Castration of piglets It is used to increase the profitability of pig breeding and to obtain meat with high palatability. The removal of reproductive organs has a positive effect on the behavior of mature individuals and simplifies their group maintenance.

The basis for the castration of pigs are economic and medical indications. In uncastrated piglets, after the onset of puberty, there is a change in metabolic processes and behavior. During the hunt, pigs and wild boars become restless, aggressive, eat food worse and, as a result, lose weight. In the presence of a large livestock, the joint keeping of boars and pigs is associated with certain difficulties: there is a possibility of unwanted offspring, injury to males during an attack on each other, damage to equipment and pens.

Castration of piglets makes it possible to increase weight gain with the same amount of feed, which increases the profitability of agricultural enterprises and farms. Removal of the gonads allows you to get rid of the specific unpleasant odor that boar meat has. With early castration of piglets, the meat obtained after slaughter is distinguished by tenderness and a high percentage of fat. Hogs (castrated boars) are distinguished by a calm disposition, endurance and greater resistance to certain diseases. Scheduled castration is recommended for all piglets that will not be used as a breeding sire.

Pigs are castrated much less often due to the increased complexity of the procedure. Castration of pigs makes it possible to obtain thicker subcutaneous fat and accelerate mass gain. However, with the bacon type of fattening, the removal of the reproductive organs is not economically justified.

Surgery may be performed for medical reasons. Castration is recommended when piglets, boars and pigs can only be treated by removing the testicles or ovaries.

Contraindications

Castration of pigs is not carried out simultaneously with any preventive procedures (vaccination, deworming, and others). Pigs or large boars can be operated on two weeks before or two weeks after.

Before castration, all boars are carefully examined: they assess the general condition, measure the temperature, check the external genitalia for damage and inguinal hernia. If abnormalities are detected, the operation is postponed until the condition improves.

Mass castration of piglets is not recommended if there are already established infectious diseases on the farm or if infection is suspected. The procedure is not carried out by weak and emaciated animals after illness. If the basis for castration of the boar is an egg injury, a preliminary examination of the scrotum tissues is necessary: ​​the operation is categorically contraindicated in the presence of purulent foci and tissue necrosis at the site of injury. It is possible to castrate piglets and wild boars only after all possible contraindications have been excluded.

With age, pigs increase the likelihood of surgical and postoperative complications, so the castration of an adult, and even more so an old boar, should be carried out with extreme caution and adherence to the technique of the procedure.

Age

Unlike other animals that are farmed for meat, piglets are shown to have their testicles removed early. The optimal age is from 10 days to 1.5 months. Most veterinarians agree that the operation should be carried out 5-7 days before weaning piglets from the pig: in the period from 35 to 45 days of life.

The benefits of early castration include:

• Monthly piglets experience minimal blood loss and wounds heal much faster.
• At this age, anesthetics are not used, so the price of the procedure is somewhat lower.
• You can hold small boars on your own, while holding a huge adult boar will require several people.
• The mother's milk that the piglets continue to receive strengthens their immune system and promotes rapid recovery.

It is recommended to operate on piglets intended for fattening no later than 6 months. When determining the age of castration of wild boars, it is worth considering the fact that the calorie content of meat increases in emasculated males and they more actively increase not muscle mass, but fat. In this regard, some owners, with the individual maintenance of piglets, carry out the operation several months before the planned slaughter. The boar meat obtained in this case is more lean.

Separately, it is worth dwelling on the removal of testes from breeding boars. Males used in breeding are castrated after culling at the age of 4-6 years. Before a large sexually mature boar is allowed to be slaughtered, it must be kept for some time on fattening. To determine after how many months a hog can be cut, you need to know its age. It is believed that the number of fattening months should correspond to the number of years of the male. Some farmers are of the opinion that this is not enough for the boars that actively participated in the insemination, and they advise adding another 1-2 months to the period. If the hogs are slaughtered early, the meat will taste and smell bad.

Ways

The choice of castration method depends on the age at which the intervention will be performed. For piglets and young boars, the removal of the testicles is carried out in an open way. Castration of wild boars after 4-5 years, as well as males of any age with an inguinal hernia, is carried out in a closed way. Much less commonly used methods such as chemical and immunological castration.

Before surgery, the animal is immobilized. With the mass castration of piglets, you can use a special machine. If such a device is not available, the piglet is laid on its back on its knees, or lowered upside down, clamping its neck between its legs. There are several ways to hold the boar during the operation. Traditionally, ropes are used for this purpose. Before tying the animal, it is rolled on its side, and then the hind legs are pulled up to the front. It is convenient to fix a boar in a barrel: the animal is driven into a barrel without a bottom and turned into a horizontal position with its hind legs up. Reliable fixation should be even if it was decided to euthanize the male.

Castration of piglets up to 2 months is carried out without the use of painkillers. When removing the testicles in young boars, local anesthesia may be used. During the castration of boars with complications or older than 5-6 years, general anesthesia is required. Sleeping pills are calculated depending on the weight of the male and the duration of the intervention.

To carry out the procedure, you will need a set of tools: a scalpel, scissors, clamps or forceps, means for treating the surgical field and wounds (iodine, powder).

open way

Before choosing an open method of castrating a boar, it is necessary to carefully feel the scrotum and make sure that there is no omentum or intestinal loop that has fallen out through the inguinal ring. With open castration of boars, all membranes are dissected up to the testicles. The incisions are made parallel on both sides of the suture of the scrotum, the testicles are taken out. Before cutting or breaking off the spermatic cords, special instruments are placed on them, which are held on the spermatic ducts to prevent bleeding (how long the clamps hold depends on the type of instrument). If the piglet is older than 2 months, the seed tube is tied with a thread. The stump of the vas deferens and the wound are treated with antiseptics.

closed way

This method is used for castration of boars and piglets with intravaginal hernias. The technique involves dissection of the scrotum without opening the vaginal membranes. The spermatic cord is captured along with the vaginal membrane, twisted and stitched with a ligature. An incision is made below the seam, the stump is treated with an antiseptic. During the operation, it is necessary to check for the presence of a prolapsed intestine in the piglet and, if necessary, push it back into the abdominal cavity.

With any surgical castration, care after the intervention is important: proper nutrition, regular examination of the piglet and wound care.

Immunologically

The method appeared relatively recently, but has already managed to get the approval of both representatives of pig farms and animal rights activists. Immunological castration of boars consists in stimulating the immune system and producing antibodies that inhibit sex hormones.

