The main reforms of Catherine II the Great - reasons, goals, significance. Reforms of Catherine II. Accession of Paul I

Catherine the Second made many reforms that raised the economy and enlightenment of Russia, for which she can be safely called the Great.

What did she do?

Firstly, reorganization of the Senate. Catherine the Second returned the status of the supreme judicial institution to the Senate and took away legislative functions from it, leaving them only to the emperor.

Secondly, provincial reform. Catherine created 50 provinces throughout Russia and arranged noble self-government there, which created absolute control by the monarchy without harm to the population.

Thirdly, economic reform. Catherine the Great introduced paper money - banknotes. Actually, the advantage of this reform is that you do not need to carry a lot of coppers in your pocket, which they are pulling more and more. Everything fits in a couple of pieces of paper.

Fourth, improvement of education. Ekaterina created a system educational institutions. She also created many Orphanages, whose students received not only education, but also money.

Fifth, liquidation of the hetmanship at the Zaporozhian Sich. Ukraine was left without any signs of autonomy.

At sixth, letters of commendation to cities, in which the rights and privileges of merchants, as well as the rights and benefits of citizens, were determined.

Seventh, decree on the liberties of the nobles. By this decree, Catherine broke the previous fearsI am nobles and gave them many privileges, rights and advantages. In addition, now the nobles were not obliged to serve, they became arbitrators (in the provinces). Also, the nobles became inviolable: they could not be punished, deprived of liberty and property without trial.

Eighth, secularization of church lands. Catherine transferred the church lands to the College of Economics. This reform forced the state to support the church, but the advantage of this transformation was that now the state determined how many churches and priests the country needed. The lands that were not spent on the construction of monasteries and other church buildings were sent to the state fund.

Ninth, police reform. This reform helped to control the main population, its activities, both physical and moral and spiritual, therefore, not only police, but also church supervision was established.

Tenth, freedom of enterprise. This reform allows products to be produced and sold abroad. Also, this reform made it possible for anyone to create an enterprise. The economic freedoms of the population increased, but the administration became more and more centralized.

Reform results:

• The results of the reforms of Catherine the Great are dual, in fact, that is why she is great.
• By strengthening power, it gave the population economic freedoms, because of which it was possible to rise from lower levels society and start your own business, get an education.
• The threat from the Zaporozhian Sich was also eliminated, as its autonomy was eliminated. Citizens could finally participate in the life of their country, society became more enlightened and freer.

What do we know about the Russian Empress Catherine the Great? In the memory of descendants, facts often come up that have little to do with Catherine was a very big fan of court balls and exquisite toilets. Strings of cavaliers always followed her. The life of her favorites, once connected with her by love bonds, went down in history. Meanwhile, the Russian Empress was, above all, a smart, bright, extraordinary personality and a talented organizer. It is worth noting that under her rule the system of state government was transformed for the first time after the reign of Peter the Great. Even today they are of great interest. To summarize them, however, is unlikely to succeed. In general, all its political changes fit into the mainstream of the theory called enlightened absolutism. This movement gained particular popularity in the 18th century. Many areas of government and public life touched upon the reform of Catherine 2. The table "Transformations within the country" below clearly shows this.

Childhood and upbringing of Princess Fike

Sophia Frederick Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst - so it sounded full name future Russian empress. She was born in the spring of 1729 in a small German town called Stettin (now it is the territory of Poland). Her father was in the service of the Prussian king. This was a vain man. At one time he was first a regimental commander, then a commandant, and then the governor of his native city. The mother of the future empress was of royal blood. She was a cousin of Peter III, the future husband of her daughter. Sofia, or, as her relatives called her, Fike, was educated at home.

She studied French, Italian, English languages, geography, history, theology, danced and played music. The girl had a cheerful disposition, was restless, was friends with the boys. Her parents were unhappy with her behavior. The Fike family was not rich. But her mother dreamed of getting her daughter in marriage profitably. Soon her dreams were brought to life.

Marriage with the heir to the throne of Russia

In 1744, the Zerbst princess Fike was invited along with her mother to Russia to the royal court for a wedding with the future Russian emperor Peter III, who was her second cousin.

