The directly perceptible side of the form literary works- this is their verbal structure, or the features of their artistic speech.

In common usage, "speech" refers to a separate oratory (someone somewhere made a speech). In the philological sciences, this word has a broader meaning: "speech" is called not just one detailed oral statement, but the entire verbal activity of people, all and all of their statements, verbal expressions of thoughts in some national language.

Philologists, therefore, distinguish between speech and language. Language is that stock of words and those grammatical principles of their combination in sentences that live in the minds of people of one or another nationality and with the help of which these people can always communicate with each other.

Speech is language in action, it is the very process of verbal communication between people, which always occurs in certain conditions of life and consists in the expression of certain thoughts, colored by certain feelings and aspirations. To express thoughts and feelings that arise in different conditions of life, people find in the general vocabulary mother tongue various words and expressions and, applying them in their speech, use the general grammatical principles inherent in their language in different ways.

This means that a certain selection of words and certain syntactic constructions in speech depend on the features of the emotional and mental content of certain statements. So, the speech of scientific and philosophical works differs greatly in this respect from the speech of political journalistic articles and oratory speeches, or from the speech of legal and clerical documents, or from the speech of religious books and rituals, or from the speech of works of art.

All this different kinds speeches in which individual statements are always distinguished by their social orientation, external completeness and are usually made out in writing.
Colloquial speech, which is a process of verbal communication of people in everyday life, differs from these types of speech. In colloquial speech practice, individual statements are often devoid of completeness.

In oral colloquial speech, on the one hand, different linguistic territorial dialects, or dialects, are more or less clearly manifested, and on the other, various speech social dialects. Regional dialects historically arise as varieties of the national language, they are characteristic of the indigenous population of a certain area and show historically greater stability in phonetic, lexical and grammatical features. Social dialects belong to separate strata of society in different localities, depend on the originality of their spiritual and material culture, professions and historically are much more mobile and changeable.

On the basis of the national language with its local dialects, which are manifested mainly in oral speech practice, the literary language of a particular people arises. Literary language develops at a relatively high level cultural development people. It is gradually historically formed in written and oratory types of speech, especially in artistic, journalistic, legal speech, and in some eras also in the speech of church books and hymns. Written and oratorical types of speech, as a result of the complication of their socially oriented content, enrich the vocabulary and phonetics of the national language.

They create new words and phrases in it (sometimes borrowing them from other national languages), develop and improve its grammatical structure, subordinating all these aspects of the language to relatively stable, although historically changing norms. As a result, a national literary language emerges as a lexico-grammatical system, much richer and more perfect than regional dialects and social dialects.

But even in the national literary language, their own social, cultural, professional dialects can arise. Such, for example, is the literary speech of the educated strata of the Russian nobility, especially of the second half of the 18th and 19th centuries. In this social environment, many people from childhood mastered the French language, usually with the help of foreign tutors, and then introduced many French words and phrases - Gallicisms - into Russian literary speech. A different social dialect was distinguished, for example, by the literary speech of educated Russian raznochintsy in the second third of the 19th century.

Many people from this environment have reached high level education, having received elementary education in church educational institutions - burses, seminaries, theological academies; later in their written works - scientific, journalistic, literary-critical articles, novels, correspondence - they often used words and syntactic constructions characteristic of church books written in Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) language. These were Slavicisms in Russian literary speech.

So, it is necessary to distinguish between the national language with its regional dialects and with its historically developing and changing literary norms and the various types of speech that use this national language - oral and written - with its social dialects and different levels of literature.

Introduction to literary criticism: Proc. for philology.. spec. high fur boots / G.N. Pospelov, P.A. Nikolaev, I.F. Volkov and others; Ed. G.N. Pospelov. - 3rd ed., Rev. and additional - M.: Higher. school, 1988. - 528s.

Language and speech. Kinds speech activity. Speech situation and its components. Basic requirements for speech.

Language and speech Language is a system of signs that includes words with their meanings plus syntax - a set of rules by which sentences are built. Speech is language in action. Speech is a specifically human kind of linguistic activity that ensures the communication of people and their socio-historical development.

Types of speech activity Speech can be: 1) External or internal. 2) Oral or written. 3) Passive (reading, listening) or active (speaking, writing). 4) Monologue or dialogue. 5) Fast or slow, 6) Short or long, 7) Clear, distinct or chaotic, 8) Emotionally expressive or monotonous, 9) Natural or mannered, 10) Quiet or loud, 11) Bright or inexpressive, 12) Intelligent or vulgar , 13) Literate or illiterate, etc.

