The subject of research in developmental psychology. Twin method and its varieties. General idea of the subject of psychology
Every science has its own thing, your direction of knowledge and with a bow specific an object research. Moreover, from the point of view of modern science an object - it's not the same as thing Sciences.
An object - far from the whole subject, but only that aspect of the subject, sometimes quite insignificant, which is being studied the subject of science, i.e. scientists. An object - it is only an aspect of the subject, which is included in one or another process of spiritual development, in the cognitive activity of the subject. Moreover, another part of the subject, and often very significant, inevitably remains outside the process of cognition.
Accounting for this difference is especially important for understanding the specifics of branches of science that have a complex, multifaceted subject, including psychology, in which, as we have already seen, more and more new objects of research are being revealed.
Given this difference, the subject and object of psychology are defined as follows.
The subject of psychology - This psyche as the highest form of the relationship of living beings with the objective world, expressed in their ability to realize their impulses and act on the basis of information about it.
At the human level, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that its biological nature is transformed by sociocultural factors. From the point of view of modern science, the psyche is a kind of mediator between the subjective and the objective, it implements the historically established ideas about the coexistence of the external and the internal, the bodily and the mental.
The object of psychology - This laws of the psyche as a special form of human life and animal behavior. This form of life activity, due to its versatility, can be studied in a wide variety of aspects that are being studied. various industries psychological science.
They have as their object: norms and pathology in the human psyche; types of specific activities, the development of the human and animal psyche; relation of man to nature and society, etc.
The scale of the subject of psychology and the possibility of singling out various objects of research in its composition has led to the fact that at present, within the framework of psychological science, general psychological theories. based on different scientific ideals, and psychological practice, which develops special psychotechnics of influencing consciousness and controlling it.
The presence of incommensurable psychological theories also gives rise to the problem of differences between the subject and object of psychology. For the behaviorist, the object of study is behavior; for the Christian psychologist, the living knowledge of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them. for the psychoanalyst, the unconscious, and so on.
The question naturally arises: is it possible to speak of psychology as a single science that has a common subject and object of study, or should we recognize the existence of a plurality of psychology?
Today, psychologists believe that psychological science is a single science, which, like any other, has its own special subject and object. Psychology as a science deals with the study of the facts of mental life, as well as the disclosure of the laws that govern mental phenomena. And no matter how complex ways psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, changing its object of study and thereby penetrating deeper and deeper into its large-scale subject, no matter how knowledge about it changes and enriches, no matter what terms they are designated, it is possible to single out the main blocks of concepts which characterize the actual object of psychology, which distinguishes it from other sciences.
The most important outcome of the development of any science is the creation of its own categorical apparatus. This set of concepts constitutes, as it were, the skeleton, the framework of any branch of scientific knowledge. Categories are forms of thinking, basic, generic, initial concepts; these are key points, knots, steps in the process of cognition of one or another sphere of reality.
Each science has its own complex, set of categories, and psychological science has its own categorical apparatus. It includes the following four blocks of basic concepts:
- mental processes - this concept means that modern psychology considers mental phenomena not as something initially given in a finished form, but as something forming, developing, as a dynamic process that generates certain results in the form of images, feelings, thoughts, etc.;
- - cheerfulness or depression, efficiency or fatigue, calmness or irritability, etc.;
- mental properties of personality - c c general focus on vehicles or other life goals, temperament, character, abilities. inherent in a person over a long period of his life, for example, diligence, sociability, etc.;
- mental neoplasms- acquired during the life of knowledge, skills and abilities, which are the result of the activity of the individual.
Of course, these mental phenomena do not exist separately, not in isolation. They are closely related and influence each other. So. for example, a state of cheerfulness sharpens the process of attention, and a state of depression leads to a deterioration in the process of perception.
A Brief Historical Sketch of the Development of Psychology
Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. In the philosophical teachings of antiquity, some psychological aspects were already touched upon, of which they were solved either in terms of idealism or in terms of . Thus, the materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democrat, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation formed from spherical, small and most mobile atoms.
Plato
The ancestor of idealism was (a large slave owner). He divided all people according to their superior qualities — intelligence(in my head) courage(in chest) lust(in abdominal cavity). All governing bodies - have the mind of war - courage, slaves - lust. Plato is the founder of not only idealism, but also dualism. But the idealist philosopher Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from the body. The soul, before entering the human body, exists separately in the higher world, where it cognizes ideas - eternal and unchanging essences. Once in the body, the soul begins to remember what it saw before birth. Plato's idealistic theory, which treats the body and mind as two independent and antagonistic principles, laid the foundation for all subsequent idealistic theories.
Aristotle
He was the successor of Plato's work. He not only overcame dualism (a direction that recognizes two independent principles at the basis of the world - matter and spirit), but also is the father of materialism(a direction that affirms the primacy of matter and the secondary nature of consciousness, the materiality of the world, the independence of its existence from the consciousness of people and its cognizability). Aristotle tried to place psychology on the basis of medicine. But Aristotle could not fully explain human behavior only through medicine. The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise “On the Soul” singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of the inseparability of the soul and the living body.
The works of Aristotle, Plato and other philosophers formed the basis of the works of philosophers of the middle ages of the 17th century. is the starting point from the materialism of philosophy.
History of psychology as an experimental science starts in 1879 in the world's first experimental psychological laboratory founded by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.
Famous psychologist of the late XIX - early XX centuries. G. Ebbinghaus was able to say very briefly and precisely about psychology - psychology has a huge prehistory and a very short history. History refers to that period in the study of the psyche, which was marked by a departure from philosophy, rapprochement with the natural sciences and the organization of its own experimental method. This happened in the last quarter of the 19th century, but the origins of psychology are lost in the mists of time.
Rene de Cartes - biologist, physician, philosopher. He opened the coordinate system, put forward the idea of a reflex, the idea of a reflex behavior. But he could not fully explain the behavior of the organism and therefore remained on the position of dualism. Separate the inner world of a person from his internal organs it was very hard. The prerequisites for idealism were created.
There was another approach to understanding the psyche in the history of psychology, developed by domestic psychologists in line with the philosophy of dialectical materialism in the Soviet historical period. The essence of this understanding of the psyche can be seen in four words, the formal authorship of which belongs to V. I. Lenin (1870-1924). The psyche is a subjective image of the objective world.
General idea of the subject of psychology
Each science has its own subject of study. Let us give a brief description of the approaches associated with a fundamental change in the view of the subject of psychology.
Stages of development of psychology
I stage- psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life. This long stage, called in the literature pre-scientific, is determined from the 5th - 4th centuries. BC. until the beginning of the 18th century.
II stage- psychology as the science of. Arises in the 17th century in connection with the development natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts. According to the new approach, a person always sees, hears, touches, feels, remembers something. It is precisely such phenomena that psychology should study, since, unlike the soul, they can be experimentally investigated, measured, scientifically generalized, and cause-and-effect relationships and relationships can be established in them.
Stage III- psychology as behavioral science. Behaviorism took shape in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. in the USA. "Behavior" in English - "behavior". The task of psychology is to set up experiments and observe what can be directly seen, namely the behavior, actions, reactions of a person (the motives that cause actions were not taken into account).
However, many "traditional" psychologists have expressed serious objections to some of the original components of the behaviorist approach. Behavior and the psyche are, although related, but by no means identical realities. So, under the influence of the same stimulus, there may be not one reaction, but a certain set of them, and, conversely, the same response is sometimes obtained in the presence of different stimuli. It is recognized in psychology, for example, that a person often looks at one thing and sees another, thinks about one thing, experiences another, says a third, does a fourth.
IV stage- psychology as a science that studies objective patterns, manifestations and mental mechanisms.
Methods of psychology
To solve a complex of problems in science, there is a developed system of means, directions, ways, and techniques.
Method is the way scientific knowledge. The way in which the subject of science is known.
Methodology- this is a variant, a private implementation of the method in specific conditions: organizational, social, historical.
A set or system of methods and techniques of any science is not random, arbitrary. They are formed historically, modified, developed, obeying certain patterns, methodological rules.
Methodology is not only the doctrine of methods, the rules for their selection or use. It is a systematic description of the very philosophy, ideology, strategy and tactics of scientific research. The methodology specifies what exactly, how and why we study, how we interpret the results obtained, and how we implement them in practice.
