing in Russian sound - soft well. In the word summary before the final spelling e a consonant sound is pronounced, intermediate between hard and soft (the so-called 3rd softening). Until recently, a similar sound was pronounced, for example, in the word Cafe; now in this word, as in many others that came from French earlier ( pince-nez, scarf etc.), a hard consonant is pronounced. Thus, adaptation to the phonological system of the borrowing language takes place. The next stage of this process of mastering a foreign word is to replace hard consonants before spelling e to soft ones. With a hard consonant, for example, words are pronounced neckline,phoneme,timbre,pace etc.; with soft - more "mastered" Russian words subject,decree,flight,theatre,telephone,safe etc. Many words allow fluctuations in pronunciation (i.e. are "halfway"): a computer,dean,mayonnaise,awning etc.

In addition to phonetic, the borrowed word also undergoes grammatical (morphological) adaptation. The nature of this adaptation depends on how appearance of the borrowed word corresponds to the morphological patterns of the borrowing language. Words like sport or railway station, easily entered the Russian language, immediately falling into the morphological class of masculine words of the 2nd declension (which includes the words table, house etc.). But, for example, the word shampoo, having got into the Russian language, did not immediately acquire a stable category of the gender, having as a sample both words of the masculine gender of the type horse or the fire, and feminine words like rubbish or sagebrush; respectively, the form of creativity. case was like shampoo, and shampoo(subsequently, the masculine gender was assigned to this word). It is precisely because of the existence of a powerful mechanism for assimilation to existing models that such resistance from the Russian language meets the notorious masculine gender of the word prescribed by the norm coffee, which is automatically likened to words of the middle gender - such as field or grief.

The words Greek origin on the -ma- such as the problem or system, - in Russian belong to the feminine gender, since the final -a(which was part of the stem in Greek) is interpreted as an ending inherent in Russian feminine words. AT German, where the relationship between the ending of a word and its morphological gender is much less pronounced, and thus there is no pressure from the system of the borrowing language in this place, all words ascending to Greek words on -ma, are neuter - like their Greek counterparts (das Problem, das System, das Thema, etc.); in French and Italian, where there is no neuter, such words are masculine.

Of the stream of foreign words that floods the language in times of social upheaval and scientific and technological revolutions, only a certain part is retained. The process of adaptation of foreign words, controlled, like all linguistic processes, primarily by intralinguistic factors, can be regulated to some extent by extralinguistic forces - at least, the possibility of human and society intervention in this process is greater than in the case when we are talking about phonetic and especially grammatical changes. There are always conservative forces in the language community that prevent the penetration of foreign words "clogging" it into the language - as well as all innovations in general (changes in pronunciation, including stress, shifts in meaning, penetration into literary language jargon, professionalism, etc.). The defense of a language from foreign words usually also has a pronounced ideological connotation. However, regardless of the ideological aspirations that gave rise to them, such conservative forces objectively perform a very important social function of maintaining the natural balance between the old and the new, which is necessary for the normal functioning of the language.

Sometimes the language community even takes administrative measures. So, in France, in order to fight, first of all, with anglicisms, a list of approximately 3,000 words was recently introduced, limiting the use of foreign words in texts created in French intended for the media (television, advertising, etc.).

Penetrating into the Russian language (as a rule, together with a borrowed object, phenomenon or concept), many foreign words were subjected to phonetic, morphological and semantic changes.

For example, double vowels ei, ai in Russian are most often transmitted as av and ev: eucalyptus (Greek eukalyptos), car (German Automobil), etc.

Changes of a morphological nature primarily include changes in endings, in some suffixes, as well as changes gender. So, foreign-language endings, as a rule, are replaced by Russian ones: decoration (from French décoration), extravaganza (from French féerie). Foreign suffixes that are not common in Russian are replaced by more common ones (sometimes also foreign ones): harmonic (from Gr. harmonikos), generation (from Lat. generatio), march (from German marschieren), etc.

Sometimes the gender of borrowed nouns changes: tie (German das Halstuch - neuter), parliament (German das Parlament - neuter), skittles (German der Kegel - masculine), bowling alley (German die Kegelbahn - feminine) , font (German die Schrift - feminine).

Often in the Russian language, the original meaning of words is also subject to change: German. der Maler - the painter received a new meaning - "painter", i.e. worker painting buildings, interiors, etc.; fr. hasard (excitement) - the case received the meaning of "passion, passion, ardor"; French adventure (adventure, adventure, adventure), dating back to lat. adventura - an accident, used in the meaning of "doubtful event, business", etc.

However, not all borrowed words are reformulated. It is not uncommon for foreign words to penetrate in their original form, for example: genesis (Greek genesis - genus, origin), duel (French duel), dunes (German Düne), palm tree (Latin palma), etc.

In addition to actual borrowings, the so-called calque is possible (fr. calque - a word or expression modeled on the corresponding units of a foreign language).

Tracing papers are: a) derivational, created by copying a foreign language method. They arise through the literal translation into Russian of individual significant parts words (prefixes, roots, etc.). For example, calques from Latin and Greek are: interjection (lat. Inter + jectio), adverb (lat. ad + verbium), spelling (gr. Orthos + graph), etc.; b) semantic, in which the meaning is borrowed. For example, touch (fr. toucher) in the meaning of “cause sympathy”, a nail (fr. le clou) in combination with a program nail, etc.

Word-building calques are known from Greek, Latin, German, French words, semantic calques - from French words.

In addition to complete lexical (word-forming and semantic) cripples, the Russian language also has semi-calculations, i.e. words in which, along with borrowed parts, there are also native Russian ones. According to the word-formation composition, these words are a copy of foreign words. Semicalcs include, for example, the word humanity (Russian suffix -ost).

The functional and stylistic role of foreign borrowed words is very diverse. Firstly, all the words of this group performed from the very beginning the main nominative function, since they were borrowed together with a certain (most often new) concept. They replenished the terminological systems, were also used as exoticisms (gr. exōtikos - foreign) in the description national characteristics to create local color. However, it is not uncommon to use them for certain stylistic purposes. The relevance of their inclusion in Russian texts different styles should be carefully thought out each time, since the abuse of foreign vocabulary leads to the fact that even texts designed for a wide range of readers or listeners may become partially incomprehensible and will not achieve the goal.

Valgina N.S., Rosenthal D.E., Fomina M.I. Modern Russian language - M., 2002.