Write down the word and its antonym Anger Attack Hope Mister Storm Frost Sluggish Boredom Trouble Shame Opponent Black Jump Beautiful Virgin soil Work Smooth Top Take Dull Praise Love Adagio Land Culture Woman Humanity Child Laughter Find

Check yourself Anger (kindness) 2) Master (servant, slave) 3) Sluggishness (agility, dexterity, agility) 4) Shame (honor, glory, honor) 5) Rival (partner, colleague, like-minded person) 6) Black ( white) 7) Jump (stand) 8) Beautiful (ugly, ugly, ugly) 9) Virgin land (arable land, arable land, cultivated land) 10) Humanity (cruelty, misanthropy) 11) Laughter (crying) 12) Attack (defense, protection) 13) Storm (peace, peace) 14) Boredom (fun) 15) Trouble (joy) 16) Peak (base, sole) 17) Dull (bright) 18) Love (hate) 19) Land (sea, water) 20) Culture (ignorance) 21) Woman (man) 22) Child (old man) 23) Find (loss) 24) Hope (despair) 25) Frost (heat, heat) 26) Work (rest, idleness) 27) Smooth ( rough) 28) Take (give away) 29) Praise (scold, abuse, criticism) 30) Adagio (allegro, presto, scherzo)

Speech communication Speech communication, speech communication is the communication of a person with a person: we speak, listen, read, write, translate. A speech situation is a complex combination of external circumstances and internal psychological reactions that encourage interlocutors to exchange information. Components of the speech situation: participants: addresser, addressee, audience; the subject of speech; circumstances: place, time, other significant conditions; communication channel - a method of communication - oral or written speech, conventional signs, etc. are used; code: language, dialect, style; speech genre, for example, a scientific report, conversation; event; goal - what could be, in the opinion of the participants, the result of speech in this situation; evaluating the effectiveness of the speech, for example, whether the report was of interest to the audience.

Speech culture, its main criteria Speech culture is the knowledge of the norms of oral and written literary language (rules of pronunciation, stress, word usage, grammar, style), as well as the ability to use the expressive means of the language in various conditions communication in accordance with the goals and content of speech. Criteria of culture of speech: Accuracy Correctness Consistency Communication expediency Expressiveness Clarity Richness Accessibility Relevance Purity Aesthetics

Homework 1. Write down one of the statements: There are three categories of speakers: some can be listened to, others cannot be listened to, and still others cannot be ignored. (Archbishop Magee) Speaking without thinking is like shooting without aiming. (Miguel de Cervantes) Caution in words is higher than eloquence. (F. Bacon) Write in the form of an essay, how do you understand this statement. 2. Learn the lecture materials.

3. Basic requirements for speech: correctness, accuracy, expressiveness, appropriateness of use language tools.

4. functional styles speeches and their features.

5. Conversational style of speech, its main features, scope of use.

The specific process of using verbal signs for the purpose of communication, formulating thoughts, evaluating various life manifestations is called speech. Speech is language in action. Speech intimately associated with the personality of a person and especially with his thinking. It reflects individual, age, gender, intellectual and professional features.

There are many types of speech activity. Speech can be:

1) External or internal. In external speech, a person is faced with a different understanding of the meanings of words. different people so there are often misunderstandings and misunderstandings. Inner speech (talk to oneself) is absolutely understandable to a person. It is harder to communicate with others than with yourself.

2) Oral or written. Writing is recorded speech.

3) Passive (reading, listening) or active (speaking, writing).

4) Monologue or dialogue.

Also, speech can be fast or slow, short or long, understandable, distinct or chaotic, emotionally expressive or monotonous, natural or mannered, quiet or loud, bright or inexpressive, intelligent or vulgar, literate or illiterate, etc.

Sometimes, even without knowing the meaning of words, we can understand what in question, from the context or focusing on the grammar.

Let's check our knowledge of the language and understanding of its internal structural connections, the ability to think logically.

An exercise. 30 words, alternately write down the word and its antonym. Words and correct answers to them:

1) Anger (kindness)

2) Lord (servant, slave)

3) Sluggishness (agility, dexterity, agility)

4) Shame (honor, glory, honor)

5) Opponent (partner, colleague, like-minded person)

6) Black (White)

7) Jump (stand)

8) Beautiful (ugly, ugly, ugly)

9) Virgin land (arable land, arable land, cultivated land)

10) Humanity (cruelty, misanthropy)

11) Laughter (crying)

12) Attack (defense, defense)

13) Storm (quiet, calm)

14) Boredom (fun)

15) Trouble (joy)

16) Top (base, sole)

17) Dim (bright)

18) Love (hate)

19) Land (sea, water)

20) Culture (ignorance)

21) Woman (man)

22) Child (old man)

23) Find (lost)

24) Hope (despair)

25) Frost (heat, heat)

26) Work (rest, idleness)

27) Smooth (rough)

28) Take (give)

29) Praise (swearing, swearing, criticism)

30) Adagio (allegro, presto, scherzo).

Count the number of correct answers. An antonym correctly guessed is 1 point. Words that are approximately correct (for example, “shame - pride” instead of “honor, glory”) are half a point. With good or satisfactory knowledge of the language and the ability to think logically, the result will be approximately 25-30 points.

According to the speech of a person, one can determine the features of his thinking. It is interesting to explore this characteristics of inner speech.

Speech- a specifically human kind of linguistic activity that ensures the communication of people and their socio-historical development.

Speech situation- a complex combination of external circumstances and internal psychological reactions that encourage interlocutors to exchange information. For speech to be effective, some principles must be observed:

Principle speech etiquette(talk to the listener as an equal partner, respect the listener's opinion, be interested in interacting with the listener).