Chapter 1. Subject, tasks, principles and methods of psychology
Subject, principles and tasks of psychology
Many years ago, in the forests of Aveyron, in the south of France, hunters found a boy fed, apparently, by some kind of animal and completely feral. Later, two girls were found in the jungles of India, kidnapped, as it turned out, by a she-wolf and fed by her. Science knows dozens of such tragic cases. What is the tragedy of these incidents, because the children found were alive and physically quite healthy? Ike these children, who spent their early childhood among the animals, did not have a single human quality. Even physically they resembled animals: they moved on all fours, ate just like animals, tearing pieces of meat with their teeth and holding them with two forelimbs, growling and biting everyone who came close to them. Their sense of smell and hearing were very developed, they caught the slightest changes in the forest environment. Making inarticulate sounds, they hurried to hide from people.
Scientists examined these children and tried to teach them human behavior, teach them to talk and understand human speech. But. as a rule, such attempts were unsuccessful: the time for the intensive formation of basic human qualities had already been irretrievably lost. A human being is formed as a human only in human society. And many human qualities are formed only in early childhood.
According to his biological organization, man is the result of an evolutionary process. The anatomical and physiological structure of his body is in many ways similar to the body of higher primates. But man is qualitatively different from all living beings. Its life activity, needs and ways of satisfying these needs differ from the life activity of animals. socio-cultural conditioning.
Man is a social being.
The natural features of man changed in the course of his socio-historical development. The human world is a field of socially developed meanings, meanings, and symbols. He lives in the world social culture, which forms its so-called second nature, determines its essence. All human activity from birth to the end of his life is regulated by this society institutions, social norms, customs, traditions. The individual formed in society becomes socialized personality- a person included in the system of general social, cultural and historical achievements of mankind, his life activity is realized in certain social conditions. Each individual becomes a man to the extent that he masters the universal human culture. He perceives the whole world as a world of humanly significant objects, interacts with them on the basis of socially developed concepts. “Man is the measure of all things,” the ancient Greek philosopher Protahors remarked deeply. A person correlates everything in the world with his inner spiritual world: he experiences emotional excitement when contemplating distant stars, admires the beauty of forests, mountains and seas, appreciates the harmony of colors, shapes and sounds, the integrity of personal relationships and the sublime manifestations of the human spirit. Man actively interacts with the world - he seeks to know and purposefully transform reality.
The behavior of animals is predetermined by an innate, instinctive program of life. Human behavior is determined by his mental, socially formed world, in which strategic and tactical planning of his life is carried out, the joys and sorrows of his human existence are experienced. A person is able to measure the present with the past and future, to think about the meaning of life, to reflect - to reflect not only the world but also himself.
A person is endowed with such a socially formed mental regulator as conscience - the ability to control one's command with the help of general social standards, to evaluate one's own Self through the eyes of other people. The socialized individual is a socio-spiritual being. The spirituality of a person is manifested in his ability to rise above everything base, primitive and mundane, to maintain an unchanging commitment to his human dignity and duty.
Man is a complex and multifaceted being. It is studied by many sciences - biology, anthropology, history, cultural studies, sociology, etc. The study of the inner world of a person, the general patterns of his interaction with the outside world is carried out by a special science - psychology.
The subject of psychology is a person as a subject of activity, systemic qualities of his self-regulation; regularities of the formation and functioning of the human psyche: its ability to reflect the world, cognize it and regulate its interaction with it.
Psychology studies the emergence and development of the psyche; neurophysiological foundations of mental activity; human consciousness as the highest form of the psyche; patterns of transition of the external to the internal; the conditionality of the functioning of the psyche by socio-historical factors; patterns of formation of mental images of the world and the embodiment of these images in the external, practical activity of a person; the unity of biological and social factors in the mental self-regulation of a person; the structure of the psyche; reflective-regulatory essence of cognitive, volitional and emotional processes, individual psychological characteristics of the personality; psychological features of human behavior in a social environment; the psychology of specific types of human activity; and etc.
Every educated person should master the basics of general psychological knowledge. Knowing yourself is no less important than knowing the various aspects of the surrounding reality. Psychological knowledge is necessary for a person to properly organize his relationships with other people, effectively organize his activities, introspection and personal self-improvement. It is no coincidence that the main commandment of the ancient thinkers reads: "Man, know thyself."
The practical need for the application of psychological knowledge in various fields of human activity has caused intensive development along with general psychology and its applied branches: pedagogical, medical, legal, engineering, aviation, space, psychology of art, labor, military affairs, sports, management, marketing, etc. At the same time, the study of applied branches of psychology is possible only on the basis of general psychological knowledge.
Psychological knowledge is needed wherever there is a need for the scientific organization of labor and the effective use of the resources of the human psyche. Psychologists fruitfully work in schools and clinics, in production, in cosmonaut training centers and management structures, the law enforcement system and think tanks for social development.
Tasks of psychology
The main task of psychology is the knowledge of the mental by revealing those objective connections from which mental phenomena first arose and began to be defined as objective facts. Therefore, psychological knowledge is understood today as an indirect knowledge of the mental through the disclosure of its essential connections with the outside world.
With this understanding of the essence of the mental, it becomes obvious that of all the sciences of man, the most practical is psychology. After all, studying it. You can find a lot in the world around you, in yourself and in other people.
Growing interest in domestic spiritual world people is also connected with the fact that the modern era is more and more clearly revealing as host a tendency to integrate all aspects of the life of modern society: economic, political and spiritual. This integrative trend, the line towards strengthening the integrity of social development is also manifested in the fact that today the traditional, very narrow, technocratic understanding of the tasks of economic activity is being replaced by modernized concepts that bring to the fore in economic activity not technological tasks, but humanitarian and psychological problems.
Workers in modern manufacturing are increasingly aware of their activities not only as high-tech applications, but also as an area in which participation is required from workers employed in it. managing oneself, other people, their communities.
This setting has now become a truism for specialists, entrepreneurs, managers of developed countries, both in the West and in the East.
The head of one of the largest American automobile companies, Lee Ya Kokka, believes that “all business operations can ultimately be summed up in three words: people, product, profit. People come first."
Akio Morita - CEO of a well-known Japanese electrical company - claims that "Only people can make a successful enterprise."
Thus, in order to be successful, a modern worker, businessman, manager, any specialist must provide a solution through their activities. dual task:
- achievement of economic results;
- impact on the people who create that outcome.
Therefore, in modern conditions for a domestic entrepreneur, manager, highly qualified specialist of any profile, as well as for each person, the most urgent task is the psychological improvement of labor groups, production teams, and with them the whole society. A modern leader, specialist, and any thinking person should know and take into account psychological factors activities of people and, on this basis, ensure the growth of labor and social activity.
PR is a section of psychology that studies the development of the psyche in ontogenesis, the patterns of the process of transition from one period mental development to another on the basis of changing types of leading activities.
Developmental psychology is divided into: child psychology, which studies the patterns of a child's mental development from birth to school entry; psychology of a younger student; adolescent psychology; psychology of youth; adult psychology (acmeology); gerontopsychology.
In developmental psychology, the process of development of each mental function and the change in interfunctional relationships at different age stages can be traced. In personality psychology, such personal formations as motivation, self-esteem and the level of claims are considered, value orientations, worldview, etc., and developmental psychology answers questions when these formations appear, what are their features at a certain age.
The connection of developmental psychology with social psychology makes it possible to trace the dependence of the development and behavior of a child and then an adult on the specifics of the groups to which he is included: on the family, group kindergarten, school class, teen companies, etc. Every age is different special influence people around the child, adults and peers. The purposeful influence of adults raising and teaching a child is studied within the framework of educational psychology. Developmental and pedagogical psychology, as it were, look at the process of interaction between a child and an adult from different angles: developmental psychology from the point of view of the child, pedagogical psychology from the point of view of the educator, teacher.
2. ways of emergence of developmental psychology
Pythagoras singled out 4 periods in a person's life: spring (the formation of a person) - from birth to 20 years; summer (youth) - 20-40 years; autumn (the prime of life) - 40-60 years; winter (fading) - 60-80 years. Hippocrates distinguished 10 seven-year periods throughout a person's life, and Aristotle divided childhood and adolescence into three stages: 1 - from birth to 7 years; 2 - from 7 to 14 years old and 3 - from 14 to 21 years old.
The starting point for systematic studies of the child's psyche is the book of the German scientist - Darwinist W. Preyer "The Soul of the Child". In it, Preyer describes the results of daily observations of the development of his own son, paying attention to the development of the senses, motor skills, will, reason and language. Preyer was the first to make the transition from an introspective to an objective study of the child's psyche. Therefore, he is considered the founder of child psychology.
