Positional and historical alternations of consonants. Positional alternations of consonants

What is called positional alternation of sound units? When can it be argued that sound units alternate positionally?
We will start from the concept of alternation. Alternation is always found in the composition of a particular morpheme. If the same morpheme in different words(or in different forms one word) has a partially unequal sound composition, then there is an alternation. Spin - twist. Forms of one verb, they have one root; its meaning in these two forms is the same; the sound composition is also partially the same: there is a common part kru-, but the last sound of this root in one form [t '], in another [h ']. This is alternation.
The alternation is radically steep / twisted in writing. But there are alternations that are not imprinted in the spelling of words. For example, spelling does not reflect the alternation in word forms moro [s] - moro [s] s; but it's still an alternation.
Position - a condition for the pronunciation of sounds. There are, for example, such positions: vowels - under stress, in an unstressed syllable after a soft consonant, before [l], before a pause, consonants - at the end of a word, before [e], before a soft dental, after a sonorant consonant. Each sound in a word is in a certain position.
Some alternations are determined by position, and they are called positional. For example, mena
[h] to [s] occurs at the end of a word before a pause. Indeed: Moro [s] s - Moro [s], story [s] s -
story [s], ro [s] a - ro [s1, va [s] a - va [s]; black-eyed [s] a - black-eyed [s], plague [s] yy - plague [s], si [s] yy - si [s]; bury [s] la - bury [s], froze [s] la - froze [s], oblast [s \ li - oble [s], head of ho [s '] egg - manager [s], Kamsky auto [s] ] plant - KamA [s], higher educational [h] institution - vu \ s]. There is no word, there is no form of the word in which [h], hitting the end of the word, would not be replaced by deaf [s].
In itself, from a purely acoustic or articulatory side, a pause does not at all require that the noisy consonant in front of it be deaf. There are many languages ​​(Ukrainian, Serbo-Croatian, French, English) where the final noisy remains voiced. The alternation is not due to the acoustic or articulatory nature of the sound, but to the laws of a given language.
On what basis do we conclude that alternation is positional? Maybe we take into account the articulatory and acoustic visualization of the interaction of sounds? For example, a tooth before a soft tooth must itself be soft (in the Russian literary language), cf. .
But the opinion about the need for a visually obvious assimilation of sounds to each other is wrong. In order to recognize the pattern of positional alternation, sound similarity is not necessary. As a special case it is possible, but precisely as a special case. There are cases when the phonetic alternation is alive, acting, positional, but there is no similarity between the sounds that have entered into interaction.
Example. In the Russian literary language, [o] (stressed vowel) in the first pre-stressed syllable after a solid consonant is replaced by a vowel [a]: new - newer, house - at home, stop - stand, etc. Alternation is positional. However, there is no acoustic need for such an alternation. One cannot even say that [o] is replaced in an unstressed syllable by the sound [a], because [a] is articulatory weaker than [o] (this would explain why it is appropriate to have [a] in weak unstressed syllables). On the contrary, [a] requires a larger solution oral cavity, i.e. more energetic articulation.
In general, to present (as a general law) the cause of sound alternation in the fact that one sound requires an acoustic or articulatory adaptation to itself of another sound is a great delusion. So, the fact that the position requires a certain alternation cannot be guessed from the acoustic-articulatory essence of sounds.
By what reliable criterion is it possible to separate positional alternations from non-positional alternations? Only one at a time: positional alternations know no exceptions. If the position N2 appears instead of N1, then the sound a always changes to the sound P; it is natural to consider position N2 as the reason for the exchange.
On the contrary, if the position N2 in some words is accompanied by the appearance of p (instead of a), and in others it is not accompanied (but remains without replacement), then the position N2 cannot be considered as the reason for its alternation || R. She does not cause it. Therefore, the alternation that the exception knows is not positional.
Therefore, positional alternation can be explained in two ways: it is an alternation that occurs in a given language system without exception; it is an alternation due to position. Both definitions are essentially the same.
Different sounds with completely different characteristics can be in positional alternation. For example, [o] (vowel of the middle rise, back row, labialized) and [a] (vowel of the lower rise, middle row, non-labialized) alternate. Significant qualitative differences do not prevent them from being alternating sounds (Table 4):
Table 4

Examples
Position
Members
alternation

At home, newer, stand
stressed syllable
First prestressed syllable after a hard consonant

There are no exceptions, that is, there are no cases (among the commonly used full-valued words of the Russian literary language) when the vowel [o] would be preserved in the second position, therefore, the alternation is positional.
The sound can alternate with zero (Table 5):
Table 5