Exist the following signs(components) of the speech situation:

members: addresser, addressee, audience;

subject of speech;

circumstances: place, time, other significant conditions;

communication channel- the method of communication - oral or written speech, conventional signs, etc. are used;

the code: language, dialect, style;

speech genre, for example, scientific report, conversation;

event;

goal- what could be, in the opinion of the participants, the result of speech in this situation;

evaluation of the effectiveness of speech, for example, whether the report interested listeners. (slide)

The speech situation is determined by such circumstances that force a person to say something - to participate in speech activity, while acting through speech in more or less strict accordance with the signs that determine the situation. The whole complex set of situational signs can be reduced to the following components: who - to whom - about what - where - when - why - why.

Correct, beautiful speech is characterized by the following properties : accuracy, consistency, purity, expressiveness, richness (variety) and relevance.

1. Even in ancient times, accuracy was recognized as the main advantage of speech.

The ability to speak well, write well and the ability to think correctly are interconnected. “He who thinks clearly, expresses clearly,” is a well-known aphorism. V. G. Belinsky noted: “The word reflects the thought: the thought is incomprehensible - the word is also incomprehensible.”

Accuracy is associated with knowledge of the subject of speech, the meaning of words, that is, with the culture of speech as a whole.

Speech Accuracy- this is mainly the correspondence of words to the designated objects (phenomena) of reality or the correspondence between the generally accepted meaning of the word and its use in speech.

Accuracy as the quality of speech is associated primarily with the lexical level in the language system, which means that the accuracy of speech can be understood as compliance with the norms of word usage in speech, if such norms are recognized.

There are two types of accuracy to be distinguished: subjective accuracy and conceptual accuracy.

The first type of accuracy is created by the extralinguistic (extralinguistic) connection between speech and reality. It consists in the correspondence of the content of speech to the circle of objects, phenomena of reality, which are displayed by speech. The speech should clearly present the phenomena of life, the objects and events of reality that are being spoken about. In this regard, a person should know well what he is talking about.

There is also conceptual accuracy - the correspondence of the content of speech to the system of concepts that is indicated in it. According to L. N. Tolstoy: "The word is an expression of thought, therefore the word must correspond to what it expresses."

The main conditions contributing to the creation of accurate speech are:

1) knowledge of the subject of speech;

2) knowledge of the language, its system, capabilities;

3) the ability to correlate knowledge of the subject with knowledge language system and its possibilities in a particular act of communication.

2. The following speech quality is consistency.

Logic can be broken even with the strict use of words. In order to achieve logical speech, it is necessary to achieve the semantic consistency of parts in one statement and the same consistency of statements in the whole text.

Consistency is associated primarily with the syntactic organization of both the utterance and the text. Logic is of two types:

1) conceptual logic;

2) objective logic.

essence subject consistency- in accordance with the semantic connections and relations of language units in speech with the connections and relations of objects and phenomena in reality. Conceptual logic is a reflection of the structure of logical thought and its logical development in the semantic connections of language elements in speech.

Logic condition:

1) mastering the logic of reasoning - "the norms or principles of correct reasoning in search of a new truth." Before one can learn to speak and write logically, one must learn to think logically;

2) knowledge of linguistic means that contribute to the organization of semantic connectedness and consistency of the elements of the speech structure.

3. Expressiveness of speech such features of its structure are called that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader, that is, speech that has these features will be called expressive.

Expression depends on different conditions. Among them are:

1) independence of thought. Stereotypical thinking and stereotyped feeling do not allow the sprouts of expressiveness to break through;

3) good knowledge of the language, its expressive possibilities;

4) knowledge of the properties and characteristics of language styles: artistic, scientific, business, journalistic, colloquial. Style leaves its mark on the means of language;

5) systematic and conscious training of speech skills. A person needs to learn to control his speech, to note expressive and patterned moments.

The expressive means of the language primarily include tropes and figures, as well as in general all units of the language of all its levels, from sounds to syntax and styles. One sound can be more expressive than the whole text.

Intonation is very important for expressiveness.

4. Richness of speech is one of the main communicative qualities of speech.

The richness of speech is ensured by the active stock of language means of each person, i.e., the stock of words, their meanings, the stock of typical intonations, etc.

Lexical richness is manifested if the speech does not use the repetition of the same words that do not carry a special communicative task. This is possible with a large active vocabulary.

5. Other communication quality speech - its appropriateness.

Relevance is such an organization of language means that makes speech meet the goals and conditions of communication. Appropriate speech corresponds to the topic of the conversation, its logical and emotional content, and is designed for a certain composition of listeners.

There are several types of relevance:

1) stylistic relevance;

2) contextual;

3) situational;

4) personal-psychological.

Stylistic relevance regulates the relevance of a single word, turnover, construction. Colloquial speech, for example, is characterized by syntactic constructions - stereotypes: “Where was the string bag here?”, “Moscow railway station, how can I get through?”

In addition to relevance, at certain language levels, relevance in certain situations of speech is distinguished.

Styles- these are varieties of the language, due to differences in the areas of communication and the main functions of the language.

There are five areas of communication (they are also called language situations): everyday life, science, law, politics, art. As for the main functions of the language, there are three of them: communication, message, impact.

Depending on the speech situations and functions of the language, the following are distinguished: style varieties: SHEETS

Conversational style (everyday sphere, communication function, less often - messages);

Scientific (field of science, message function);

Official business (field of law, message function);

Publicistic (the sphere of politics and art, functions of communication and influence);

Artistic (sphere of art, function of emotional impact).