Preyer's views were based on those of Darwin. Darwin's idea of the evolution of species as the development from simple to increasingly complex forms of organic life provoked research in 3 directions. 1- in child psychology: Darwin recorded his own observations of his first child and published them. 2-comparative psychology, focused on identifying differences in the development of animals and humans. 3-Psychology of peoples as a prototype of modern cultural-anthropological psychology. At first, all 3 directions were aimed at revealing patterns of phylogeny. However, the reverse effect of phylogenesis was observed, which allowed a fresh look at ontogeny. This ratio was called by Haeckel the biogenetic law, which implies repetition in ontogeny in a short form of the history of phylogeny.
3. subject of study
The subject of study is the sources, driving forces, conditions and patterns of human mental development from birth to death. Ananiev considered psychological development from birth to death as a continuous process, within which there are peaks in mental functions, noted that the decay of some of them, as well as the personality, begins long before the physical death of the individual.
The subject of study of developmental psychology is self-development.
Mental development is defined as philo-, anthropo-, onto- or microgenetic changes in behavior and experience, forming a branching process containing, on the one hand, nodes of qualitative changes that successively follow each other, and on the other hand, lines of quantitative changes that connect them between yourself.
Components of the subject of developmental psychology: Age (chronological, psychological, social, biological). Chronological age is the time of an individual, from the moment of birth to the end of life. Psychological age- these are the psychophysiological, psychological and socio-psychological changes that occur in the psyche of each person.
4. driving forces of mental development
The driving forces of a child's development are the contradictions between the new and the old, which arise and are overcome in the process of education, upbringing and activity. These include contradictions between new needs generated by activities and the possibilities of their satisfaction; contradictions between the increased physical and spiritual needs and the old established forms of relationships and activities; between the growing demands from society, the collective, adults and the current level of mental development.
An object
Thing
learning
Practical tasks
Research strategies in developmental psychology, their historical chronology. Classification of research methods in developmental psychology.
A) At first, the task of child psychology was in the accumulation of facts and their arrangement in time sequence. This task corresponded to the observation strategy. Of course, even then, researchers were trying to understand the driving forces of development, and every psychologist dreamed about it. But there were no objective possibilities to solve this problem...
Surveillance strategy the real course of child development in the conditions in which it spontaneously develops, led to the accumulation of various facts that had to be brought into a system, to single out the stages and stages of development, in order to then identify the main trends and general patterns
the development process itself and finally understand its cause.
To solve these problems, psychologists used strategy of natural-scientific ascertaining experiment, which allows you to establish the presence or absence of the studied phenomenon under certain controlled conditions, to measure it quantitative characteristics and give
qualitative description Both strategies - observation and ascertaining experiment - are widespread in child psychology. But their limitations become more and more obvious as it turns out that they do not lead to an understanding of the driving causes of human mental development. This happens because neither observation nor ascertaining experiment can actively influence the process of development, and its study proceeds only passively.
At present, a new research strategy is being intensively developed - the strategy of forming mental processes, active intervention, building a process with desired properties. It is because the strategy of forming mental processes leads to the intended result that one can judge its cause. Thus, the success of the formative experiment can serve as a criterion for identifying the cause of development.
The strategy of the formation of mental processes eventually became widespread in Soviet psychology. Today, there are several ideas for implementing this strategy, which can be summarized as follows:
The cultural-historical concept of L. S. Vygotsky, according to which the interpsychic becomes intrapsychic. The genesis of higher mental functions is associated with the use of a sign by two people in the process of their communication; without fulfilling this role, a sign cannot become a means of individual communication.
mental activity.
The theory of activity by A. N. Leontiev: any activity acts as a conscious action, then as an operation, and as it forms, it becomes a function. The movement is carried out here from top to bottom - from activity to function.
The theory of the formation of mental actions by P. Ya. Galperin: the formation of mental functions occurs on the basis of an objective action and proceeds from the material performance of the action, and then through its speech form it passes into the mental plane. This is the most developed concept of formation. However, everything that is obtained with its help acts as a laboratory experiment. How do the data of a laboratory experiment correlate with real ontogeny?
The problem of the relationship between experimental genesis and real genesis is one of the most serious and still unresolved. Its importance for child psychology was pointed out by A. V. Zaporozhets
and D. B. Elkonin. A certain weakness of the formation strategy lies in the fact that it has so far been applied only to the formation of the cognitive sphere of the personality, and the emotional-volitional processes and needs have remained outside the experimental study.
The concept of educational activity is the research of D. B. Elkonin and V. V. Davydov, in which a strategy for the formation of personality was developed not in laboratory conditions, but in real life - by creating experimental schools.
The strategy for the formation of mental processes is one of the achievements of Soviet child psychology. This is the most adequate strategy for modern understanding of the subject of child psychology. Thanks to the strategy of the formation of mental processes, it is possible to penetrate into the essence of the mental development of the child. But this does not mean that other research methods can be neglected. Any science goes from a phenomenon to the disclosure of its nature.
B) Classification of research methods Ananiev B.G.:
1. Organizational: comparative, longitudinal and complex;
2. Empirical: observational (observation and self-observation), experiment (laboratory, field, natural), psychodiagnostic, analysis of processes and products of activity, modeling and biographical method.
3. Data processing methods: mathematical and logical processing - quantitative (static) methods and qualitative analysis(description of cases, differentiation by groups).
4. Interpretive: genetic (vertical links); and structural methods (classification, typology, etc.).
The essence of the key parameters of mental development (conditions, sources, prerequisites, factors, characteristics, mechanisms of mental development).
Theories of the mental development of the child in foreign psychology of the 20th century. Theories of Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, the concept of learning in behaviorism, the concept of Jean Piaget, concepts in Gestalt psychology and humanistic psychology
Z. Freud: The psychological approach to the development of the child is the main source of psychological development - attraction and instincts. The discovery of the unconscious and the discovery of the sexual principle form the basis of the theoretical concept of psychoanalysis. In the model of personality, he singled out three main components: "It", "I" and "Super-I". "It" - the most primitive component, the bearer of instincts, obeys the principle of pleasure. The instance of "I" follows the principle of reality and takes into account the features of the external world. "Super-I" serves as the bearer of moral norms. Since the requirements for the “I” from the side of the “It”, “Super-I” and reality are incompatible, its presence in a situation of conflict is inevitable. All stages of mental development 3. Freud reduces to the stages of transformation and movement through various erogenous zones of libidinal, or sexual, energy. Oral stage (0-1 year). The main source of pleasure focuses on the zone of activity associated with feeding. Anal stage (1-3 years). Libido is concentrated around the anus, which becomes the object of attention of the child, accustomed to cleanliness. The phallic stage (3-5 years) characterizes the highest degree of child sexuality. The genital organs become the leading erogenous zone. The sexuality of this stage is objective and directed at the parents. 3. Freud called libidinal attachment to parents of the opposite sex the oedipal complex for boys and the Electra complex for girls. Latent stage (5-12 years). Decreased sexual interest. The energy of the libido is transferred to the development of universal human experience. Genital stage (12-18 years). According to 3. Freud, a teenager strives for one goal - normal sexual intercourse, everything erogenous zones unite. If the implementation of normal sexual intercourse is difficult, then phenomena of fixation or regression to one of the previous stages can be observed.
Erik Erickson: The theory of E. Erickson arose from the practice of psychoanalysis. Accepting the structure of personality 3. Freud, he created a psychoanalytic concept about the relationship of "I" and society. Drawing attention to the role of "I" in personality development, E. Erickson shifted the emphasis from "It" to "I". In his opinion, the foundations of the human "I" are rooted in the social organization of society. He devotes his research mainly to the processes of socialization. The works of E. Erickson mark the beginning of a new way of studying the psyche - the psychohistorical method, which is the application of psychoanalysis to history. This method requires equal attention both to the psychology of the individual and to the nature of the society in which the person lives. E. Erickson conducted field ethnographic studies of the upbringing of children in two Indian tribes and came to the conclusion that the style of motherhood is always determined by what exactly the social group to which he belongs to expects from the child in the future. If an individual meets the expectations of society, he is included in it and vice versa. These considerations formed the basis of two important concepts of his concept - "group identity" and "ego-identity".
Group identity is formed due to the fact that from the first day of life, the upbringing of the child is focused on including him in this social group. Ego-identity is formed in parallel with group identity and creates in the subject a sense of stability and continuity of his "I", despite the changes that occur to a person in the process of his growth and development. E. Erickson singled out the stages of a person's life path, each of them is characterized by a specific task that is put forward by society. Infancy (oral st.) - trust - distrust. Early age(anal st.) - autonomy - doubt, shame. The age of the game (phallic stage) - initiative - guilt. School age (latent stage) - achievement - inferiority. Adolescence (latent stage) - identity - identity diffusion. Youth - intimacy - isolation. Maturity - creativity - stagnation. Old age - integration - disappointment in life. The formation of all forms of identity is accompanied by a development crisis.