The sixteen-year-old bride was soon introduced to Elizaveta Petrovna, who, in an effort to secure the Romanovs' right to the throne, hoped to marry her unlucky nephew. The Russian Empress believed that the pretty and graceful Sophia could distract Peter from his childish pastimes with puppies and toys. As soon as Fike was in Russia, she eagerly began to study the Russian language, court etiquette and the Orthodox law of God. The wedding was scheduled for August 25, 1745. The day before, Sofia converted to Orthodoxy and received the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. On the wedding day at 6 o'clock in the morning, the princess was taken to the chambers of Elizabeth Petrovna, where she was dressed and combed. The wedding ceremony took place in the Kazan Church. It is noteworthy that 17 years after that, the Life Guards will swear allegiance to their new Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna here. After the wedding, a big ball and a banquet were given at the royal court, where Fike was forced to dance with an endless series of elderly nobles. Immediately after the wedding, it turned out that the newly-made husband was not going to fulfill his marital duties. Peter spent all his time playing with tin soldiers and cardboard locks. He turned his matrimonial bedroom into a kennel for hunting dogs. It was obvious that this undergrowth was not capable of governing the state. Meanwhile, Russia needed internal reforms. Catherine 2, as such, did not yet exist. Yes, and those close to the royal court expected that everything would be limited to the role of the wife of the emperor and the mother of his children for Fike. How wrong they were.

Catherine's accession to the Russian throne

The current Empress Elizabeth Petrovna was fading away every day, her health was very poor. And the relationship of the crowned spouses did not develop. Peter openly lived with his mistress and talked about his desire to marry her. Catherine herself soon also became interested in the 26-year-old chamber junker Sergei Saltykov. A few months later, Fike gave birth to a son, who was named Paul. There were rumors at court that Catherine's lover was his father. Despite all this, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna proclaimed the boy the second in line heir to the throne. Meanwhile, Russia, in alliance with Austria and France, was at war with Prussia, where it won one victory after another. This pleased everyone except the infantile Peter, who considered King Frederick II of Prussia to be an unsurpassed military genius. It was clear that in the event of his accession to the throne, Russia would conclude a humiliating peace with Prussia, losing everything that it had gained during the war. Soon this happened. Elizabeth died on Christmas Day in 1761. After that, Peter became the Russian emperor. In March 1762, he made peace with Prussia, which caused a lot of discontent in the ranks. Russian army. This was what Catherine's associates, the Orlov brothers, decided to use against Peter III, one of whom, Grigory, was her lover and her father. last child. In the Kazan Church, Catherine underwent the rite of anointing and taking the oath as Empress of All Russia. The soldiers were the first to swear allegiance to her.

It happened on June 28, 1762. At that time, no one could have imagined what the policy of Catherine II would be.

General information about the reign of the empress

A week after the events described, on July 6, Catherine received a letter from Orlov stating that her husband Peter, who had written the abdication and exiled to the Ropsha manor, had died. According to eyewitnesses, the newly-made empress rushed about, cried and shouted that her descendants would never forgive her for this. However, other sources indicate that she knew about the impending assassination attempt on her husband, since 2 days before his murder, doctor Paulsen was sent to him not with medicines, but with tools for dissecting corpses. Be that as it may, no one began to challenge Catherine's right to the throne. And today we can sum up the results of her 34-year reign. Historians often use the term "enlightened absolutism" to characterize her rule within the state. Adherents of this theory are convinced that the state must have a strong autocratic power that will work for the benefit of all its citizens. Catherine II was expressed primarily in the strengthening of the bureaucratic apparatus, the unification of the management system and the centralization of the country. The Empress believed that the vast territory of Russia and its harsh climate necessitated the emergence and prosperity of the autocracy here. Schematically, it is possible to depict the reforms of Catherine 2 in this way.

Table "Transformations within the country"

As we can see from the data in the table, these reforms fully manifested the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II. She sought to concentrate all state power in her hands and ensure that all classes lived in the country according to the special laws she introduced.

Document "Instruction" - the concept of enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2

The Empress, who enthusiastically spoke of the works of Montesquieu and adopted the basic principles of his theory, attempted to convene the so-called Legislative Commission, the main purpose of which is to clarify the needs of the people in order to carry out the necessary transformations within the state. This body was attended by 600 deputies from various estates. As the guiding document of this Commission, Catherine issued the “Instruction”, which, in fact, became the theoretical justification for enlightened absolutism. It is known that it was almost completely rewritten from the works of Montesquieu, a zealous supporter of this theory. Catherine herself admitted that here she owns "somewhere one line, one word."

This Commission existed for only a year and a half, and then was dissolved. Was this body called upon to conduct administrative reforms Catherine 2? Maybe yes. But historians today agree that all the work of the Commission was aimed at creating a favorable image of the Empress in Russia and abroad. It was this body that decided to award her the title of "Great".