Characteristics of speech styles

Conversational style serves primarily for direct communication with the people around us. It is characterized by ease and unpreparedness of speech. Colloquial words are often used in it (young instead of newlyweds, start instead of start, now instead of now, etc.), words in figurative meaning(window means ‘break’). Words in a colloquial style often not only name objects, actions, signs, but also contain their assessment: good fellow, dodger, careless, take a nap, be smart, cheerful. For syntax conversational style characterized by the use of simple sentences. Widely presented in it are incomplete sentences, because colloquial speech It's mostly dialogue.

scientific style is a style scientific works, articles, textbooks, lectures, reviews. They contain information about various phenomena of the world around us. In the field of vocabulary, the scientific style is characterized primarily by the presence of special vocabulary, terms (declension, conjugation, theorem, bisector, logarithm, etc.). Words are used, as a rule, in their direct meanings, since scientific speech does not allow ambiguity and must be extremely accurate.

Formal business style serves a wide range of legal, administrative, diplomatic relations. Its main purpose is information, communication. This style is used when writing various documents, instructions, charters, etc. The words in it are used in direct meaning to avoid misinterpretation. In the vocabulary of this style, there are many words and stable combinations assigned specifically to this style: petition, statement, resolution, order, protocol, appeal, sue, initiate a case; We, the undersigned. Frequent in the syntax of this style are impersonal sentences with the meaning of necessity, order (it is necessary to urgently prepare, measures should be taken, etc.).

Journalistic style - this is the style of newspapers, speeches on current socio-political topics. The most common genres of journalism include editorial, correspondence, essay, speech at a rally, meeting, etc. In the works of journalism, two tasks are usually set: firstly, a message, information about certain social phenomena or acts and, secondly, an open assessment of the issues raised in order to actively influence the listener or reader, in order to attract the interlocutor to support the position taken and defended by the author.

The vocabulary of this style contains many words and phraseological turns of a socio-political nature: progressive humanity, the struggle for peace, advanced ideas.

Art style used in works of art to paint a picture, depict an object or event, convey the author's emotions to the reader. sayings artistic style differ figuratively, visually, emotionally. The characteristic linguistic means of styles include words with a specific meaning, words in figurative use, emotionally evaluative words, words with the meaning of a feature, object or action, words with the meaning of comparison, comparison; completely verbs with the prefix for-, denoting the beginning of the action, the figurative use of forms of time and moods (Akim fall in love with this Dunyasha!), Emotionally colored sentences: Suddenly something broke in the stagnant air, the wind blew violently and , whistled around the steppe. Immediately, the grass and last year's weeds raised a murmur, and on the road dust swirled in a spiral, ran across the steppe and, dragging straw, dragonflies and feathers, rose to the sky in a black spinning pillar and clouded the sun (A. Chekhov).

Language fiction represents the most complete expression of the national language. In works of fiction, the artist of the word enjoys almost unlimited freedom in the choice of linguistic means to create the most convincing, memorable images, for an aesthetic impact on the reader. Therefore, the language of fiction is able to include all the richness of the literary and popular language.

Conversational style used for direct everyday communication in various fields of activity: everyday, unofficial, professional, and others. True, there is one feature: in everyday life, the conversational style has oral and written forms, and in the professional sphere - only oral. Compare: colloquial lexical units - reading room, teacher, spur and neutral - reading room, teacher, cheat sheet. In written speech of professional content, colloquial vocabulary is unacceptable.

Colloquial speech- speech is not codified, it is characterized by unpreparedness, improvisation, concreteness, informality. Conversational style does not always require strict logic, sequence of presentation. But it is characterized by figurativeness, emotionality of expressions, subjective-evaluative character, arbitrariness, simplicity, even some familiarity of tone.

In conversational style, the following genres are distinguished: friendly conversation, private conversation, note, private letter, personal diary.

In terms of language, colloquial speech is distinguished by an abundance of emotionally colored, expressive vocabulary, the so-called condensate words (evenings - “Evening Moscow”) and doublet words (freezer - evaporator in the refrigerator). It is characterized by appeals, diminutive words, free word order in sentences. At the same time, sentences that are simpler in construction are more often used than in other styles: incompleteness, incompleteness make up their feature, which is possible due to the transparency of the speech situation (for example: Where are you? - In the tenth .; Well, what? - Passed!). They often contain subtext, irony, humor. Colloquial speech carries a lot of phraseological turns, comparisons, proverbs, sayings. It tends to constantly update and rethink linguistic means, the emergence of new forms and meanings.

Academician L.V. Shcherba called colloquial speech "a forge in which verbal innovations are forged." Spoken language enriches book styles with lively, fresh words and phrases. In turn, book speech has a certain effect on colloquial speech: it disciplines it, gives it a more normalized character.

One more feature of the conversational style should be noted: for him, knowledge of speech etiquette, both in writing and orally, is of great importance. In addition, for oral colloquial speech, it is very important to take into account the specifics of extralinguistic factors: facial expressions, gestures, tone, environment. This is the general characteristic of the colloquial-everyday style.