The concept of learning in behaviorism: The subject of study is BEHAVIOR. In the center of the theory is ENVIRONMENT, the impact of which forms a person and is the source of his mental development. The mechanism of formation of connections between the Stimulus and the Response is the basis for explaining behavior.
Jean Piaget: Cognitive theory of development - consists of the evolution of mental (mental) structures or ways of processing information. He singled out the mechanisms of adaptation to the environment: assimilation is when an individual adapts new information to his existing schemes of actions, without changing them in principle; accommodation - a mechanism when an individual adapts his previously formed reactions to new information, i.e. he is forced to rebuild old schemes.
Four stages of intelligence development: sensorimotor (0 to 2 years); preoperative (2-7-8 years); specific operations (7-8 to 11-12 years old); Period of specific operations (2-11/12 years); period of formal operations (11-12 to 15 years). Within the framework of formal-logical intelligence, mental operations can be performed without relying on the sensory perception of specific objects. The presence of this level of thinking allows adolescents to solve problems in their minds, as if “scrolling” in their heads all the possible options for solving the problem, and only after that experimentally check the expected results.
Concepts in Gestalt psychology and humanistic psychology:
Gestalt psychology proceeded from the concept of "Gestalt", an integral structure, and "the emergence of a structure is a spontaneous, instantaneous self-organization of material" in the process of perception or recall of material in accordance with the principles of similarity, proximity, "isolation", "good continuation" that operate independently of a person. "good form" of the object of perception. Therefore, the main task in teaching is teaching understanding, embracing the whole, the general relationship of all parts of the whole, and such understanding comes as a result of the sudden emergence of a solution or insight - “insight”. Repeated senseless repetition can only bring harm, argued Gestalt psychologist K. Koffka, you must first understand the essence of the action, its scheme or gestalt, and then repeat this action. Even learning by imitation does not take place by the method of blind senseless copying, but in a person it is predominantly "understanding the model precedes imitative action." Koffka believed that skills such as speaking and writing can only be learned through imitation, and the learning situation improves when there is a clear role model.
7. Cultural and historical concept of human mental development in the works of L.S. Vygotsky. The impact of education on development. Patterns of mental development.
Crisis of seven years
Loss of childish spontaneity (mannering, clowning, antics - protective functions from traumatic experiences)
Generalization of experiences and the emergence of inner mental life
Challenging, disobedience, cunning, demonstrative "adulthood" - the psychological meaning of these behavioral features is to understand the rules, to increase the intrinsic value of actions independently organized by the child himself
The Need for Social Functioning
The child's behavior loses its childish immediacy. The symptoms of the crisis are mannerisms, clownishness, antics of children, which perform protective functions from traumatic experiences. AT preschool age the child goes from realizing himself as a physically separate independent individual to realizing his feelings and experiences. These experiences are primarily related to specific activities: “I draw great - I got the roundest apple”, “I can jump over puddles, I'm dexterous”, “I'm so clumsy, I always stumble into catching up”. The child begins to navigate in his feelings and experiences, relate to himself on the basis of a generalization of experiences.
But these are not the only signs of the onset of a crisis period. Other new behavioral characteristics that are clearly visible in the home situation:
The occurrence of a pause between the appeal to the child and his response ("as if he does not hear", "it is necessary to repeat a hundred times");
The appearance of a challenge on the part of the child of the need to fulfill the parent's request or the delay in the time of its execution;
Disobedience as a refusal of habitual affairs and duties;
Cunning as a violation of established rules in a hidden form (shows wet hands instead of washed ones);
Demonstrative "adulthood", sometimes up to a caricature, demeanor;
Increased attention to one's own appearance and clothes
the main thing is not to look “like a little”.
There are also such manifestations as stubbornness, exactingness, reminders of promises, whims, a heightened reaction to criticism and the expectation of praise. Positives can include:
Interest in communicating with an adult and introducing new topics into it (about politics, about life in other countries and on other planets, about moral and ethical principles, about school);
Independence in hobbies and in the performance of individual duties assumed by one's own decision;
Discretion.
The psychological meaning of these features of behavior consists in understanding the rules, in increasing the intrinsic value of actions independently organized by the child himself. One of the main neoplasms is the need for social functioning, the ability to occupy a significant social position.
The main forms of assistance to the child in living through the difficulties of the crisis period of 7 years are an explanation of the causal grounds for the requirements (why it is necessary to do something in this way and not otherwise); providing opportunities to carry out new forms of independent activity; a reminder of the need to complete the assignment, an expression of confidence in the child's ability to cope with it.
The "erasing" of symptoms of negative behavior and the lack of desire for independence at home slows down the formation of readiness for schooling.
29. Development of communication in primary school age. Psychological neoplasms of primary school age.
educational institution
· The inefficiency of a particular pedagogical system- proposals are received to introduce various changes in the educational process: the introduction of individual and group project activities of students, the use of the latest information technologies.
· An unclosed gap in education.
Much depends on teacher's relationship with a failing student. The reaction of a student to a negative attitude towards him from teachers can be affective and sharply negative.
Lack of continuity
· It is important to establish the continuity of transitions at all stages of the educational process, starting from the preschool stage. Then in elementary school the most important skill is laid - the ability to learn, the main training operations are formed. As you move from class to class, not only the student's knowledge system becomes more complicated. Basic learning skills are also undergoing a certain transformation. This process must be controlled, which means that you should familiarize yourself with each stage of the child's education.
personality traits
· Taking into account the personal characteristics of the student is necessary in identifying the causes of poor progress and determining ways to deal with it. Increased level of anxiety, inadequate self-esteem, psychological defense mechanisms poor student - all this not only affects the grades, but also determines his attitude to this problem and the possibility of overcoming it.
Solutions:
It is necessary to develop an adequate attitude of teachers, parents and children themselves to this problem. Special consultations, conversations, trainings, pedagogical and psychological literature can help with this.
· When working with underachieving children, one should not focus only on shortcomings and defects. Every child without exception, in addition to the weak, has strengths. They need to be based on in the process of corrective work.
· While grades are the primary external indicator of learning success, they are not the goal in and of themselves. Individual attention is needed not only to the child's school achievements, but also to his interests, hobbies, and learning potential.
· It is necessary to expand the repertoire of ways to deal with poor progress. They often resort to punishment. At the same time, not enough attention is paid to the development of the child's skills to analyze their own mistakes.
informal groups
At present, associations of adolescents in informal groups have become more frequent, because for many adolescents, associations in informal groups and an asocial lifestyle have become a kind of protest against the usual way of life, guardianship by elders, satisfaction of the need for communication outside the school system.
Group- this is a real-life formation in which people are gathered together, united by some common feature, variety joint activities or placed in some identical conditions, circumstances and in a certain way are aware of their belonging to this formation.
In each group, certain mores, customs, habits, stereotypes of behavior are formed. They are assimilated by its members and distinguish this group from others. The group, through its influence on individuals, directs them to achieve group goals, satisfies the adolescent's need for protection and safety.
Depending on the ideological and moral orientation, style of behavior, informal groups can be classified into three groups:
1. Prosocial, that is, socially positive groups. These are socio-political clubs of international friendship, funds of social initiatives, groups environmental protection and rescue of cultural monuments, club amateur associations and others. They have, as a rule, a positive orientation;
2. Asocial, that is, groups that stand apart from social problems;
3. Antisocial. These groups are the most disadvantaged part of society, which causes anxiety in him. On the one hand, moral deafness, inability to understand others, a different point of view, on the other hand, often their own pain and suffering that befell this category of people contribute to the development of extreme views among its individual representatives.
Participation in informal groups- a natural phenomenon for adolescents. It is explained by the following points:
Reorientation of communication with parents to peers, weakening the influence of the family;
The marginality of the social position (no longer a child, but not yet an adult), which contributes to the appearance of instability, awkwardness, anxiety in behavior;
The need to meet the needs of a teenager in communication, protection, solidarity in behavior;
The transition of forms of control from children to adults;
Difficulties of transitional age.
B.G. Ananiev: 2 phases
First phase: early adolescence (15-17 years old) characterized by uncertainty young man in society. At this age, the young man realizes that he is no longer a child, but at the same time not yet an adult.
Second phase: adolescence as such (18 - 25 years)- the initial link of maturity.