As a result, androsterone and skatol, substances that give meat an unpleasant odor and taste, do not accumulate in the body of boars. Due to the suppression of hormones in vaccinated piglets, the same intensive increase in body weight is observed as in castrates, however, their meat remains lean, and the fat thickness is less than that of hogs. The disadvantage of immunological castration of boars and piglets is the high cost of the vaccine.

Chemical

Castration of pigs with the help of medications is aimed at inhibiting the function of the testes and ovaries, followed by their atrophy. The method is used quite rarely due to economic inexpediency.

The complexity of the operation

Castration of pigs is not considered a complex operation. Piglets and young boars recover quite quickly if sanitary standards and technique are followed.

The likelihood of complications is present in pigs in connection with the performance of abdominal surgery. The complexity of the intervention also increases in mature males due to age-related changes in blood vessels and an increased risk of bleeding.

How long does the intervention last

Open castration of monthly piglets without the introduction of painkillers takes up to 10 minutes. The duration of castration of boars and pigs with pre-fixation and administration of anesthetics lasts from 25 to 40 minutes.

In the presence of hernias and concomitant diseases, it is difficult to determine how long the operation lasts. In this case, everything is decided by the condition of the animal.

Price

How much it costs to castrate pigs depends on the age of the pigs and the method chosen for the procedure. The least costly option is to remove testicles from small piglets. The need for anesthesia in adult boars increases the cost of the operation.

Chemical castration and immunological termination of reproductive function in piglets are expensive procedures due to the high cost of drugs.

Preoperative period

Castration of pigs does not require complicated preparation for the intervention. For 12 hours, the piglets are no longer given food, and on the day of the procedure they should not be watered.

Too active and aggressive boars can be premedicated immediately before the procedure. In preparation for surgery, you should clean the pens in which the hogs will be kept. It is not recommended to use wood shavings and other similar materials as bedding, which can get into the wound.

Postoperative period

Within 5-7 days after castration, piglets and adult hogs need regular monitoring. It is necessary to examine the scrotum and evaluate the general condition of the animal. If there is swelling and redness near the wound, pus is released, a hernia has fallen out, or other changes are observed, you should contact a specialist as soon as possible. Proper care after the operation contributes to the rapid recovery of hogs.

Complications

In the first hours after the intervention, the hogs remain at risk of opening bleeding and prolapse of internal organs into the inguinal rings. Late complications include the following possible complications: the entry of infectious pathogens into the wound with the subsequent development of inflammation, edema, abscesses, tissue necrosis, peritonitis, sepsis.

DIY

Castration of pigs is performed at an early age, when the risk of bleeding and other complications is minimal. With sufficient preliminary preparation, the availability of the necessary tools and compliance with sanitary requirements, such operations can be performed by yourself and at home.

Training should be under the guidance of a specialist. Do not be guided by articles, photos and videos from the Internet or books on veterinary medicine. The doctor should explain the features of the procedure and care for piglets, talk about actions in case of possible complications. The first do-it-yourself operations are recommended to be carried out under the supervision of a specialist.

Castration of a boar of mature age or with a hernia, as well as the removal of appendages in pigs, is a more complex manipulation, so only a veterinarian can do such an operation.

Castration of boars is a mandatory procedure when fattening pigs for further slaughter for meat. Regardless of the method of termination of sexual function, it is necessary to involve qualified specialists with experience in performing such operations. The success of the intervention largely depends on compliance with all doctor's recommendations in the preoperative and postoperative period.

When raising pigs for meat, castration of piglets is of no small importance. This process can be done at home with your own hands, if you know the requirements of such manipulation and master the technique of its implementation. Experienced veterinarians castrate a piglet in 1-2 minutes.

All boars, except for breeding ones, are subject to castration.

The main reasons due to which almost all males in pig production are castrated, excluding livestock left for use in breeding, include:

1. Behavioral. Upon reaching 5 months of age or 100 kg. males begin to enter a period of active puberty. This is manifested by a change in their behavioral type. Such gilts begin to conflict with each other, expressing an aggressive character. Farm workers manage to cope with them with difficulty. At the same time castrated peers are more calm.
2. The quality of meat products. If the piglet has not been castrated, then its meat has an unpleasant odor for physiological reasons.

This is due to the fact that the seminal glands in the boar produce androstenone, a hormone that accumulates in saliva and is converted into a pheromone that attracts sows. And the skatole, which is formed in the intestine, enters the adipose tissue through the walls. They are released from meat products when exposed to high temperatures during cooking.

When is the castration time?

The best age to castrate a piglet is 1.5 months.

There is no single rule about when to castrate. Meanwhile, the younger the individual, the easier it is to do this: the blood loss will be much less than that of an adult male. It has been established that piglets that have not reached a week of age feel pain more acutely than babies older than two weeks. Because of this, it is not recommended to castrate piglets before two weeks of age. Such a shock may affect their weight gain in the future. Piglets that have not been castrated grow and develop faster.

Castration should not be carried out together with vaccination of piglets. The time gap between such procedures should be at least 14 days. Castration is postponed during the period of unfavorable epidemiological situation in the pigsty.

Castration of piglets under the age of 1.5 months is considered optimal. Castration is recommended in the morning in order to be able to monitor the condition of the operated piglet.

Required inventory

Modern universal veterinary tongs replace half of the castration tools.

Castration is a surgical process that involves incision of soft tissues and small blood vessels. You should be prepared to release some blood from the incision site.

As surgical instruments, you should purchase:

• abdominal scalpel,
• cooper scissors,
• emasculator,
• silk and sewing threads,
• catgut,
• needles with a holder, as well as several tweezers (hemostatic, surgical and anatomical).

Important! The instruments used must only be used sterile.

Hands should also be disinfected. The nail plates are cut short, and the space under the nail is thoroughly cleaned. Immediately before the procedure, hands are washed with disinfectant solutions for 3 minutes (Alfeld method). After that, put on medical rubber gloves.

Preparing for the operation

The piglet is carefully examined before the operation.

Before selecting piglets for such a procedure, it is necessary to examine their scrotum and adjacent tissues. They should not be damaged, neoplasms or subcutaneous accumulations of fluid. The operation should be started only if there is no damage to the epithelium on the genital organ.

The piglet is fixed on its back, and the bristles are shaved from the area to be surgically intervened. Then this area of ​​the skin is smeared with alcohol or iodine solution.