Speech is a historically established form of human communication through language. At the same time, speech and language are a dialectical unity that has developed as a result of a long historical development. However, there is no single answer to the question about the essence of the relationship between language and speech in science. Some scientists do not make a distinction between speech and language, they use these words as synonyms: language is speech. Others contrast these concepts, arguing that in the "speech-language" pair, only speech as a phenomenon of an individual nature belongs to the competence of psychology, while language is not a psychological, asocial phenomenon, and therefore is studied by linguistics.

At the end of the XIX century. the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure (1857-1913) drew a clear line between language and speech. Language is a supra-individual, general phenomenon, social in nature. Speech consists in the use of language, it is fluid, unstable, changeable. Before Saussure, linguists studied mainly questions of the origin and change of languages, he first drew attention to the fact that each language has its own internal organization- a structure formed by the relations of its constituent elements. The elements of the language structure are signs. Language as a system of signs serves as a means of human communication and thinking. At the same time, this system is independent of the individual, a person is born in a certain language environment, and mastering the native language leads to the development of speech and the formation of thinking.

Chapter modern science, studying the nature and functioning of language and speech, is called psycholinguistics. For a deeper understanding of the essence of these phenomena, she uses the data and approaches of two sciences - psychology and linguistics.

Speaking about the role of speech in the social and socio-psychological life of a person, it is customary to single out its two main functions, which are closely related: communicative and intellectual.

In its communicative function, speech acts as a means of communication between people, acting as message and incentive to action. When communicating, the subject can point to some object or phenomenon - in this case we are talking about index, or indicative, functions of speech - either to express one's opinion on some issue - predicative function. In addition to reporting any events, speech can be aimed at influencing the interlocutor: inducing him to some kind of action, deed, causing him to have any feelings, thoughts, experiences, desires.

In addition to the content transmitted through verbal meanings, speech expresses an emotional attitude to what they are talking about. Through intonation and tone, expressive movements accompanying speech (posture, facial expressions, gestures), liveliness and figurativeness of expressions, the structure of sentence construction and the selection of words, mood and feelings are expressed, an emotional exchange occurs between people, emotionally expressive speech function.

intellectual function is that speech acts as means of expression, their education and development. Speech as a carrier of a system of meanings of various types determines the way in which thoughts are formed, formulated and understood. The basic unit of both speech and thought is word, each of which is assigned certain value. The meaning of a word is always a generalization. Communication between people is possible when all subjects of communication use the same verbal signs with the same meanings. The social identity of the signs makes it possible to communicate adequately and understand each other. The designation of the name of phenomena, objects, actions, its introduction into a hierarchical system in which all meanings are organized - this process is defined as significative speech function.

It is accepted to distinguish the following types of speech: written and oral. Oral speech is external speech, spoken and perceived by ear, it, in turn, is divided into dialogic and monologue. Dialogic speech is colloquial, incompletely developed, situational, much is not expressed in it due to the context understandable to the participants in the conversation. AT dialogical speech intonation matters a lot. emotional background statements, facial expressions and pantomimics of speakers, i.e. non-verbal means of communication (see 8.3 for details). The development, completeness and dissection of dialogic speech can be different. If the interlocutors understand each other literally "at a glance", their statements can be reduced as much as possible. This is determined by how clearly they represent what they are talking about, how clear it is to them from what was said before, what is happening now; as well as whether there is much in common between the interlocutors, whether their desire to understand each other is great. On the contrary, the lack of internal contact between the interlocutors, the difference in attitude to the subject of speech can create difficulties in understanding the true meaning of speech and requires a more complete and detailed construction of it.

monologue speech is the speech of one person, it is more detailed and grammatically structured compared to dialogic, logically connected and systematic.

Written speech is realized in forms accessible to visual perception, fixed in the form of a written text, which gives greater freedom in handling it. When formulating statements in written speech, the search for the best way to format the message occurs, it is possible to enumerate various options, you can check and recheck the construction of the sentence in order to more accurately express the meaning. The gap in time and space between its generation and perception in written speech makes it more impersonal, devoid of a general situational context between the author and the addressee. This is its main difference from oral speech. In oral, colloquial speech, the presence of a common situation that unites the interlocutors, the use means of expression, intensive direct emotional exchange provides the possibility of mutual understanding without a thorough study of the subject-semantic content. In the case of written speech, a more systematic and logically connected presentation is required.

With all the differences between written and oral speech, they cannot be opposed, especially since neither one nor the other is a homogeneous whole. There are different types of oral and written speech. Oral speech can be colloquial speech, conversation, or maybe - public speaking, lecture, report. Written speech is also very diverse: these are scientific treatises, monographs, articles, and works of the epistolary genre. Recently, in connection with the development of technological progress and the improvement of communications, the new kind speech - written in form, but close to oral speech in meaning and characteristics. This is the type of speech utterance that is used in messages, chats, instant messaging systems: sentences and words are abbreviated, symbols and animation, slang and abbreviations are actively used to convey content and emotional context; spelling and punctuation rules are ignored.