Position	Members alternation	Examples
Before the pause	1i]	stop, build, hero, your
After a vowel before a vowel	zero	standing, building
nym [and]		heroes, their

Different sounds can be pronounced at the same place in the same morpheme. In the forms of the word goat, goat, goat, goats, in the words goats, goat, capricorn, the root is the same. But we pronounce [h] (goat, goats), then [h "] (goat, goat, capricorn), then [s] (goats), then [h], a rounded consonant, when pronouncing which the lips are tense and stretched out into tube (goat). Vowels are also not pronounced the same: to [b] are evil, to [o] s - to [a] for, to [a] green. The first consonant is not the same: before [a] it is [k]: [ka] for, before [o] it is [k]: [k] ozly, [k °] lake Such a change of sounds is called alternation.

Alternation occurs only in the same morphemes. Replacing [s] with [s] or vice versa in the words ko [s] a, ko [s] a, we will not get alternation - the roots are different here.

Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. So, in Russian, the sound [g], hitting the end of a word, is replaced by the sound [k].

Alternation [r // k] in Russian is positional alternation. Positional alternation called such an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system. The alternation [r // k] is phonetic. Phonetic alternations have positions, i.e. conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable.

But here's another example - alternation [g // w]: friend [g] a - other [g] ny, boom [g] a - boom [g] ny, tai [g] a - tae [g] ny, move [t] at - mobile [g] ny, can [g] y - possible [g] ny. This alternation is carried out in many words, and one might think that it is due to the position before [n]. This would mean that it is also phonetic.

But this is not so: [g] before [n] is not necessarily replaced by [g]: [g] ohm - [gn] ag, mi [t] at - mi [g] to go, to step - sha [g] to go. phonetic

there is no positional conditionality here. But there is another positional conditionality: the alternation [r // f] knows no exceptions in the position before the adjective suffix -m-. The position here is morphological, the alternation is morphological positional. In addition to positional alternations, there are also those that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality: friend - friends, ignorant - ignorant, death - pestilence - exterminate. Such alternations are associated only with specific words.

According to the rules of Russian spelling, phonetic alternations are usually not reflected in writing. We write the same root of the word leg - legs, although all three sounds in the first form and in the second are different. Non-phonetic alternations are usually written in different letters: foot - footboard. Phonetic alternation is the alternation of sounds belonging to the same phoneme. Non-phonetic alternation is the alternation of phonemes.

The positional change of consonants is observed in the following features:

1) change of consonants according to voicedness - deafness.

A voiced sound changes to a deaf one in the following cases:

a) at the absolute end of a word:

Friend - friend, oaks - oak

[g] // [k], [b] // [n]

b) before a deaf consonant:

all - everything, low - low

[in '] // [f], [z] // [s]

A voiceless consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one:

ask - request, from the window - from the mountain

[s’] // [s’] [s] // [s]

2) change of consonants according to hardness - softness.

Wed: Bridge - bridge, ride - ride, bow - bow.

[st] - [s’t’], [zd] - [z’d’], [nt] - [n’t’].

3) change of consonants [h], [s] to hissing before hissing sounds [g], [w].

Often this exchange is accompanied by a change of consonants in sonority - deafness.

For example: sew - [shit ']:[c] [w] + [w] = [w] long,

squeeze - [zhat ']:[s] [s] [g] + [g] = [g] long.

4) The consonant system of the Russian language is characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of consonant groups. The so-called unpronounceable consonants are observed in combinations: stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, stl, ntsk, vstv.

For example: [g'i / ha / nsk 'ij].

Thus, the consonants [d], [t], [l], [c] alternate with zero sound -.

SECTION "GRAPHICS"

The concept of graphics. Development of writing

Graphic arts- This is a branch of linguistics that considers the relationship of letters of the alphabet to the composition of phonemes. Also, this word is a set of letters or styles that are used in writing.

Russian literary language It exists in two forms: oral and written.

Writing emerged as a means of communication, complementary to oral speech. Writing associated with the use of descriptive characters (drawing, sign, letter) is called descriptive writing. It has come a long way in its development.

We use sound, or rather phonemic writing. In it, signs (letters) serve to convey phonemes in a strong position, as well as the sounds of Russian speech.

The list of all letters is arranged in a certain order, which is called alphabetically(from the name of the Greek letters "alpha" and "vita") or alphabet(from the name of the first letters Slavic alphabet"az" and "beeches").