For small pigs, anesthesia is carried out with topical preparations. An adult male is administered intramuscularly with azaperone at the rate of 1 ml for every 10 kg of live weight. The injection is given into the muscles of the upper inner thigh.

What are the methods of castration

Surgical castration of a piglet is a simple and almost bloodless operation.

Today there are such types of castration:

1. Without surgical intervention (chemical, radiological, mechanical). These methods are the most gentle for the animal, but have a high cost, so it is not possible to use them on small farms.
2. Surgical method (closed and open type).

Open surgery is the most common procedure for castration. As a rule, these are piglets up to 1.5 months of age. In order for the operated person to be able to perform procedures without interference, they are fixed in machines.

Adult animals are worse than piglets in terms of castration.

The closed type technology is used for castration of adult males and young animals with the presence of an intravaginal hernia. The peculiarity of this method is that there is no need to open the shell. The ligature is applied to the spermatic cord with the capture of the vaginal membrane next to the inguinal ring. Then the testis is cut off in the lower part from the ligature. The same procedure is then performed on the other testis.

Castration of adult pigs

In a small farm, it is enough to have 1 boar-producer. The meat of such an animal is unfit for consumption. Usually adult males are castrated by veterinarians. The procedure is recommended to be carried out at least 2 months before slaughter. This will make it possible to sell the meat of the animal for human consumption.

Attention! If it is necessary to operate on an adult male, then the castration machine for young animals cannot be used due to the large size of the animal.

At this age, castration can be carried out not only to improve the productivity of the economy, but also for medical reasons. It is indicated for hernia of the scrotum, inflammatory processes in the sex glands and other similar problems.

Boar castration is carried out a few months before slaughter to eliminate the smell.

The disadvantages of castrating adults are rather high pain and subsequent complications. They can appear both after a short period after the operation, and also after a fairly long period of time.

During the first day, bleeding, prolapse of internal organs may appear: omentum, intestines, bladder and stump left after castration from the spermatic cord. Such types of pathologies do not occur in a more distant time. Late complications may begin to appear as early as the second day. These include swelling of the operated area, funiculitis, phlegmon, peritonitis, sepsis, gangrene.

Hernia operation

Protrusions of the wall of the scrotum or peritoneum and prolapse of the internal organs outside through the inguinal ring are treated surgically. Such problems may be congenital in nature, as well as appear later.

Surgical removal of a hernia is performed only by a veterinarian.

Signs of a hernia are a protrusion of a loop of intestine or omentum into the hernial opening. Treatment in this case can be used both conservatively and surgically:

• Conservative. It is used in the form of bandages or dressings that support the piglet's stomach. Or ointments are used to help close the hernial ring with a scar. Lugol solution or 10% sodium chloride colloid is injected into adjacent tissues. But such methods do not bring 100% cure.
• Operational. An effective result from the treatment is provided only with the help of surgical intervention. This procedure is carried out under conditions of sterility of hands and instruments. The animal is washed in the area of ​​the operation. The pig is then placed in the pen in the supine position and anesthetized.

Previously, the bristles are scraped off in the incision area and the place is treated with an antiseptic with tanning of the surrounding tissues. Also, the area on the skin is smeared with iodine after shaving the bristles and immediately before the procedure.

After suturing, the veterinarian seals the suture with a special adhesive plaster.

If the hernia is small, then a straight incision is made. Then the hernial sac is dissected at a distance of 3-5 cm from the edge, the intestinal loops or omentum are set inside and 3-5 stitches are applied. In this case, the needle is inserted into the tissue at a distance of 1-2 cm from the hernial opening, and pulled out near its edge. The opposite side is sewn up in the same way.

After that, the hernial sac is removed outside the ring, and its neck is squeezed by intestinal pulp. Only after that, below the place of compression, it is stitched with catgut. Then the hernial sac is cut off 2.5 cm from the suture, and pulled together, with a preliminary ligature applied to the hernial ring. The incision site is covered with streptocide powder, the skin is sutured, and the scar is closed with an adhesive bandage.

The animal in the postoperative period is in a separate machine with a thick bedding, with the obligatory observance of the temperature regime. For 2-3 hours after the operation, it is necessary to monitor the animal, because complications such as bleeding or loss of the bandage are possible.

The observation of the animal after the operation is necessary for several hours.

Open Operations

Piglets are most often castrated in an open way. The operation is carried out using a machine for fixing the animal. The principle is to violate the integrity of the spermatic cord. This method is used for castration of suckling piglets at about the age of 2 weeks. The testis is grasped with two fingers, and then the scrotum is incised. This is done in one motion, at a distance of 0.5-1 cm parallel to the scrotal suture.

The testicle is then removed and the transitional ligament is cut. The tissue is pushed back to the outer inguinal ring in order to be able to pass the spermatic cord between the fingers. The testicle is twisted with the right hand and pulled away from the abdominal cavity, and with the left it is fixed and twisted by the index finger on the right hand. After that, with a jerky movement, the fabric is stretched until it breaks. The incision site is treated with an antibiotic mixed with petroleum jelly or another anesthetic.

Attention! For older males, the procedure is done using the same technology before cutting the transitional ligament.

Then the incised tissue is retracted to the walls of the peritoneum with the left hand. The spermatic cord is held between two fingers, the ligature is applied at a distance of 0.5-1 cm from the testis, and then dissected. The remaining stumps are treated with iodine mixed with glycerin (1x10). To prevent the formation of a hard crust, the edges of the incision are smeared with petroleum jelly.

The piglet is firmly fixed during castration.

Castration for ligature

In this way, piglets that have reached 10 days are castrated. But most often this procedure is used on males aged 45-65 days. Depending on the growth of the piglet, it is fixed in a position on its back or held head down by the limbs. For this purpose, at home, you can use, for example, a trough or a ladder.

After shaving or cutting the bristles, the skin at the site of the future tissue dissection is treated with a 5% iodine solution. The testis is grasped with two fingers and the scrotum is dissected with a scalpel. Then it is removed and the transitional ligament is cut.

The dissected tissue is pushed back towards the abdominal wall. A ligature (silk thread or catgut) is applied to the vacated section of the spermatic cord, and then a dissection is performed. After that, the tissues affected by the surgical intervention are treated with an antiseptic and glycerin.

Castration of a piglet is performed using a special tool.