It is essential to differentiate speech into external, spoken aloud, and internal. The latter differs from the former not only in that it is carried out silently, but it performs a different function and has a different structure. External speech is associated with the process of communication, exchange of information, internal speech is not a means of communication, its main function is to ensure the process of thinking and regulation of activity. Manifestations of inner speech are most obvious when solving problems, mental planning, reading texts to oneself. In terms of inner speech, there is an ordering of the perceived information, self-instruction is carried out, an analysis of one's own actions and experiences is carried out. In its structure, inner speech is a generalized semantic complexes consisting of fragments of words and phrases, with which visual images and conventional signs are grouped. Not intended for anything else, it is built as a synopsis or table of contents, it outlines the topic of thought and omits what should be said. When a person encounters difficulties or contradictions, his inner speech acquires a more detailed character and can turn into an internal monologue, into a whispered or loud speech.

Topic 1. Varieties of speech.

Language and speech. Language is a naturally occurring human society and an evolving system capable of expressing the totality of human concepts and thoughts and intended primarily for the purposes of communication. Language is a condition of development and a product of human culture.

Speech is a concrete speaking that takes place in time and is clothed in a sound or written form. By speech it is customary to understand both the process of speaking itself and the result of this process, that is, both speech activity and speech works fixed by memory or writing.

The general characterization of speech is usually given through its opposition to language. Language and speech together form a single phenomenon of language. Speech is the embodiment, the realization of language, which reveals itself only in speech and only through it fulfills its communicative purpose. If language is a tool (means of communication), then speech is the type of communication produced by this tool. Speech is material, it is perceived by the senses, while language (a system of signs) includes abstract analogies of units of speech. Speech is a sequence of words, it is linear, language introduces hierarchical relations into this linear sequence, it has a level organization. Speech tends to merge words in the speech stream, language retains their separateness. Speech is related to the objects of reality and can be considered from the point of view of its truth or falsity; a true assessment is unacceptable to language. Speech is concrete and unique, language is abstract and reproducible. Speech is mobile, language is stable, speech is infinite, the language system is limited to a certain set of components.

The main qualities of cultural speech are:

speech accuracy. It characterizes speech from the point of view of its content, that is, it characterizes how accurately the speaker describes this situation, how much his description corresponds to reality.

Distinguish between subject and conceptual accuracy. Subject accuracy is based on the connection of speech and reality (he said what is really there). Conceptual accuracy is given by the connection between speech and thinking (he said what he wanted to say).

The main conditions contributing to the creation of accurate speech:

Knowledge of the subject of speech (that is, what is being said);

Knowledge of the language in which communication takes place;

Good speech skills developed by constant communication practice.

Logic of speech. It characterizes speech from the side of its structure, organization, composition. General conditions The logic of speech is, first of all, the possession of the logic of reasoning, as well as knowledge of the language, the communicative capabilities of language means.

Expressiveness of speech. The expressiveness of speech is such a feature of it that helps to maintain the interest and attention of the listener.

The conditions on which the expressiveness of speech depends:

Independence of thinking of the speaker;

Good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities;

Training of speech skills;

Richness and variety of speech. It is achieved through the use of various language means in speech communication.

Appropriateness of speech. The speech should be appropriate, that is, correspond to the purpose, conditions of communication, the composition and mood of the listeners.

Classification of varieties of speech. The basis for the classification of varieties of speech can be various factors, which make it possible to single out external and internal, oral and written forms of the existence of speech, dialogic and monologue speech, functional and semantic types of speech.

Communication between people can take place in different forms: a conversation in which the interlocutors are directly involved, communication is oral character; reading various kinds of books, official papers, etc., which have written form. can participate in communication different amount people connected by different social, personal relationships. Participants in communication can play an active or passive role in it ( polylogue, dialogue and monologue). Depending on the content-semantic and compositional-structural features of the text, such types of speech are distinguished as description, reasoning, narration.

Varieties of speech according to the form of expression of thought. Speech is not only a way of expressing thoughts, but also a way of forming them. According to the presence or absence of interlocutors, the following forms of speech are distinguished: internal speech and external speech, and, in turn, external speech exists in two forms: oral and written.

inner speech stands out as an independent specific way of forming and formulating thoughts. Inner speech is characterized by the fact that the process of forming a thought is carried out without its expression, oral or written. The processes that determine it can be carried out both by means of language and by means of an internal, individual code, which is the highest form of abstraction of verbal thinking.

If a person intends to speak out, he preliminarily considers his speech. Thinking begins with orientation in the situation of communication. Thinking over speech almost always precedes the main forms of human interaction with other people, playing the role of a “draft” of written speech (L.S. Vygotsky). A person cannot do without inner speech, one cannot dream without it, one must learn to think about one's statements, because "he who thinks clearly, he clearly states."

The problem of inner speech is one of the most complex and still insufficiently studied. Initially, it was believed that internal speech was similar in structure to external speech, the only difference being the absence of a sound reaction, since this was speech “to oneself”. It turned out that this is far from the case. Researchers have shown that in the process of inner speech there are movements of the tongue and larynx. Research N.I. Zhinkin proved that inner speech proceeds with significant more speed than external. Along with words, images can be used in inner speech, that is, the subject of speech may not be named, but presented to oneself in the form of its image, often in the form of an image-scheme.

deployed external speech exists in two forms: oral and written . In turn, oral speech can be divided into dialogic, monologue, polylogical speech.

If the speech is intended for another person whom you see and hear, use oral the form. Genuine oral speech is created at the moment of speaking. Oral speech is improvisation. It is created on the go, in the process of an act of communication, so the main sign of oral speech is its unpreparedness.