SSR: Yu Yu
Significant for the senior student isteaching and career choice, life path, self-determination. A new social position changes the significance of the doctrine, its tasks, goals, content. It is evaluated in terms of usefulness for the future. With age, the range of social roles with their rights and obligations expands, social development becomes multidimensional.Boys and girls are entering a qualitatively new social position, in which their conscious attitude towards themselves as a member of society is formed. Aimed at acquiring independence, social maturity, finding their place in life.
VVD: Educational - professional. At senior school age, learning motives associated with the professional and life self-determination of schoolchildren predominate. Knowledge is not seen as a value in itself, but as a means of obtaining a good profession that provides a high level of income. .
The word "youth" denotes the phase of transition from dependent childhood to independent and responsible adulthood, which implies, on the one hand, the completion of physical, in particular sexual, maturation, and, on the other hand, the achievement of social maturity. But it works differently in different societies.
AT primitive societies childhood ended early, upbringing and education were predominantly practical in nature: children learned by participating in the form that was feasible for them in the labor and other activities of adults.
In the Middle Ages, the transfer of experience accumulated by elders was carried out mainly through the direct practical inclusion of the child in the activities of adults.
The most important criterion for adulthood was the creation of one's own family, with which independence and responsibility were associated.
The new time brought important social and psychological changes. Physical, in particular puberty, maturation has noticeably accelerated, forcing "reduce" the boundaries of adolescence.
New generations of young people, much later than their peers in the past, begin an independent working life, spend longer, sit at school desks of different sizes.
The lengthening of youth has its own personal prerequisites, namely, the expansion of the sphere of conscious self-determination and the increase in its independence.
In modern times, the possibilities of individual choice - profession, wife, lifestyle - have expanded significantly. The psychological horizons of man in the age of printing and mass communications not limited to its immediate environment. Greater freedom of choice contributes to the formation of a more flexible social character and provides a greater variety of individual variations. But the reverse side of this progress is the complication of the process of self-determination. The choice of possible ways is very great, and only practically, in the course of the activity itself, will it become clear whether it suits a person or not.
Comparing different generations is difficult. In every generation there were, are and will be different people. In addition, people tend to absolutize their own habits and tastes, so external, secondary features often come to the fore.
36. Personal development and socialization in adolescence, the formation of a worldview. Basic psychological neoplasms.
In youth, in connection with the solution of the problem of professional self-determination, there is a rapid development of the personality, a manifestation of which are emerging worldview, a generalized form of self-consciousness, the discovery of the Self, experienced in the form of a sense of one's individual integrity and uniqueness.
As I. S. Kon points out, the central psychological process of adolescence is the development of self-awareness, which encourages a person to measure all his aspirations and actions with certain principles and the image of his own Self. The older and more mature the young man, the more his upbringing turns into self-education.
Best Options personal development suggest a relative continuity of the past, present and future of the Self, combined with a productive progressive change, which is not just a movement in the time of life, but an ascent to new qualities; at the same time, a sign of development, in contrast to just change, is the resolution of certain value-semantic contradictions. In cases where the process of maturation proceeds in crisis forms, the dynamics of the Self takes on other forms.
An essential feature of adolescence is negative attitude towards imposed authorities, only sound arguments can convince them of the merits of this or that figure. At the same time it may appear falling in love with an adult, who managed to attract a young man to himself with some of his qualities and conquer him.
In youth they receive intensive development of a variety of feelings. aggravate and become more conscious aesthetic experience, gets a new development call of Duty, feeling moral outrage, sympathy for the misfortune of another, his grief, elation from a good deed, the joy of meeting with a work of art, excitement, sadness, a young man experiencing the joy of first love, under the influence of which he becomes even better and more humane. Thus, the young man acquires that emotional experience, that “fund” of emotional experiences that he will have importance for its future development. This means that psychologically the ways will already be prepared for receiving significant emotional impressions in other conditions as well.
Due to the fact that in adolescence group contacts usually involve competition, the struggle for position and authority, along with the development of companionship, adolescence is characterized by an intense search for friendship as a selective, strong and deep emotional attachment.
Persons of adolescence already make a good distinction between friendship and camaraderie. Friendly relations are characterized by great selectivity and resistance to external, situational factors. The latter is explained by a general increase in the stability of interests and preferences with age, as well as the development of intelligence, as a result of which the child's ability to integrate conflicting information increases, pushing particulars into the background. It is for this reason that in the sphere of interpersonal relations, boys and girls are much more tolerant and plastic compared to younger people.
Friendship is a form of emotional attachment. Real or implied personal closeness is more important for her than the commonality of subject interests. Being polyfunctional by nature, youthful friendship is characterized by a variety of forms: from simple joint pastime to the deepest self-disclosure.
Youthful friendship as the first, independently chosen deep individual attachment, not only anticipates love, but partly includes it. At the same time, its structure is dominated by the need to be in agreement with oneself, uncompromisingness, the thirst for complete and reckless self-disclosure.
Theories of aging and old age.
Old age as a social problem. In the theory of dissociation, the process of consistent destruction of social ties is considered inevitable. The phenomenon of dissociation is expressed in a change in motivation, in focusing on the inner world and a decline in communication. Objectively, “dissociation” is manifested in the loss of former social roles, in the deterioration of health, in a decrease in income, in the loss or alienation of loved ones.
Old age as a biological problem. Aging is considered as a biologically programmed process (“programmed aging”) or as a result of damage to body cells (“non-programmed aging”).
Old age as a cognitive problem. Containment theory believes that older people become less skilled because of difficulty in perceiving external information. The "disuse" theory links the decline in intellectual skills in later life to underutilization.
It is very difficult to determine the chronological boundaries of the onset of old age, since the range of individual differences in the appearance of signs of aging is huge. These signs are expressed in a gradual decrease in functionality human body. However, old age should be characterized not only from the negative side, highlighting the extinction of certain abilities in comparison with maturity. It is necessary to establish qualitative differences in the psyche of an elderly person, to identify and show the features of mental development that occurs against the background of deteriorating psychophysiology, in conditions of involutional changes in the nervous system.
Developmental psychology as a science: tasks, sections and main problems. The subject of developmental psychology.
Age psychology as a science
An object
Developing, changing in ontogenesis, a normal, healthy person
Thing
Age periods of development, causes and mechanisms of transition from one age period to another, general patterns and trends, pace and direction of mental development in ontogenesis
Theoretical Tasks (problems)
The problem of driving forces, sources and mechanisms of mental development throughout the life of a person
The problem of periodization of mental development in ontogenesis
The problem of age characteristics and patterns of mental processes
The problem of age opportunities, features, patterns of implementation of various activities,
learning
The problem of age-related development of personality, etc.
Practical tasks
Determination of age norms of mental functions, identification of psychological resources and human creativity
Age and clinical diagnosis
Monitoring the course of the mental development of children, providing assistance to parents in problem situations
Psychological support, assistance in crisis periods of human life
Organization of the educational process for people of all age categories, etc.
Each science has its own object - a part of reality that it chooses to study. At the same time, the same object attracts the attention of other scientific disciplines. For developmental psychology (as well as for psychophysiology, general psychology, social, clinical psychology), this is, of course, the human psyche. The subject of science is the aspect that is studied within this discipline, in contrast to other branches of science.
So, developmental psychology is the science of the patterns of human mental development at different stages of ontogenesis: its phenomena, mechanisms, conditions and driving forces.
Developmental psychology as a science consists of several sections.
1. Development of mental functions and processes; the genesis of consciousness and activity, cognition, emotional-volitional processes, communication in phylo- and ontogenesis. In essence, this section includes the study of the main categories of general psychology in ontogeny.
2. Perinatal psychology - the science of the psychological context of the birth of a child (about the motives for his conception, the psychology of pregnant women and the processes taking place in the family of the unborn child), as well as the study of the patterns of emergence and development of the psyche of the fetus and newborn.
3. Child psychology studies the development of the child's psyche at different stages of his life.
4. Psychological acmeology(from the Greek "acme" - peak) - the psychology of adulthood, the science of the crises of adulthood and ways to overcome them. In a narrow sense, acmeology is understood as the science of human self-actualization.
5. Gerontopsychology- the science of the psychology of aging. A component of gerontopsychology is thanatopsychology - the science of the patterns of dying.
The last two areas, the result of the latest developments in psychology, have practically no history.
Schematically, the subject of developmental psychology can be represented as follows.