Breakage of the spermatic cord

Only the smallest piglets up to 2 weeks old are castrated in this way. The principle of the method is to retract the spermatic cord twisted along the axis from the abdominal wall after the transitional ligament has been cut and the tissues have been displaced towards the inguinal ring.

This is done with the right hand, while the spermatic cord is grasped through the skin of the scrotum with the left hand and fixed with Kocher's tweezers. After that, it is twisted on the index finger of the right hand and pulled with force until it breaks. Some operators break with a jerk. The wound is then treated with an antiseptic or antibiotic.

Animal care after surgery

At the end of surgery, the animal is placed in a separate block for a week. Previously, the cell is cleaned of dirt and washed out using alkali. Fresh hay or straw is covered on the floor. As it gets dirty, it should be changed. It is not recommended to use sawdust at this time, in order to avoid complications.

The postoperative period is dangerous with infections, so piglets need special care.

After castration, the animal may briefly refuse food due to pain. In case of deviations from the normal healing process, you should contact your veterinarian for help.

Important! It is necessary to constantly monitor the well-being of the operated animal. Check the condition of the seams so as not to miss the beginning of a possible inflammatory process.

If the suture at the incision site does not heal for a long time, this may indicate an inflammatory process, peritonitis. It is likely that the wound was infected during castration. Therefore, urgent administration of antibiotics is necessary.

Inspection of the sutures and the wound surface should be done every day.

The piglet is given complete nutrition with easy digestible feed. As preventive measures for the occurrence of peritonitis, novocaine blockades according to Mosin are performed.

• when choosing a piglet for castration, it must be borne in mind that after vaccination, at least 2 weeks must pass, and after the operation, it should not be vaccinated for the same period;
• if the piglet is sick, then its castration can be carried out no earlier than 2 weeks after recovery;
• the castration procedure in small piglets causes fewer complications and is easier to carry out;
• if the piglet's testicle has not descended into the scrotum before the operation, then the veterinarians do a laparotomy and then the testicle is removed.

The castration of Vietnamese piglets is carried out in the same way as the operations of representatives of other breeds. The video shows the process of home castration of a piglet:

If you turn to the lexicology of the Russian language for help, then the difference between the words boar and boar is small. Most authors of book sources believe that under these concepts one and the same character is hidden - a castrated male pig. In fact, the solution to this problem lies in the ability of the animal to reproduce future generations: the boar has a similar gift, but the hogs no longer exist. The topic of this article: "Boar and hog - the difference."

Boar and hog - the difference

Domestication of wild pigs began to be practiced in ancient times, 13 thousand years ago, during the primitive communal system. In that distant period, cattle was practically not controlled, they were observed only during grazing, and selection moments were left to the wise discretion of mother nature. It is difficult to imagine at what point our predecessors realized the significant difference in the taste of boar and boar meat. But one day, an enterprising owner of a small old rancher nevertheless noticed that for culinary purposes, the meat of some artiodactyls is much better than others.

There are a number of tricks that can make boar meat not so tough and remove an unpleasant odor. For example, if you soak it several times in cold water, changing the container with liquid until the repulsive “aroma” disappears. Kefir, lemon, milk and mustard are suitable as a silencer for this characteristic darling. Spices, onions and garlic will also help to cope with the problem - if you prepare a marinade based on them and place meat there, after a while it will acquire completely different properties.

What is the difference between a boar and a boar?

Pig breeding is a priority agricultural activity in the field of meat production, as pigs gain weight very quickly: at the age of 40 weeks, piglets mature and become the size of an adult. Livestock breeders have long noticed one important detail: after castration of a piglet, you can get much more meat from it after slaughter than from an uncastrated individual.

This is due to the fact that the genital organs, which are responsible for reproduction, secrete androgens during the period of their activity.

As early as 5 months of age, hormones force males to chase females for copulation. In turn, the absence of seminal glands has a beneficial effect on weight gain and makes pigs more peaceful and calm.

In addition to a significant bonus in the form of body weight, the meat of castrated or emasculated, as farmers call them, pigs has excellent qualities: it is more tender in texture and without the characteristic unpleasant odor inherent in uncastrated males. The process of turning a boar into a hog is quite simple. It is produced by a livestock breeder by cutting off the testicles of a 3-month-old piglet. A castrated male after this procedure very quickly begins to gain weight, provided that it is properly maintained and fed with high-quality feed. It is not difficult to assume that the more castrates in the pigsty, the more profit the owner of the farm subsequently gains.

To get offspring in the pigsty, there must be a male producer. However, it often becomes a source of constant worries and troubles for the farmer. Simultaneously with the cessation of puberty, he stops growing, unlike the castrato, and remains not as large an individual as his emasculated colleague in the shop.

Excessive activity of sexually mature males makes them able to jump over fences, break partitions, and even run away from the pigsty in a fit of freedom. Sometimes they show open forms of aggression.

Basically, at the end of the period of realization of the "male" potential, they are sent for slaughter. Boar meat is also edible, but it will not be as tasty as the meat of an emasculated male. To get rid of the nasty smell, you should correctly butcher the carcass during slaughter. The main trick is to jewelryly eliminate the place of accumulation of the sexual secret.

The difference between concepts in everyday speech

In the vast majority of publications, there are no discrepancies in the interpretation of the name of the male pig. The creators of authoritative explanatory dictionaries - Efremova, Ozhegov and Ushakov agree that the boar is a castrated male intended for fattening and further slaughter, and the boar is a breeding producer, whose main task is to provide the herd with offspring. Only the venerable Dahl interprets both terms identically.

However, in colloquial speech, the use of these words differs significantly from the opinion of connoisseurs and compilers of encyclopedias. In the dialects of different regions, castrated boars and breeding males are often confused with each other, since everyday speech has blurred the lines between these concepts.

Sometimes there are farmers who are in absolute confidence in the talent of the hog to reproduce offspring, and many still believe that the boar and the hog are the same male pigs in terms of their characteristics.

The confusion in the definitions also arose thanks to the famous creations of domestic writers. The discrepancy in terminology is found both in mocking sketches by Saltykov-Shchedrin and in translations of some works by Astrid Lindgren. This points to the fact that not all writers, however, like not all farmers, were knowledgeable in the field of the national economy.

According to one of the linguistic versions, it is believed that the delusion arose due to the fact that the word bor in our speech is borrowed from the Proto-Slavic language, which originates in Proto-Indo-European. In translation, "bhorus" means "cut", which corresponds to the essence of a boar, but for convenience, this word was called any kind of wild boar.