Oral speech is designed for the semantic perception by the interlocutor of the spoken speech created at the time of speaking, therefore, depending on various circumstances and speech experience the speaker's speech can be smooth, smooth, more or less interrupted. Discontinuity is expressed by the presence of involuntary pauses, the repetition of individual words, syllables, sounds, the “stretching” of a sound like [e] and expressions like

How to say it?..

As if… etc.

If there are few cases of discontinuity, and they reflect the speaker's search for the right, optimal means of expressing thoughts for a given speech situation, then their presence does not interfere with perceiving the statement, and sometimes activates the attention of listeners. But, on the other hand, pauses, self-interruptions, disruptions of begun constructions can reflect the state of the speaker, his excitement, lack of concentration, ignorance of what to talk about.

Oral speech is characterized by two features: redundancy and conciseness. Redundancy is direct repetitions of words, phrases, sentences, more often repetitions of thoughts when words that are close in meaning are used, correlative in the content of the construction. Laconism is brevity, the use of facial expressions, gestures, expressive body movements, and intonation to convey information. The most important feature influencing the appearance of varieties of oral speech is the nature of communication: official / unofficial. Official communication can be personal or public. Unofficial - only personal. The listeners of a casual story are full-fledged participants in the act of communication: they can interrupt the speaker, ask him questions, which is not typical for the addressee of a public official message. Public communication is divided into two subspecies: mass (radio, television, etc.) and collective (lecture, report, speech at a meeting, etc.). The main difference between them is that in mass communication there is no Feedback between speaker and listener. This excludes the opportunity for the speaker to know (see, hear, feel) the reaction of the listeners and respond to it. Other important feature mass communication - use technical means(radio, television, etc.).

Unconstrained informal communication is the main part of a person's life (at home, in various everyday situations). It is usually carried out using spoken language. This kind of verbal communication is characterized by unpreparedness and immediacy of communication.

Written speech- this is a speech without a direct interlocutor, its motive and intention are completely determined by the writer. And so the whole process of control over the written statement remains within the scope of the writer's activity, without correction on the part of the reader. All information expressed in writing should be based on a fairly complete use of detailed grammatical means language, since it has almost no extralinguistic additional means of expression. It does not presuppose either the addressee's knowledge of the situation of communication, or speech contact; it does not have the means of facial expressions, gestures, and intonation.

Monologue, dialogue, polylogue. Monologue, dialogic and polylogical speech differ from each other in terms of the structure underlying the speech situation. Differences in the structure and speech situation are determined by the distribution of roles between the participants in the speech act.

monologue Text is the spoken or written speech of one person. The speech act is based on a one-sided relationship: the transfer of information ® the receipt of information. The monologue text is a linear chain of sentences and exists in various forms of oral utterances, such as the speech of a speaker, lecturer, speeches on radio, television. Monologue speech that has an addressee (public speech) is characterized by such common features, as the presence in it of addresses, pronouns and verbs of the 2nd person, as well as verbs of the imperative mood and other forms of expression of will. The speech types of a monologue are determined by its inherent communicative functions (narration, reasoning, description, evaluation, confession, self-characterization). The monologue approaches written speech, it is characterized by more complex syntactic constructions.

Dialogic the text is an alternation of statements of two or more participants in a speech act, each participant acts in the process of a speech act either as a speaker or as a listener. The dialogue is based on a two-way relationship (stimulus - reaction), allowing for various coordinations.

Dialogue is the genetically original and most developed form of direct communication. The specificity of this interaction in terms of communication lies in the fact that it is based on a dialogic unity: the expression of thoughts and their perception, the reaction to them. Dialogue consists of interrelated replicas of interlocutors. The process of two-way communication takes place in a specific situation in which each of the participants in the communication alternately plays the role of a speaker (listener). The result of receiving information and its transmission are combinations of remarks that are combined depending on the goals of communication of each participant and make up certain statements (for example, a questionnaire, interview, questionnaire) and answers (story, report, message), which can also make up a whole statement.

polylogue- this is a form of speech, which is characterized by a change in the statements of several speakers and a direct connection of statements with the situation. Polylogue often takes the form of group communication (conversation, meeting, discussion, game, etc.). The parties participating in the polylogue are very active in terms of speech and usually adhere to the principle of responsibility: at any moment everyone is obliged to be aware of what is being said, and is obliged to ensure that the others are aware of what is being said. In the polylogue there is an accumulation of information carried by its individual participants. The polylogue is characterized by thematic jumps, a complex interaction of replicas, a break in dialogic units. Polylogue participants (two or more than two) see and hear each other. The choice of the addressee by the speaker is carried out with the help of a look, a gesture, a nod of the head. These signals are recognized by everyone at the same time.

Functional-semantic types of speech. Depending on the content, compositions stand out Various types speech. The type of speech is understood as a speech segment (text) with a specific generalized meaning (an object and its attribute, an object and its action; an assessment of an event, a phenomenon; causal relationships, etc.), which is expressed by certain linguistic means.

Description- this is a verbal image of a phenomenon of reality by listing it characteristic features. The description can be household, portrait, interior, landscape, scientific and technical, description of the state of affairs. Verbs in the description are usually used in the form imperfect form present and past tense. Feature descriptions as a type of speech - a static arrangement of objects related to a certain moment of speech.