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Stages of developmental psychology
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Indicators of mental development
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Biological foundations of the psyche
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The concept of environment in developmental psychology
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Glossary
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Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and problems of developmental psychology and developmental psychology
1. The concept of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
2. The subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
3. Tasks of developmental psychology (L. Montada and others).
4. The main functions of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
5. Sections of developmental psychology and their features.
6. Actual problems of developmental psychology at the present stage.
7. Characteristics of childhood according to Feldstein D.I.
8. Interdisciplinary links between developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
9. Definition of the concept of development.
11. Areas of development.
12. The influence of the environment on human development.
Bibliographic list:
1. Abramova G.S. Age-related psychology: Tutorial for university students. - M., 1997.
2. Ananiev B.G. On the problems of modern human knowledge. - M., 1977.
3. Developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. M.V. Ga-meso, M.V. Matyukhina, G.S. Mikhalchik. - M., 1984.
4. Developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky. - M., 1973.
5. Vygotsky D.S. Collected works. T. 3. - M., 1983.
7. Mukhina B.C. Age-related psychology. - M., 1997.
1. The concept of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Modern psychology is a branched system of scientific disciplines, among which a special place is occupied by developmental psychology or, more correctly, the psychology of human development, associated with the study of age-related dynamics of the development of the human psyche, the ontogenesis of mental processes and the psychological qualities of the personality of a person qualitatively changing in time.
The concept of developmental psychology in principle already concepts of developmental psychology, since development is considered here only as a function or chronological age͵ or age period; focuses on the age characteristics of the psyche.
Developmental psychology is associated not only with the study of the age stages of human ontogenesis, but also considers various processes of macro- and micropsychic development in general, studies the process of mental development itself. For this reason, strictly speaking, developmental psychology should only be part of developmental psychology, although they are sometimes used interchangeably.
2. The subject of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Two sources nourish developmental psychology. On the one hand, these are the explanatory principles of biology and evolutionary theory, on the other hand, ways of socio-cultural influence on the course of development.
The definition of developmental psychology as a doctrine of periods of psychological development and personality formation in ontogenesis, their change and transitions from one age to another, as well as a historical analysis of the successive stages of ontogenesis, indicate that the subject of developmental psychology has changed historically. Today, the subject of developmental psychology is the disclosure of the general laws of mental development in ontogenesis, the establishment of age periods, the formation and development of activity, consciousness and personality, and the reasons for the transition from one period to another, which is impossible without taking into account the influence of cultural, historical, ethnic and social factors on the individual development of a person. - economic conditions.
Components subject of developmental psychology are:
o changes that occur in the psyche and behavior of a person during the transition from one age to another; while the changes are different: quantitative(increase in vocabulary, memory capacity...) - evolutionary- accumulate gradually, smoothly, slowly; quality(complication of grammatical constructs in speech - from situational speech to a monologue, from involuntary to voluntary attention) - revolutionary- deeper, occur quickly (leap in development), appear at the turn of periods; situational- associated with a specific social environment, its impact on the child; unstable, reversible and need to be fixed;
o concept of age- is defined as a specific combination of the psyche and behavior of a person.
Age or age period is a cycle of child development that has its own structure and dynamics. Psychological age (L.S. Vygotsky) is a qualitatively peculiar period of mental development, characterized primarily by the appearance of a neoplasm, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ prepared by the entire course of previous development.
Psychological age may not match the chronological age of an individual child as recorded on their birth certificate and then on their passport. The age period has certain boundaries. But these chronological boundaries can shift, and one child will enter a new age period earlier, and the other later. The boundaries of adolescence associated with the puberty of children are especially "floating".
o patterns, mechanisms and driving forces of mental development;
o childhood- the subject of developmental psychology according to Obukhova - a period of enhanced development, change and learning.
3. Tasks of developmental psychology.
Tasks and functions of developmental psychology broad and versatile. Today, this branch of psychology has acquired the status of a scientific and practical discipline, and therefore, theoretical and practical tasks should be distinguished among its tasks. The theoretical tasks of developmental psychology include the study of the basic psychological criteria and characteristics of Childhood, Youth, Adulthood (Maturity), Old Age as social phenomena and successive states of society, the study of the age dynamics of mental processes and personal development based on cultural, historical, ethnic and social economic conditions, various types of education and training, research on differential psychological differences (sexually mature and typological properties of a person), research on the process of growing up in its entirety and diverse manifestations.
Among the scientific and practical tasks facing developmental psychology include the creation of a methodological basis for monitoring the progress, the usefulness of the content and conditions of mental development at different stages of ontogenesis, the organization of optimal forms of activity and communication in childhood and adolescence, as well as the organization of psychological assistance during periods age crises, in adulthood and old age.
L. Montada proposes to single out 6 basic tasks related to the scope of application of developmental psychology in practice.
1. Orientation in life path. This task suggests the answer to the question ʼʼwhat do we have?ʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. determination of the level of development. The sequence of age-related changes in the form of a description of quantitative developmental functions or qualitative developmental stages is a classic issue in developmental psychology. On this basis, statistical age development standards, thanks to which it is possible to give a general assessment of the course of development both in individual cases and in relation to various educational and educational issues. So, for example, knowing what tasks children of 7 years old independently solve, it is possible to determine whether a particular child is lower, higher or on par with the norm. At the same time, it is possible to determine whether the educational and educational requirements correspond to this norm of independence.
2. Determining the conditions for development and change. This task involves answering the question ʼʼhow did it come about?ʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. what are the causes and conditions that led to this level of development. Explanatory models of developmental psychology are focused primarily on the analysis of the ontogeny of personality traits and its disorders, taking into account attitudes, the development environment, interaction with educators, special events, and also - as an ideal case - the interaction of all these variables. At the same time, psychologists are interested not so much in short-term as long-term influences of developmental factors. The cumulative nature of the influence of development factors and the discrete nature of causal relationships are also taken into account. Knowledge of the conditions allows you to delay developmental disturbances (prevention) and make appropriate decisions to optimize the course of development. Of particular importance for obtaining the desired effect is the determination of the correspondence of development conditions and possible intervention options to the current level of development of the individual, his personal properties.
3. Prediction of stability and variability of personality traits. This task involves answering the question ʼʼwhat will happen if..?ʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. a forecast not only of the course of development, but also of the intervention measures taken. Many activities in the practice of educational and educational work - explicitly or implicitly - suggest a forecast for further development. So, for example, the right to take care of a child after the divorce of the parents is reserved for the mother only if it is considered that this will be the best for the further development of the child. To make such predictions, knowledge is needed about the stability or instability of the properties and conditions for the development of both the personality itself and the personality in the group. Due to the numerous factors involved, such psychological forecasts are often erroneous.
4. Explanation of the goals of development and correction. This task involves answering the question ʼʼ what should be?ʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. determines what is possible, real, and what should be excluded. As an empirical science, developmental psychology, in contrast to pedagogy, neutral in relation to the social order, public and personal opinion. For this reason, it is able and obliged to resist them, if this contradicts established facts and laws. At the same time, it performs the function of substantiating certain proposals and projects, if they are consistent with its knowledge. And finally, it is the initiator of the correction already decisions taken, in case studies show their unfoundedness. A falsely established norm of development leads to significant distortions in the practice of educational and upbringing work.
5. Planning of corrective actions. This task assumes the answer to the question ʼʼhow are the goals achieved?ʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. what needs to be done to get the desired effect from the intervention. So, corrective measures are needed only if the set development goals are not achieved, if the development tasks are not mastered, or if there is a fact that the development conditions lead to its undesirable course. Here one should distinguish between: 1) the goals of development of the individual himself; 2) development potentials of the individual himself; 3) social requirements for development; 4) development opportunities. Accordingly, corrective measures should be differentiated according to their purpose. Often there is a discrepancy between these goals, and ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ should be the object of correction. The purpose of the planned correction should be the prevention of developmental disorders, the correction of development, or the optimization of developmental processes. In any case, informed decisions must be made about when the intervention promises to be successful, where it should be applied, and which method should be chosen.
6. Evaluation of developmental correction. This task involves answering the question ʼʼwhat did it lead to?ʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. that the corrective action has taken. Modern developmental psychology refrains from a hasty assessment of the effectiveness of certain corrective actions. She believes that a real assessment should be obtained only as a result of long-term observation of the individual, during which both positive effects and side effects should be established. It is also believed that the evaluation of effectiveness is largely determined by the scientific paradigm that the psychologist adheres to.
4. The main functions of developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
Like any science, developmental psychology functions descriptions, explanations, forecasts, corrections. In relation to a certain area of research (in our case, to mental development), these functions act as specific scientific tasks,ᴛ.ᴇ. common goals that science seeks to achieve.