In some regions, a male pig is called a knur. Basically, this definition is used for wild boars and breeding males in the southern regions of Russia. This is where the name knuryatin came from - a synonym for meat with a persistent unpleasant odor.

Knur - the definition applies to wild boars and breeding males in the southern regions of Russia

Features of the castration technique

Pigs are emasculated in order to transform the animal into a more peaceful and profitable one. A sterilized male has the following characteristics:

• calm;
• lack of symptoms of hunting or aggression towards other animals and the owner;
• excellent appetite;
• fast weight gain;
• good endurance;
• excellent chemical indicators of meat;
• delicate taste of fat.

The scientists concluded that castration of a piglet at the age of 2 weeks is more humane. During this period, he copes with pain much easier than a 7-day-old baby. But you should not hesitate with this procedure either: the younger the male, the less he will resist, and the blood loss will not be so significant.

It is also forbidden to castrate pigs if the entire herd is infected with any infectious diseases. In such a situation, it is necessary to carry out emasculation only at the end of the quarantine period.

As a rule, if the pig is not intended to be used as a breeding male, his testicles are cut off at 14 days of age. If a hernia in the groin is found in a male, the castration method is practiced, and if this surgical manipulation is done in advance, the pig will subsequently have fewer exacerbations.

There are also supporters of the late emasculation method, who consider a 2-week castration to be a great stress for a young individual. Often the consequences of the situation experienced lead to the fact that in the future the piglet will become worse in gaining weight, unlike uncastrated males, which grow better at this stage. However, all experts agree that emasculation should be carried out 7 days before placing the baby in a separate aviary from the mother.

There are several types of emasculation - open and closed.

open way

This method is performed in several simple steps:

1. Make a small incision near the front edge, away from the anus. This manipulation should be performed very carefully so that the testicle comes out unhindered at the incision site.
2. Cut through all layers of the scrotum and the vaginal membrane. Separate the seminal ligament in piglets with the help of fingers, in mature individuals - with a scalpel.
3. Place a silk thread on the spermatic cord, stepping back from the testis by 5 cm, and cut it. It is important to deviate from the thread by about 1 cm.
4. The end of the cord should be treated with any antiseptic that does not cause pain.

Sometimes farmers greatly simplify this procedure: instead of surgical intervention, young shoots are torn off the spermatic cord. Preliminary manipulations are the same in both cases. The only difference is this: the cord should be clamped with tweezers in the groin area and torn off in one quick movement.

Closed way

It is used mainly for the purpose of emasculating mature males or in situations where the baby has an intervaginal hernia. Surgical intervention should be carried out no later than 12 weeks before slaughter:

1. Give the male mild sedatives to reduce outbursts of aggression.
2. On the jaw of the male, you need to throw a loop and tie it in the aviary.
3. Anesthesia: if during the operation the boar is in a supine position, general anesthesia should be applied, in a standing position - local.
4. Using a swab, separate the vaginal membrane from adjacent tissues.
5. Put a thread from the intestines of small cattle on the spermatic cord and remove the testicles one by one.

At the end of the procedure, it is necessary to treat this area with a painless antiseptic.

Removal of scrotal hernia

This procedure refers to the method of partial castration, after which the body of the male continues to produce sperm. An operation of this kind can be carried out in several ways:

• open castration. Suitable for all males, regardless of the number of months;
• on Zand forceps. Recommended only for mature males of large size;
• breakage of the spermatic cord. Only for babies under 3 weeks old;
• for the ligature. It is used for adult males after reaching 2 months.

Complications after surgery

There are 2 types of deterioration in the health of males after emasculation: early and late. The first variety reveals itself immediately upon completion of the procedure or after a couple of hours. It manifests itself through profuse hemorrhage, sometimes even prolapse of the intestines occurs. The second type reveals itself approximately 24 hours after castration and is accompanied by the appearance of severe inflammatory edema, blood poisoning or gangrene.

Preventive methods to eliminate complications

The main rules in the observance of preventive measures are the correct preparation of the animal and the premises for the procedure. Proper sanitary and hygienic standards should be ensured at the site of the operation and all items should be processed using special tools. You also need to clean the machine first.

Nowadays, many European countries are leaning towards the chemical method of emasculating males with the use of medications, considering it more humane in comparison with painful surgical intervention.

Mandatory Toolkit

To perform an operation to remove the seminal glands, you will need silk threads, a scalpel, forceps, an antiseptic, a needle, surgical scissors and cotton wool.

All instruments from the list must be thoroughly washed with a special disinfectant solution, and only after that proceed with the operation. Hands should be washed well with soap beforehand.

Before making a decision to carry out emasculation, it is necessary to be aware that such manipulations cause great stress for both piglets and boars. This is fraught with growth retardation and reduced weight gain. As a consequence of these processes, the economic efficiency of pig breeding is significantly reduced, since the output is less meat.

Also during the operation there is a danger of infection and provoke inflammatory processes. In addition to the fact that this leads to additional costs for medical care, the likelihood of a fatal outcome is high.

The only way from boar to hog is through the castration procedure. Considering the morbidity of such a surgical intervention, one should be more correct when using these names of the varieties of the male pig.

Video - How to castrate a piglet

Traditionally, the castration procedure for boars is carried out for the sake of obtaining economic benefits. The meat of non-castrated animals is saturated with the characteristic unpleasant odor of the gonads and is of lower quality. In addition, by the time of puberty, boars become very aggressive and may fight each other or attack people. But is there really no alternative to this, frankly, not entirely humane method?

When is the best time to castrate boars?

Piglets are castrated at the age of 10-45 days. There are several opinions about the specific age. First, early castration is less painful for the animal. But even here you should not rush too much, it has been proven that at the age of 14 days the procedure brings the piglet much less pain than at the age of 7 days. The advantages of early castration include less blood loss and little resistance of the piglet, which facilitates work and does not require the involvement of an assistant.

If we talk about carrying out castration at a later date, there are pluses here. It is believed that uncastrated suckling piglets grow and develop faster. And carrying out this painful operation in the middle of the suckling period can adversely affect the nutrition of piglets.

Important! Castration should not be carried out simultaneously with vaccination and deworming. All these operations should be carried out with an interval of 2 weeks.

Whatever time you choose, remember that it is best to castrate 5-7 days before weaning so that the wounds heal before the animal is transferred to a separate area.