Narration is a story about events and serves to convey the sequence of various events, phenomena, actions. This sequence is conveyed with the help of perfective verbs, which show the unfolding of the narrative. Usually a sentence in a narrative is not very long, does not have a complex structure.

reasoning- verbal presentation, clarification and confirmation of any thought. Reasoning conveys the course of development of thoughts, ideas and must necessarily lead to the acquisition of new knowledge about the subject of speech. This type of speech is characterized by the presence of abstract vocabulary, complex sentences, conveying the course of reasoning. The reasoning should contain a premise, the main idea (conclusion) and a conclusion that follows from the entire course of reasoning.

Speech interaction and speech situation. Researchers highlight the following elements speech communication: speech interaction (statement, text), speech situation, speech event.

Speech interaction is the process of establishing and maintaining purposeful direct or indirect contact between people through language. Speech interaction involves the participation of the following components: addresser (sender of information), addressee (recipient), subject of speech (what they are talking about), speech act (speaking or writing), means of interaction (statement or text).

The most important role in speech communication is played by the speech situation, i.e. context of communication. Speech situation- These are the specific circumstances in which speech interaction occurs. Examples of speech situations: the need to answer questions, make a report on the results of work, write a letter, talk with a friend, etc. speech event is a concrete, complete form of verbal communication. A speech event consists of two main components: oral speech and what accompanies it (facial expressions, gestures, etc.)

Speech in interpersonal communication. Interpersonal communication is defined as the interaction between a small number of communicators who are in spatial proximity and to a large extent accessible to each other, i.e. have the ability to see, hear, easily provide feedback. This is the verbal communication of a small number of people who are nearby and well known to each other, which has some distinctive features:

1) personal addressing, i.e. individual appeal of interlocutors to each other, taking into account mutual interests;

2) spontaneity and ease: the conditions of direct communication do not allow planning a conversation in advance;

3) situational speech behavior: the subject of speech is visible or known to the interlocutors, which allows the use of non-verbal means;

4) emotionality (emotional-individual perception speaking topics conversation, interlocutor).

In connection with the above features in interpersonal communication, in addition to the actual informational and phatic functions, there are also emotive functions (associated with the subjective world of the addresser, with the expression of his experiences, his need to be understood) and conative (associated with the installation on the addressee, with the desire to influence him) .

Considering speech in interpersonal communication, one cannot bypass the role of the listener, because it can influence the speech behavior of the speaker. In modern socio-psychological literature, much attention is paid to the analysis of listening styles. Among the most important skills, one should single out the methods of non-reflective, reflective (active) and empathic listening.

Non-reflective listening consists in the ability to be attentively silent, not to interfere with the speech of the interlocutor with your remarks. In form, non-reflexive listening is the use of short replicas such as “Yes?”, “Go on, this is interesting”, “I understand”, etc.

Reflective (active) listening- This is feedback from the speaker, used to control the accuracy of perception of what is heard. The main types of reflexive answers are: clarification (“Will you repeat it again”); paraphrasing (“In your opinion ...”, “If I understand you correctly ...”); reflection of feelings "It seems to me that you feel ..."); summary (“To sum up what you said…”).

Empathic Listening- understanding the feelings experienced by another person and the response expression of one's understanding of these feelings. Empathic listening, unlike reflective, is a more intimate form of communication, it is the opposite of critical perception.

Speech in social interaction. Speech communication involves the communication of people as representatives of certain groups (national, age, status, professional, etc.), taking into account their role position; transmission of information to many persons (public speech or mass media).

In social interaction, the serving nature of speech activity is expressed: here speech is aimed at organizing the joint activity of people. This determines a stricter regulation of speech behavior.

Basic rules of speech in social interaction:

1) the statement should contain as much information as is required to fulfill the current goals of communication; redundant information is sometimes misleading;

2) the statement must be true; you can't say what you don't sufficient grounds;

3) the statement must be relevant, i.e. correspond to the subject of the conversation;

4) the statement should be clear: it is necessary to avoid incomprehensible expressions, ambiguity.

Speech is of crucial importance in the process of education and upbringing of children. The child's speech is almost half egocentric (there are no shades of meaning, the interlocutor's point of view on the subject of speech is ignored); adults, on the other hand, speak and even think socially (“adapt” information to the situation of speech, to the level of the interlocutor).

Speech activity is one of the tools of approval social status participants in the conversation. Socio-symbolic means of demonstrating social status are forms of address. Let's compare the appeals: "ladies and gentlemen", "comrades", "friends", "hey you, my dear". A similar function in Russian is performed by the forms of greeting and farewell.

The civil status of a person is clearly indicated by the appeal "sir", "comrade", "citizen".

The method of using speech to improve one's status can be various kinds of renaming, for example, professions (instead of "scavenger" - "sanitary worker".

Verbal socio-symbolic means also include deliberate imitation of pronunciation (we adapt our language, pronunciation to the partner's language, if we like it).

Important when approving or raising the status is the choice of pronunciation style. Allocate high (emphasized the correct use of words and the construction of sentences; perceived as a more formal, distant style) and low (colloquial speech, perceived as informal, friendly); influential and non-influential styles.