The description of development involves the presentation of the phenomenology of development processes in its entirety (from the point of view of external behavior and inner feelings). Unfortunately, a lot of developmental psychology is at the level of description.
To explain development means to identify the causes, factors and conditions that led to changes in behavior and experience. At the root of the explanation is a scheme of causation, which must be strictly unambiguous (which is extremely rare), probabilistic (statistical, with varying degrees of deviation), or absent altogether. It should be single (which is very rare) or multiple (which is usually the case in developmental studies).
If the explanation answers the question ʼʼwhy did this happen?ʼʼ, revealing the reasons for the already existing effect and determining the factors that caused it, then the forecast answers the question ʼʼwhat will it lead to?ʼʼ, pointing to the consequences that follow from this cause. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, if the thought moves in explaining development from effect to cause, then in the development forecast we go from cause to effect. This means that when explaining the changes that have occurred, the study begins with a description of them and continues with a transition to a description of possible causes and their connection with the changes that have occurred. When forecasting, the study also begins with a description of the changes that have occurred, but they are no longer considered as a consequence, but as the cause of possible changes, the description of which must be compiled. The development forecast always wears hypothetical, because it is based on an explanation, on the establishment of links between the ensuing consequence and possible causes. If this connection is established, then the fact of its existence allows us to consider that the totality of the identified causes with the utmost importance will entail a consequence. This, in fact, is the meaning of the forecast.
If the development description is creating his image in the mind of the researcher, the explanation - establishing links consequences with possible causes, and the development forecast - prediction it, based on the already established cause-and-effect relationships, then the correction of development is management through a change in possible causes. And since development is a branching process that has nodes of qualitative and lines of quantitative changes, the possibilities of correction are theoretically unlimited. Restrictions are imposed here to a greater extent by the possibilities of description, explanation and forecast, which provide information about the nature of the ongoing processes and the nature of the object as a whole. It is important to note the special place of the forecast and correction of development in solving applied problems of developmental psychology.
The result of the description, explanation, forecast and correction is model or theory development.
Undoubtedly, one of the main issues in the theory of individual development of a person is precisely the question of the relationship between age, typological and individual characteristics of a person, about the changing and contradictory relationships between them. Individual development becomes more and more peculiar and individualized with age.
Exploring the dynamics of age, the characteristics of individual periods and the relationship between them, one cannot abstract from the life path of a person, the history of his individual development in various social relations and mediations. Common to all people age periods life (from infancy to old age) are characterized by relatively constant signs of somatic and neuropsychic development.
Developmental psychology is the study of how people's behaviors and experiences change with age. Although most developmental theories focus on the period of childhood, their ultimate goal is to reveal patterns of development throughout a person's life. The study, description and explanation of these patterns determines the scope of the tasks that developmental psychology solves.
5. Sections of developmental psychology and their features.
The structure of developmental psychology and developmental psychology:
Developmental psychology studies the process of development of mental functions and personality throughout a person's life. There are 3 sections of developmental psychology:
1. child psychology (from birth to 17 years);
2. psychology of adults, mature ages;
3. gerontology or the psychology of the elderly.
In the West, interest in learning childhood(we are talking about the period from about 7 years to adolescence) arose only after the end of the industrial revolution in the 19th century. At the same time, long before this, early childhood was considered as a separate period. life cycle. At the moment when the changes in the economic organization of society brought about by the industrial revolution (such as the migration of the population from the countryside to the cities) began to take place, a favorable period came for the study of childhood. The Industrial Revolution meant that factory workers needed basic literacy and numeracy skills that could only be acquired through general primary education. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, research into the mind of the child received a powerful impetus, since it was they who could make education more effective. Undoubtedly, other social factors (such as increased wealth, improved hygiene, increased control of childhood diseases) also contributed to the shift in focus towards childhood.
Adolescence as a separate stage between childhood and adulthood has also been identified and described in a system of biological, historical and cultural changes. The distinctive biological features of adolescence provided visible landmarks to highlight this phase of the life cycle. At the same time, he became an object of study in developmental psychology only in the 20th century, when Western society reached such a level of prosperity, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ made it possible to remove economic responsibility from a teenager. This made it possible to delay the entry of adolescents into working life and at the same time increase the time for obtaining education.
In modern developmental psychology, historical analysis will be extended not only to Childhood as a socio-psychological phenomenon of society, but also to Youth, Maturity, and Old Age. At the same time, until recently, these ages were outside the sphere of actual interests of developmental psychology (age psychology), since Maturity was considered as the age of "psychological fossil", and Old Age - as the age of total extinction. Τᴀᴋᴎᴍ ᴏϬᴩᴀᴈᴏᴍ, developing physically, socially, an adult was, as it were, excluded from the development process in its socio-psychological meaning and from the history of the development of the most specific person as a really acting subject͵ of the development of his consciousness, self-consciousness, and other personal qualities.
Development in adulthood life path - only very recently has become the object of research. Social and medical advances that made it possible to live to a very old age and live long enough after the end of active labor activity, drew attention to the problems and real opportunities of older people. For this reason, the question arose about the psychology of aging, also addressed to developmental psychology.
The actualization of the interest of developmental psychology in the study of periods of Maturity and Old Age is associated with the humanization of society and the beginning of the revival and active development of acmeology (declared in the works of B. G. Ananiev) as a science about the period of maximum flowering of personal growth, the highest moment of manifestation of spiritual forces. These trends and scientific approaches significantly changed the current situation of understanding the Adult, opening up a new space for a person, emphasizing the importance of studying the main points of his creative self-development. As D. I. Feldstein points out, these important and promising areas should in the future reveal the problem of the Adult in development and the problem of its development, which is possible only if all stages of ontogenesis are considered in unity, and old age, in including and deep, will be studied as a moment of the individual path. In the knowledge of an adult, understanding his personal characteristics, it is important to take into account the historical situation. Modern man has not only acquired new choices, a new level of self-awareness (the available studies of individuals of antiquity - A.F. Losev, the Middle Ages - Ya. A. Gurevich and others, testify to the difficult path of acquiring a personality), but the tasks now at the turn of the millennium, require him to further develop in terms of expanding relations, deepening self-determination, "general maturation". And constantly growing opportunities (determined by the achievements of science, technology, medicine, informatization, etc.) determine a new situation for the development of an adult, expanding the boundaries of his life. And in this regard, the problem of old age, the problem of an elderly person, is of particular importance.
Among the individual sections of developmental psychology, gerontology is the youngest area of research. Right now, old ideas about old age are breaking down. Its two aspects - physical and psychological - are becoming more and more differentiated. Old age is a natural stage in human development, and the possibilities of lengthening human life, incl. and due to the internal self-development of the individual himself, the development of his psychological resistance against aging.
So, at every point in the life cycle, there are both biological and cultural aspects of development. Biological processes promote development and provide a natural "marking" of individual stages. Οʜᴎ acquire significance as prerequisites for social history and provide a stimulus for a deeper understanding of the life cycle. Society influences the development of a person throughout his life. It sets a reference system with respect to which individual stages or periods of life are singled out and studied.
6. Actual problems of developmental psychology at the present stage.
1. The problem of organic and environmental conditioning of the psyche and human behavior;
2. The problem of the influence of spontaneous and organized education and upbringing on the development of children (which influences more: family, street, school?);
3. The problem of correlation and identification of inclinations and abilities;
4. The problem of the correlation of intellectual and personal changes in the mental development of the child.
The modern nature of the requirements of social practice imposed on developmental psychology determines its convergence not only with pedagogy, but also with medicine and engineering psychology, as well as with other related branches of science that study human beings.
The emergence of new problems at the intersection of developmental and engineering psychology and labor psychology is due to the extreme importance of taking into account the age factor when constructing effective operator training regimes and in teaching professional skills in highly automated production, in assessing the reliability of work and adaptive capabilities of a person under overload conditions. Very little research has been done in this direction.
The convergence of medical sciences and developmental psychology takes place on the basis of the increasing requirements of clinical diagnostics for more accurate prevention, treatment and labor expertise, using deep and comprehensive knowledge about the conditions and capabilities of a person in different periods his life. Close connection with the clinic, medicine, including geriatrics, contributes to the in-depth development of the basic problems of developmental psychology, such as the potentials of human development in different age periods, the definition of age-related norms of mental functions.
One of the urgent problems is the expansion of knowledge on the age characteristics of the psychophysiological functions of adults through their micro-age analysis during the period of growth and involution. Conducting research in the indicated plan on schoolchildren of different ages made it possible to show the effect of complex patterns of age-related variability of some psychophysiological functions at different levels of their organization and to give their theoretical description.