Our writing is based on the Cyrillic alphabet, an alphabet created at the end of the 9th-10th centuries by Byzantine missionaries Cyril (Konstantin) and Methodius. The Cyrillic alphabet was compiled for the translation of Greek church books into Old Church Slavonic (the Macedonian dialect of the Bulgarian language).

In Russia, the Cyrillic alphabet appeared at the end of the tenth century in connection with the adoption of Christianity in 988. It was based on the Greek alphabet

Since 988, all aspects of the language have changed (vocabulary, phonetics, grammar). Along with the language, Russian writing developed and improved.

Until the 16th century, our writing was continuous - there were no spaces between words. At the end of the words were put "b" and "b".

In the development of graphics and orthography, the reforms of Peter I played an important role, on the initiative and with the participation of which the Civil Alphabet was created in Russia (1708-1710). The ecclesiastical font was replaced by a civil one: the letters of the civil alphabet, unlike the Cyrillic alphabet, were simpler in geometric outlines and closer to those of the Latin alphabet. Some letters have disappeared from the alphabet.

For more than 1000 years, only three letters have appeared in the Russian alphabet: the letter "yo" introduced by N. Karamzin in 1797, letter "e" legitimized by Peter I, but was used in Russian writing earlier, the letter "th" introduced by the Academy of Sciences in 1735

FROM small changes this alphabet is still in use today.

To late XIX century, a draft graphic and spelling reform was prepared, but it was approved on December 10, 1918 by a special decree of the Council of People's Commissars. The graphics were simplified, the letters were eliminated from it: “yat”, “and decimal”, “fita” and others.

For the period from 1918 to the present, no changes have been made in the composition of the Russian alphabet.

Composition of the Russian alphabet. Letter and phoneme

The modern Russian alphabet consists of 33 letters. Arrangement of letters in alphabetical order conditionally, but knowledge of it is necessary in order to freely use dictionaries, alphabetical lists and indexes.

Each letter has its own name, equal to one sound or two: a - [a], b - [be] etc.

Ten letters are vowels, of which letters a, o, uh, i, u, s- simple (unambiguous), letters e, yo, yu, i- iotated (two-digit). Twenty-one letters are consonants. Letters b and b sounds are not indicated. The lettering has 2 varieties - printed and written. Each distinguishes between lowercase (small) letters and uppercase (capital) letters, with the exception of b, b, s.

Letter- an element of the alphabet, which is the inscription of a certain configuration, this is a drawing that cannot be pronounced.

In addition to letters, graphics also use non-letter graphics: accent mark, hyphen (dash), punctuation marks (the rules for their use apply to punctuation), apostrophe, paragraph mark, spaces between words, parts of text, as well as font emphasis (italic, bold font, discharge, etc.), underlining, highlighting.

Phoneme - this is an insignificant unit of language, which in speech is realized by a number of positionally alternating sounds. The main function of the phoneme is distinctive. In writing, we designate a phoneme in a strong position. As a result, it turns out that each morpheme ( significant part words), since it contains the same phonemes, it is always written the same way.

Water - water - water fungus - mushrooms

[in / dy] - [in a / yes] - [v / d ’and e / noj] [r ’and p] - [g r’ and / b s]

<о>: [about] - [ a ] - [b]<б>: [P] - [ b ]

§one. The concept of positional alternation

Surprisingly, in Everyday life we regularly encounter different language processes. In this lesson, we'll talk about one of them. Consider such a phenomenon as the positional alternation of sounds (vowels and consonants). We note right away that we are talking about phonetic process and not about spelling.

In the flow of speech, the sounds that we utter undergo various changes. Why is this happening?

The fact is that the sounds of the same morpheme (part of a word) fall into different positions: strong or weak.

Positional alternation- replacement of one sound with another when its position in the word changes.

Strong position - this is such a position in which the sound is clearly pronounced in the word, and in the letter it is transmitted by the corresponding sign (letter).

Weak positionconsider the one in which the sound is heard indistinctly, is not pronounced at all, or is pronounced with changes. In this case, the spelling of the word differs from its pronunciation.

Let's look at the transcription of these words:

[maroWith] and [heat]

Now let's write these words in compliance with the spelling rules:

maboutroh, heat

Please note that the spelling of the first word is significantly different from its sound, and the second word is spelled the same as it is heard. This means that in the word "frost" the first vowel and the last consonant were in a weak position.

§2. Positional alternations of consonants

Find out which positions are strong and weak for vowels and consonants.

Doesn't change, stays alwaysin a strong position consonant [th].

Strong position for hard and soft consonants is their position:

– at the end of the word: you [l] and ty[ l"];

– before vowels:[ e]ub and [ d"] ate;

– before hard consonants: ba [n] ka and ba [n "] ka.