Of course, adult piglets can also be castrated, but in this case, two points should be taken into account. As soon as the boar reaches a live weight of 100 kg, its meat is saturated with an unpleasant odor. And the second - the older the animal, the more painful the operation for him and the longer the rehabilitation period. For adult boars, in addition, anesthesia or more complex fixation devices are required.

How to castrate piglets?

The animal is fixed in the dorsal position. It is necessary to cut the hair on the scrotum, and treat the skin with alcohol or a 5% alcohol solution of iodine. At an early age, local anesthesia is given to boars, an intramuscular injection of a 4% solution of azaperone, 1 ml for every 10 kg, is indicated for an adult animal. weight.

The castration procedure is performed in two ways, open or closed.

open ways

Castration by breaking the spermatic cord. It is used for boars at the age of 10-15 days.

Technology: seize the testis between the index and thumb of the left hand and dissect with a scalpel all the tissues of the scrotum, including the common vaginal membrane. The incision is made parallel to the suture of the scrotum, 0.5-1 cm away from it. After that, the exposed testicle is removed and the transitional ligament is cut.

Then the tissues are shifted with the left hand to the outer inguinal ring, passing the spermatic cord between the fingers. The testis is grasped with the right hand, twisted along its long axis and somewhat pulled away from the abdominal wall. Then, with the left hand, the spermatic cord is fixed through the skin of the scrotum neck, rotated around the index finger of the right hand and pulled until the spermatic cord breaks. Can be cut off with a quick movement. The wound must be powdered with antiseptic powder or lubricated with vaseline oil with an antibiotic.

Castration on the ligature. It is used for boars aged 10 days and older.

Technology: after cutting the transitional ligament (see the previous castration technology), the dissected tissues are pushed back to the abdominal wall with the left hand, passing the spermatic cord between the middle and index fingers. A ligature (silk, catgut, threads) is applied to the exposed spermatic cord.

Indents from the ligature by 0.5 - 1 cm towards the testis, the spermatic cord is cut, the remaining stump is lubricated with a 5-6 alcohol solution of iodine or a solution of iodine with glycerin (1:10), and the edges of the wound with vaseline oil.

Closed castration method

It is used for castration of adult animals or piglets with intravaginal hernias.

Technology: during the operation, the vaginal membrane is not opened. The membrane is separated from the surrounding tissues with a gauze swab. On the spermatic cord with a common vaginal membrane, closer to the inguinal ring, a ligature is applied and the testis is cut off below it. The second testicle is cut off in a similar way.

Chemical castration of boars

In early October 2013, a conference was held in France on the ban on castration of pigs in the European Union. About 170 delegates from pork producers and food chains attended the event.

Abandoning castration for Europe is another step towards improving animal welfare and emotional well-being. This procedure is very painful and causes severe stress in pigs, which cannot but affect the subsequent physiological state. In addition, the ethics of castrating pigs has long been questioned by animal rights activists.

In addition to the ethical side of the issue, surgical castration is the cause of many subsequent diseases of pigs associated with infection and inflammation.

Advanced Europeans in December 2010 adopted the "Brussels Declaration" where stakeholders from the pig industry in the EU spoke about stopping the surgical castration of pigs and replacing it with a chemical castration using anesthesia and new generation medicines.

Piglet castration video:

However, the main issue that still remains open is the root cause of such close attention to the male dignity of boars - the unpleasant smell of meat.

As it turned out, this is not a problem for a long time. Currently, there are several methods for measuring the acceptability of the taste and smell of pork by the consumer, one of which is chemical analysis.

The European Union, although it plans to take care of the well-being of piglets and save them from unnecessary suffering, will still strictly control the possibility of the appearance of meat with an unpleasant smell in stores. Today, the so-called "electronic nose" is practiced - a device that allows you to accurately separate parts of the carcass that have the characteristic smell of a boar.

By the way, more about castration

German, Dutch, French, Danish farming and industry organizations, together with the European Animal Welfare Group, have already developed a corresponding set of rules for the care of pigs, helping to rid boars of bad smell without castration. The technology includes special feeding methods, minimizing aggression during transport and heat, and the obligatory friendly attitude. The regulation will enter into force in 2018.

Of course, it is not yet possible to reliably say how effective this technique will be and whether it will really help rid boar meat of the smell without surgical castration. Experts agree that it takes time to conduct such studies.

LECTURE

X-RAY RADIATION

2. Bremsstrahlung X-ray, its spectral properties.

3. Characteristic x-ray radiation (for review).

4. Interaction of X-ray radiation with matter.

5.Physical basis for the use of X-rays in medicine.

X-rays (X - rays) were discovered by K. Roentgen, who in 1895 became the first Nobel laureate in physics.

1. The nature of X-rays

x-ray radiation - electromagnetic waves with a length of 80 to 10 -5 nm. Long-wave X-ray radiation is blocked by short-wave UV radiation, short-wave - by long-wave g-radiation.

X-rays are produced in x-ray tubes. fig.1.

K - cathode

1 - electron beam

2 - X-ray radiation

Rice. 1. X-ray tube device.

The tube is a glass flask (with a possible high vacuum: the pressure in it is about 10 -6 mm Hg) with two electrodes: anode A and cathode K, to which a high voltage is applied U (several thousand volts). The cathode is a source of electrons (due to the phenomenon of thermionic emission). The anode is a metal rod that has an inclined surface in order to direct the resulting X-ray radiation at an angle to the axis of the tube. It is made of a highly heat-conducting material to remove the heat generated during electron bombardment. On the beveled end there is a plate made of refractory metal (for example, tungsten).

The strong heating of the anode is due to the fact that the main number of electrons in the cathode beam, having hit the anode, experience numerous collisions with the atoms of the substance and transfer a large amount of energy to them.

Under the action of high voltage, the electrons emitted by the hot cathode filament are accelerated to high energies. The kinetic energy of an electron is mv 2 /2. It is equal to the energy that it acquires by moving in the electrostatic field of the tube:

mv 2 /2 = eU(1)

where m , e are the mass and charge of the electron, U is the accelerating voltage.

The processes leading to the appearance of bremsstrahlung X-rays are due to the intense deceleration of electrons in the anode material by the electrostatic field of the atomic nucleus and atomic electrons.

The origin mechanism can be represented as follows. Moving electrons are some kind of current that forms its own magnetic field. Electron deceleration is a decrease in the current strength and, accordingly, a change in the magnetic field induction, which will cause the appearance of an alternating electric field, i.e. appearance of an electromagnetic wave.