The formation of a person as a person, as a subject of cognition, social behavior and practical activity is somehow connected with age limits that mediate the process. social impact on a person, social regulation of his status and behavior in society.
The specificity of the age factor lies not only in the fact that it manifests itself in different ways in separate periods life cycle. Its study is complicated by the fact that it acts in unity with individual characteristics, which are important to take into account when developing age standards.
The problem of age regulation includes not only consideration of average standards, but also the question of individual variability of psychological characteristics. At the same time, individual differences act as an independent problem in the structure of developmental psychology. Consideration of age and individual characteristics in their unity creates new opportunities for studying learning ability, for determining the genesis and degree of maturity of psychological functions.
The next cycle of problems in developmental psychology is associated with the phenomenon of accelerating the development process. Acceleration during the period of growth and maturation of the organism and retardation of aging, pushing back the boundaries of gerontogenesis in modern society under the influence of a whole range of socio-economic, sanitary, hygienic and biotic factors influence the construction of a system of age regulation. At the same time, the issues of acceleration and retardation remain little studied precisely due to the fact that the age criteria for mental development themselves in their diversity turn out to be insufficiently developed.
For further study of one of the basic problems of developmental psychology - the classification of periods of life - the structural-genetic approach to the ontogenetic development of a person is of paramount importance.
On the basis of knowledge of the basic characteristics of the human life cycle, its internal patterns and mechanisms, a synthetic problem should be worked out about the hidden possibilities and reserves of mental development itself.
Among the basic problems of developmental psychology is the study of developmental factors, since it is carried out in the interaction of a person with the outside world, in the process of communication, practical and theoretical activities. The determinants and conditions of human development include socio-economic, political and legal, ideological, pedagogical, as well as biotic and abiotic factors.
Thus, a certain hierarchy of topical problems of a more general and particular order is outlined, the solution of which is subordinated to the main goal - further development theory of individual development and expanding the possibilities of applying scientific knowledge on the psychology of development to solving problems of social and industrial practice, since now the scientific study of the laws of mental development is becoming a necessary condition for the further improvement of all forms of upbringing and education not only of the younger generation, but also of an adult.
7. Characteristics of childhood according to Feldstein D.I.
In modern developmental psychology, the historical analysis of the concept of "childhood" is most fully given in the concept of D. I. Feldstein, who considers childhood as a socio-psychological phenomenon of society and a special state of development.
In the concept of D. I. Feldstein, a meaningful psychological analysis of the system of interaction of functional connections that determine the social state of Childhood in its generalized understanding in a particular society is given, and ways are found to resolve the issue of what connects different periods of Childhood, which provides general state Childhood, which brings him to another state - to Adulthood.
Defining childhood as a phenomenon social peace, D. I. Feldstein identifies the following characteristics.
functional- Childhood is ahead as an objectively extremely important state in dynamic system society, the state of the process of maturation of the younger generation and, in connection with this, preparation for the reproduction of the future society.
In his meaningful definition is a process of constant physical growth, the accumulation of mental neoplasms, the development of social space, reflection on all relations in this space, the definition of oneself in it, one's own self-organization, which occurs in the constantly expanding and more complex contacts of the child with adults and other children (younger, peers, older), the adult community as a whole.
Essentially- Childhood is a form of manifestation, a special state of social development, when the biological patterns associated with age-related changes in the child, to a large extent, show their effect, "subordinating", however, to an increasingly regulating and determining effect of the social.
And the meaning of all meaningful changes lies not only in the acquisition, appropriation by the child of social norms (which, as a rule, focuses on), but in the very development of social, social properties, qualities that are inherent in human nature. In practice, this is carried out in achieving a certain level of socialization, which is typical for a specific historical society, more broadly for a specific historical time, but at the same time it is also a state of development of that social level that characterizes a person of a certain era, in this case modern person. At the same time, as they grow older, the social principle more and more actively determines the features of the functioning of the child and the content of the development of his individuality.
According to D. I. Feldstein, the main, internally laid down goal of Childhood in general and of each child, in particular, is growing up - the development, appropriation, realization of adulthood. But the same goal growing up children, subjectively having a different direction - to ensure this growing up - is the main one for the Adult world. The attitude of the Adult community to Childhood, regardless of the definition of its upper limit, is distinguished primarily by stability - this is an attitude as a special state, as a phenomenon that is outside the adult sphere of life. The author of the concept considers the problem of the relationship of the Adult community to Childhood in a broad socio-cultural context and socio-historical plan and highlights the position of the World of Adults to Childhood not as a collection of children different ages- outside the Adult World (who need to be raised, educated, trained), but as a subject of interaction, as a special state of its own, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ society passes in its constant reproduction. This is not a ʼʼsocial nurseryʼʼ, but deployed in time, ranked by density, structures, forms of activity, etc.
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social condition in which children and adults interact.
8. Interdisciplinary links between developmental psychology and developmental psychology.
In recent decades, developmental psychology has changed both in its content and interdisciplinary connections. On the one hand, it influences other scientific disciplines, and on the other hand, it itself is influenced by them, assimilating everything that expands its subject content.
Biology, genetics, developmental physiology. These disciplines are important, first of all, for understanding prenatal development, as well as for the subsequent stages of ontogeny from the point of view of its early foundations. Οʜᴎ play a significant role in the analysis of the adaptive capabilities of newborns, as well as general physical and motor (motor) development, especially in relation to subsequent changes in behavior and experience. Of particular interest here is the development of the central nervous system, sensory organs and endocrine glands. At the same time, the discoveries of biology are of particular importance for understanding the issues of ʼʼsubject-environmentʼʼ, ᴛ.ᴇ. explanations of similarities and differences in the development of different individuals.
Ethology. The importance of ethology, or the comparative study of behavior, has increased considerably in last years. It shows the biological roots of behavior by providing information about the interaction between the environment and the individual (for example, the study of imprinting). No less valuable is the methodological possibility of conducting observations and experiments on animals, and especially in cases where their conduct on humans is prohibited for ethical reasons. The ability to transfer to humans the results obtained in animals is extremely important for understanding human development.
Cultural anthropology and ethnology. The subject of study of cultural anthropology and ethnology are transcultural universals and intercultural differences in behavior and experience. These disciplines allow, on the one hand, to test the patterns identified in the American-European cultural environment in other cultures (for example, East Asian) and, on the other hand, due to the expansion of the cultural environment, to identify intercultural differences that predetermine the different course of development processes. Of particular importance in recent years is the study of children's folklore (subculture).
Sociology and social disciplines. These sciences acquire their significance for developmental psychology both due to certain theoretical premises (role theory, theory of socialization, theories of the formation of attitudes and norms, etc.), and due to the analysis of the processes of social interaction in the family, school, group of the same age , as well as through the study of the socio-economic conditions of development.
Psychological disciplines. The sciences of the psychological cycle are most closely related to developmental psychology. Sciences united by name ʼʼGeneral psychologyʼʼ, allow you to better understand the mental processes of motivation, emotions, cognition, learning, etc. Pedagogical psychology closes developmental psychology to pedagogical practice, the processes of education and upbringing. Clinical (medical) psychology helps to understand the development of children with disorders of various aspects of the psyche and merges with developmental psychology along the lines of child psychotherapy, psychoprophylaxis, and psychohygiene. Psychodiagnostics goes hand in hand with developmental psychology in adapting and applying diagnostic methods in a comparative analysis of the intellectual, personal, etc. development and to determine the age norms of development. Links between developmental psychology and psychology of creativity and heuristic processes(in the line of gifted and advanced developmental children);
psychology of individual differences, etc.
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In recent years, the volume of interaction between developmental psychology and pathopsychology(oligophrenopsychology, childhood neurosis) and defectology (work with hearing-impaired and visually impaired children, children with mental retardation, etc.). It is possible to detect the merging of developmental psychology with psychogenetics, psycholinguistics, psychosemiotics, ethnopsychology, demography, philosophy, etc.
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Almost all progressive and interesting work in developmental psychology, as a rule, are performed at the intersection of disciplines. Over the long period of its existence, developmental psychology has assimilated general psychological methods observation and experiment͵ applying them to the study of human development at different age levels. Developmental psychology is closely related to other areas of psychology: general psychology, human psychology, social, pedagogical and differential psychology. As is known, in general psychology mental functions are studied - perception, thinking, speech, memory, attention, imagination. in in
Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and problems of developmental psychology and developmental psychology - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Lecture 1. Subject, tasks and problems of developmental psychology and developmental psychology" 2017, 2018.