Weak forhard and soft consonants is the position:

– before soft consonants: for example, in the word pi [s "m"] enny;

– before [w "], [h"]: for example, in the word baraba [n "w"] ik.

Voiceless and voiced consonants also have theirweak and strong positions .

The sounds [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [th] do not have a deaf pair, so there are no weak ones for them positions.

Strong positions for the rest of the consonants in terms of deafness / voicedness, the provisions are:

– before vowels: volo[ s]s or[ h] uby;

– before consonants [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [th], [c] and [c "] : for example, in the words [z] loy and [ With] loy, [h] venet.

Weak positions :

– at the end of the word: steam [s];

– before deaf and voiced consonants (except [l], [l '], [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '], [th], [c] and [in "]): turn [with] ka.

§3. Positional vowel alternations

Now consider the positional alternations of vowels.

Strong position for a vowel, the stressed position is always, and the weak, respectively, unstressed:

in[a]r[about]that

Often this alternation is characteristic only for vowels.about ande .

Compare:

m [o] kryi - m [a] mole and m [u] dry - m [u] dretz

There are also features in the pronunciation of sounds, which in writing are indicated by the letters E, Yo, Yu, Ya.

Why do you need to know the cases of positional (phonetic) alternation of sounds? It is necessary to know this for the development of spelling vigilance.

If you do not know these processes and do not recognize them in words, then you can make a mistake in applying one or another spelling or when morphological analysis the words.

One of the clearest proofs of this assertion isrule :

In order not to make a mistake in writing a consonant at the root of a word, you need to choose a related word or change the given word so that a vowel comes after the consonant being checked.

For example, du [p] - du [b] s.

§four. Brief summary lesson

Now let us repeat once again what we have learned about such a phonetic process as the positional alternation of sounds.

Alternation is the substitution of one sound for another.

Positional, i.e. depending on the position of the sound in the word.

Important to remember:

Positional alternation of sounds is not reflected in writing!

Sounds are characterized by strong and weak positions.

In a strong position, the sound is pronounced distinctly and is transmitted in writing by the corresponding (own) letter.

For vowels, the position under stress is strong.

For soft and hard consonants, a strong position is a position at the end of a word, before a vowel or before a hard consonant.

For deaf and voiced consonants, positions are also strong before a vowel and before consonant sonorants [m], [m '], [n], [n '], [p], [p '] [l], [l '], [in], [in "] and [th].

In other cases, in the flow of speech, sounds change, alternate - these are weak positions.

Positional alternation of vowels.

Positional alternation of consonants.

Position- ϶ᴛᴏ the position of the sound in the word. This is a condition for pronouncing a particular sound.

In Russian speech in different positions one sound is replaced by another.

The regular change of sounds within the same morpheme, caused by positional conditions, it is customary to call positional alternation: [m / ro With], [m /ro h s].

We will consider the positional alternations of consonant sounds according to the main 2 features: voiced-deafness, hardness-softness.

1. Change of consonants on the basis of sonority-deafness.

A voiced consonant changes to a voiceless one in the following cases:

a) at the absolute end of the word: friend [k], oak [p];

b) before deaf consonants: low cue

A deaf consonant changes to a voiced one before a voiced one: request [pro / z "b],

from the mountain [zg / ry].

2. Change of consonants on the basis of hardness-softness.

This exchange primarily occurs on the basis of softness.

The change of a hard sound to a soft one is observed primarily inside words and usually occurs in the position of a dental consonant before a soft dental one:

make [z "d" e / lt "], guest [go / s" t "], forge [ku / z" n "b]

The sound [l] is not subject to this pattern: to gain weight [n / ln "et"]

3. Change of whistling sounds [h] [s] before hissing to hissing

compress [at "], stitch [yt "].

assimilation one sound to another in relation to the conditions of its formation is usually called assimilation.

4. It is important to note that the system of consonant sounds of the Russian language is also characterized by the phenomenon of simplification of consonant groups. Such a phenomenon is observed in combinations of stn, zdn, lnts, rdts, ntsk, stl, vstv: local [m "e / dreams], late, sun, heart, giant, envious, feeling, then unpronounceable consonants.

Οʜᴎ depend on the following factors:

1. from the place of stress of words;

2. from the position of the consonant in relation to the stressed syllable;

3. from the hardness-softness of neighboring consonants.

1. Positional change of vowels under stress.

A solid consonant before vowels does not affect it in any way: the vowel is pronounced the same way as after a pause (the beginning of a word).