Thus, when a charged particle flies into matter, it slows down, loses its energy and speed, and emits electromagnetic waves.

2. Spectral properties of X-ray bremsstrahlung .

So, in the case of electron deceleration in the anode material, bremsstrahlung radiation.

The bremsstrahlung spectrum is continuous . The reason for this is as follows.

When the electrons slow down, each of them has a part of the energy used to heat the anode (E 1 = Q ), the other part to create an X-ray photon (E 2 = hv ), otherwise, eU = hv + Q . The relationship between these parts is random.

Thus, a continuous spectrum of bremsstrahlung X-rays is formed due to the deceleration of many electrons, each of which emits one X-ray quantum hv(h ) of a strictly defined value. The value of this quantum different for different electrons. Dependence of the X-ray energy flux on the wavelength l , i.e. the X-ray spectrum is shown in Fig.2.

Fig.2. Bremsstrahlung spectrum: a) at different voltages U in the tube; b) at different temperatures T of the cathode.

Short-wave (hard) radiation has a greater penetrating power than long-wave (soft) radiation. Soft radiation is more strongly absorbed by matter.

From the side of short wavelengths, the spectrum ends abruptly at a certain wavelength l m i n . Such short-wavelength bremsstrahlung occurs when the energy acquired by an electron in an accelerating field is completely converted into photon energy ( Q = 0):

eU = hv max = hc/ l min , l min = hc/(eU), (2)

l min (nm) = 1.23 / U kV

The spectral composition of the radiation depends on the voltage on the X-ray tube, with increasing voltage, the value l m i n shifts towards short wavelengths (Fig. 2 a).

When the temperature T of the cathode incandescence changes, the electron emission increases. Therefore, the current increases I in the tube, but the spectral composition of the radiation does not change (Fig. 2b).

Energy flow Ф * bremsstrahlung is directly proportional to the square of the voltage U between anode and cathode, current strength I in tube and atomic number Z anode materials:

F \u003d kZU 2 I. (3)

where k \u003d 10 -9 W / (V 2 A).

3. Characteristic X-rays (for familiarization).

Increasing the voltage on the X-ray tube leads to the fact that against the background of a continuous spectrum, a line appears, which corresponds to the characteristic X-ray radiation. This radiation is specific to the anode material.

The mechanism of its occurrence is as follows. At a high voltage, accelerated electrons (with high energy) penetrate deep into the atom and knock electrons out of its inner layers. Electrons from upper levels pass to free places, as a result of which photons of characteristic radiation are emitted.

The spectra of characteristic X-ray radiation differ from optical spectra.

- Uniformity.

The uniformity of the characteristic spectra is due to the fact that the inner electron layers of different atoms are the same and differ only energetically due to the force action from the nuclei, which increases with increasing elemental number. Therefore, the characteristic spectra shift towards higher frequencies with increasing nuclear charge. This was experimentally confirmed by an employee of Roentgen - Moseley, who measured X-ray transition frequencies for 33 elements. They made the law.

MOSELY'S LAW – the square root of the frequency of the characteristic radiation is a linear function of the ordinal number of the element:

A × (Z – B ), (4)

where v is the spectral line frequency, Z is the atomic number of the emitting element. A, B are constants.

The importance of Moseley's law lies in the fact that from this dependence it is possible to accurately determine the atomic number of the element under study from the measured frequency of the X-ray line. This played a big role in the placement of the elements in the periodic table.

– Independence from a chemical compound.

The characteristic X-ray spectra of an atom do not depend on the chemical compound in which the atom of the element enters. For example, the X-ray spectrum of an oxygen atom is the same for O 2, H 2 O, while the optical spectra of these compounds differ. This feature of the x-ray spectrum of the atom was the basis for the name " characteristic radiation".

4. Interaction of X-ray radiation with matter

The impact of X-ray radiation on objects is determined by the primary processes of X-ray interaction. photon with electrons atoms and molecules of matter.

X-ray radiation in matter absorbed or dissipates. In this case, various processes can occur, which are determined by the ratio of the X-ray photon energy hv and ionization energy A and (ionization energy A and - the energy required to remove internal electrons from the atom or molecule).

a) Coherent scattering(scattering of long-wave radiation) occurs when the relation

hv< А и.

For photons, due to interaction with electrons, only the direction of movement changes (Fig. 3a), but the energy hv and the wavelength do not change (hence this scattering is called coherent). Since the energies of a photon and an atom do not change, coherent scattering does not affect biological objects, but when creating protection against X-ray radiation, one should take into account the possibility of changing the primary direction of the beam.

b) photoelectric effect happens when

hv ³ A and .

In this case, two cases can be realized.

1. The photon is absorbed, the electron is detached from the atom (Fig. 3b). Ionization occurs. The detached electron acquires kinetic energy: E k \u003d hv - A and . If the kinetic energy is large, then the electron can ionize neighboring atoms by collision, forming new ones. secondary electrons.

2. The photon is absorbed, but its energy is not enough to detach the electron, and excitation of an atom or molecule(Fig. 3c). This often leads to the subsequent emission of a photon in the visible radiation region (X-ray luminescence), and in tissues to the activation of molecules and photochemical reactions. The photoelectric effect occurs mainly on the electrons of the inner shells of atoms with high Z.

in) Incoherent scattering(Compton effect, 1922) occurs when the photon energy is much greater than the ionization energy

hv » A and.

In this case, the electron is detached from the atom (such electrons are called recoil electrons), acquires some kinetic energy E to , the energy of the photon itself decreases (Fig. 4d):

hv=hv" + A and + E k. (5)

The resulting radiation with a changed frequency (length) is called secondary, it scatters in all directions.

Recoil electrons, if they have sufficient kinetic energy, can ionize neighboring atoms by collision. Thus, as a result of incoherent scattering, secondary scattered X-ray radiation is formed and the atoms of the substance are ionized.