Compare: sleep - he; noise is the mind.

A solid consonant after a vowel also does not affect: a gift - yes.

Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, for vowel phonemes<а, о, э, у>under stress at the beginning of a word and after solid consonants a strong position. Hard consonants do not affect the realization of these phonemes. The exception is<и>. Strong position:

a) after a pause (the beginning of a word);

b) after soft consonants: silt - drank.

And after hard consonants<и>implemented in<ы>: game - [sy] play.

Soft consonants, on the contrary, affect the implementation of phonemes<а, о, э, у>.

In resemblance to soft consonants, each of these phonemes is realized by a more closed and more forward vowel. The tongue rises to the top. In this case, articulation (from Latin articulatio - to articulate, the work of the organs of speech, aimed at producing sounds) changes.

For example: [spa‣‣‣t"] - the articulation at the end of the sound [а‣‣‣] is shifted forward and up;

[sp "‣‣‣ at] - articulation at the beginning of the sound. The soft consonant has the strongest effect on the initial part of the vowel;

[s"p" ‣‣‣ a ‣‣‣ / "and] - sleeping. This is how soft consonants affect [ . a. ] covered the entire process of articulation.

[p / sa / tk] - [s "‣‣‣ a / du]

[pa / sa ‣‣‣ / d "im] - [s" a ‣ ‣ ‣ / d "bm]

[a]:[a], [ " ‣‣‣ a], [a ‣‣‣ "], [ " ‣‣‣ a ‣‣‣ "]

parallel type of phonemic series, its members are variations. Members of this series can never coincide with members of another phonemic series.

Such a process is usually called accommodation (from the Latin accomdatio - adaptation). Those. - ϶ᴛᴏ adaptation of the organs of speech for pronouncing a vowel sound in the vicinity of a soft consonant. So the vowels [a, o, y, e] after soft consonants become more front, and higher by ear.

In transcription, the phenomenon of accommodation is denoted by ‣‣‣ U [and] - accommodation can not be denoted, since it is always in the upper rise.

2. Positional change of vowels in an unstressed position.

In an unstressed position, vowels undergo reduction (from Latin reductio - bring back, return; reduce, reduce). Reduction - ϶ᴛᴏ weakening the articulation of sound and changing its sound (reduction of sound in strength and duration).

The reduction concerns mainly vowel sounds in an unstressed position.

The position under stress is always strong and vowels do not change.

AT weak positions high vowels [and] [s] [y] undergo only quantitative reduction, ᴛ.ᴇ. the time of their pronunciation is somewhat reduced, but the quality does not change: let's compare smoke - smoke - smoke [smoke / fog].

Vowels [a] [o] [e] are subjected not only to quantitative, but also to qualitative reduction.

The main positional changes of unstressed vowels are presented in the table:

At the absolute beginning of a word, the position of the vowel sound is equated to position I of the prestressed syllable.

herbs grass herbal

[tra / you] [tr / va] [tr / in "and e / but ‣‣‣ ]

<а>: [a] - - [b]

water water water

[water] [in yes /] [in / d "and / but]

<о>: [o] - - [b]

These are intersecting types of the phonemic series, since some of their sounds coincide. The members of these series are options.

six six by six

[shesh "t"] [shy e / one hundred] [on / sh's "t"]

<э>: [e] [s e] [b]

chalk chalk chalk

[mel] [m "and e / lok] [m "b / l / in]

<э>: [e] [u e] [b]

Historical alternations of sounds.

In addition to positional alternation, historical alternations (non-positional, morphological) are observed in the Russian language.

The main difference from positional alternations is that they are not determined by the position in the word: n about ha - but and Noah

n about sit - out a sews

vowel position is the same: stressed

Historical alternations arose in the process of language development.

1.sleep - sleep O / / Ø in XI - XII centuries fall reduction

day - day E / / Ø son - dream day - day

2.o//a asks - begs

ber//beer take - choose

erased / / erase erase - I erase

3.b//bl (love - love)

v//vl (catch - catch)

f//fl (graph - graph)

4.g//f leg - leg

k / / h hand - pen

5.st / / d lead - lead

st//t revenge - meta

6.d//f walk - walk

s//w wear - wear

Topic number 14. Phonology.

Plan.

1. The concept of the phoneme.

2. System of phonemes of the Russian language.

3. Composition of consonant phonemes.

4. Composition of vowel phonemes.

5. Hyperphoneme.

6. Phonemic transcription.

Positional alternation of vowels. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Positional alternation of vowels." 2017, 2018.