These (a, b, c) processes can cause a number of subsequent ones. For example (Fig. 3d), if during the photoelectric effect electrons are detached from the atom on the inner shells, then electrons from higher levels can pass in their place, which is accompanied by secondary characteristic x-ray radiation of this substance. Photons of secondary radiation, interacting with electrons of neighboring atoms, can, in turn, cause secondary phenomena.

coherent scattering

hv< А И

energy and wavelength remain unchanged

photoelectric effect

hv ³ A and

photon is absorbed, e - detached from the atom - ionization

hv \u003d A and + E to

atom A excited by the absorption of a photon, R – X-ray luminescence

incoherent scattering

hv » A and

hv \u003d hv "+ A and + E to

secondary processes in the photoelectric effect

Rice. 3 Mechanisms of interaction of X-rays with matter

Physical basis for the use of X-rays in medicine

When X-rays fall on a body, it is slightly reflected from its surface, but mainly passes deep into, while it is partially absorbed and scattered, and partially passes through.

The law of weakening.

The X-ray flux is attenuated in matter according to the law:

F \u003d F 0 e - m × x (6)

where m – linear attenuation factor, which essentially depends on the density of the substance. It is equal to the sum of three terms corresponding to coherent scattering m 1, incoherent m 2 and photoelectric effect m 3:

m \u003d m 1 + m 2 + m 3. (7)

The contribution of each term is determined by the photon energy. Below are the ratios of these processes for soft tissues (water).

Energy, keV	photoelectric effect	Compton - effect
	100 %

enjoy mass attenuation coefficient, which does not depend on the density of the substance r :

m m = m / r . (eight)

The mass attenuation coefficient depends on the energy of the photon and on the atomic number of the absorbing substance:

m m = k l 3 Z 3 . (nine)

Mass attenuation coefficients of bone and soft tissue (water) differ: m m bones / m m water = 68.

If an inhomogeneous body is placed in the path of X-rays and a fluorescent screen is placed in front of it, then this body, absorbing and attenuating the radiation, forms a shadow on the screen. By the nature of this shadow, one can judge the shape, density, structure, and in many cases the nature of bodies. Those. a significant difference in the absorption of x-ray radiation by different tissues allows you to see the image of the internal organs in the shadow projection.

If the organ under study and the surrounding tissues equally attenuate x-ray radiation, then contrast agents are used. So, for example, filling the stomach and intestines with a mushy mass of barium sulfate ( BaS 0 4), you can see their shadow image (the ratio of attenuation coefficients is 354).

Use in medicine.

In medicine, X-ray radiation with photon energy from 60 to 100-120 keV is used for diagnostics and 150-200 keV for therapy.

X-ray diagnostics – Recognition of diseases by transilluminating the body with X-rays.

X-ray diagnostics is used in various options, which are given below.

1. With fluoroscopy the x-ray tube is located behind the patient. In front of it is a fluorescent screen. There is a shadow (positive) image on the screen. In each individual case, the appropriate hardness of the radiation is selected so that it passes through soft tissues, but is sufficiently absorbed by dense ones. Otherwise, a uniform shadow is obtained. On the screen, the heart, the ribs are visible dark, the lungs are light.

2. When radiography the object is placed on a cassette, which contains a film with a special photographic emulsion. The X-ray tube is placed over the object. The resulting radiograph gives a negative image, i.e. the opposite in contrast to the picture observed during transillumination. In this method, there is a greater clarity of the image than in (1), therefore, details are observed that are difficult to see when transilluminated.

A promising variant of this method is X-ray tomography and "machine version" - computer tomography.

3. With fluoroscopy, On a sensitive small-format film, the image from the large screen is fixed. When viewed, the pictures are examined on a special magnifier.

X-ray therapy - the use of X-rays to destroy malignant tumors.

The biological effect of radiation is to disrupt vital activity, especially rapidly multiplying cells.

COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY (CT)

The method of X-ray computed tomography is based on image reconstructiona certain section of the patient's body by registering a large number of X-ray projections of this section, made at different angles. Information from the sensors that register these projections enters the computer, which, according to a special program calculates distribution tightly sample sizein the investigated section and displays it on the display screen. The resulting imagesection of the patient's body is characterized by excellent clarity and high information content. The program allows you toincrease image contrast in dozens and even hundreds of times. This expands the diagnostic capabilities of the method.

Videographers (devices with digital X-ray image processing) in modern dentistry.

In dentistry, X-ray examination is the main diagnostic method. However, a number of traditional organizational and technical features of X-ray diagnostics make it not quite comfortable for both the patient and dental clinics. This is, first of all, the need for the patient to come into contact with ionizing radiation, which often creates a significant radiation load on the body, it is also the need for a photoprocess, and, consequently, the need for photoreagents, including toxic ones. This is, finally, a bulky archive, heavy folders and envelopes with x-ray films.

In addition, the current level of development of dentistry makes the subjective assessment of radiographs by the human eye insufficient. As it turned out, out of the variety of shades of gray contained in the x-ray image, the eye perceives only 64.

Obviously, in order to obtain a clear and detailed image of the hard tissues of the dentoalveolar system with minimal radiation exposure, other solutions are needed. The search led to the creation of the so-called radiographic systems, videographers - digital radiography systems.

Without technical details, the principle of operation of such systems is as follows. X-ray radiation enters through the object not on a photosensitive film, but on a special intraoral sensor (special electronic matrix). The corresponding signal from the matrix is ​​transmitted to a digitizing device (analog-to-digital converter, ADC) that converts it into digital form and is connected to the computer. Special software builds an x-ray image on the computer screen and allows you to process it, save it on a hard or flexible storage medium (hard drive, floppy disks), print it as a picture as a file.

In a digital system, an x-ray image is a collection of dots having different digital grayscale values. The information display optimization provided by the program makes it possible to obtain an optimal frame in terms of brightness and contrast at a relatively low radiation dose.

In modern systems created, for example, by firms Trophy (France) or Schick (USA) when forming a frame, 4096 shades of gray are used, the exposure time depends on the object of study and, on average, is hundredths - tenths of a second, reduction of radiation exposure in relation to the film - up to 90% for intraoral systems, up to 70% for panoramic videographers.

When processing images, videographers allow:

1. Get positive and negative images, false color images, embossed images.

2. Increase contrast and magnify the area of ​​interest in the image.

3. Assess changes in the density of dental tissues and bone structures, control the uniformity of canal filling.

4. In endodontics to determine the length of the channel of any curvature, and in surgery to select the size of the implant with an accuracy of 0.1 mm.

5. Unique system caries detector with elements of artificial intelligence in the analysis of the picture allows you to detect caries in the stain stage, root caries and hidden caries.

* « Ф" in formula (3) refers to the entire range of emitted wavelengths and is often referred to as "Integral Energy Flux".