Administrative reforms of Catherine II

These innovations were legalized on November 7, 1775. The system of administrative division of the territory of Russia has changed. Previously, it was three-link: provinces, provinces, counties. And now the regions of the state began to be divided only into governorships and counties. At the head of several governorships was a governor-general. The governors, herald-fiscals and refatgeys obeyed him. The Treasury Chamber, with the support of the Accounts Chamber, was in charge of finances in the governorates. At the head of each county was a police captain. A city was singled out as a separate administrative unit, at the head of which a mayor was appointed instead of a voivode.

Reform of the Senate of Catherine II

This neoplasm was accepted by the Empress on December 15, 1763. According to him, the Senate became the highest judicial instance. In addition, it was divided into 6 departments:

The first one was in charge of all state and political affairs in St. Petersburg;

Second - court cases In Petersburg;

The third - medicine, science, art, education, transport;

Fourth - military maritime and land affairs;

Fifth - state and political affairs in Moscow;

The sixth - court cases in Moscow.

The reforms of Catherine II's governance here were aimed at making the Senate an obedient instrument of autocratic power.

Economic reforms

The reign of the empress was characterized by the extensive development of the country's economy. The economic reforms of Catherine 2 affected the banking and monetary spheres, and foreign trade.

During her reign, new credit institutions appeared (loan offices and the State Bank), they began to accept funds from the population for deposits for storage. Banknotes were issued for the first time - paper money. The state under Catherine began to export goods abroad to in large numbers, such as cast iron, sailcloth, timber, hemp, bread. It is difficult to say whether these reforms of Catherine 2 brought a positive result. It is unlikely that it will be possible to talk about this briefly. Mass under its management led to the Holodomor in 1780 in many regions of Russia. Cases of mass ruin of peasants became more frequent. The price of bread has risen. The state treasury is empty. And it exceeded 33 million rubles.

Innovations in the education system

But not all transformations of the Empress had negative consequences. The education reform of Catherine II was launched in the 1760s. Schools began to open everywhere, which children from different classes could attend. Particular attention was paid to women's education. In 1764, the Smolensk Institute for Noble Maidens was formed. Opened in 1783 Russian Academy where eminent foreign scientists were invited. What else was the education reform of Catherine 2 manifested in? The fact that in the provinces they formed orders of public charity, which were in charge of the management of public schools, hospitals, asylums for the insane and the sick, and hospitals. In Moscow and St. Petersburg, houses were opened for homeless children who received upbringing and education in them.

Estates under Catherine 2

This transformation is still controversial among historians. The estate reforms of Catherine 2 consisted in her issuing two charters in 1785, one of which finally secured the privileges of the nobility, and the other divided the urban population into 6 categories. The empress herself called these innovations "the crown of her activity." "Charter to the nobility" suggested the following:

This estate was exempted from quartering military units, from corporal punishment, from confiscation of property for criminal offenses;

The nobility received the right to the bowels of the earth, the right to own land, the right to have class institutions;

These people were forbidden to hold elective positions if their income from the estates was less than 100 rubles, and they were also deprived of the right to vote if they did not have an officer's rank.

What was the urban reform of Catherine II? The Empress ordered to divide the population into 6 categories:

Urban dwellers (homeowners);

Merchants of 3 guilds;

Artisans;

Out-of-town and foreign merchants;

Eminent citizens (wealthy merchants, bankers, architects, painters, scientists, composers);

Townsmen (who do not have houses).

With regard to these innovations, we can say that the policy of Catherine 2 here contributed to a strong stratification of society into rich and poor. At the same time, the economic situation of some of the nobles worsened. Many of them could not get into public service without being able to purchase the necessary clothing and footwear for this. At the same time, a number of large nobles owned vast territories of land and hundreds of thousands of serfs.

Religious policy

What other areas were affected by the state reforms of Catherine II? This strong-willed woman tried to control absolutely everything in her state, including religion. In 1764, by issuing a decree, she deprived the church of land. Together with the peasants, these territories were transferred to the management of a certain Collegium of Economy. Thus, the clergy became dependent on the royal power. In general, the empress tried to pursue a policy of religious tolerance. In the first years of her reign, the persecution of the Old Believers ceased, Buddhism, Protestantism, and Judaism received state support.

Catherine 2 as an adherent of the Enlightenment theory

The 34-year reign of the empress is filled with many contradictory events. The enlightened absolutism of Catherine 2, which she tried to preach among the nobility, was manifested in the “Instruction” she created, and in the class reform, and in the administrative division of the territory of Russia, and in transformations in the field of education. However, all these reforms were limited. autocratic principle of government, serfdom remained unshakable. Catherine's relationship with the French enlighteners (Voltaire, Diderot) deserves special attention.

She was in active correspondence with them, exchanging ideas. They had a very high opinion of her. True, modern historians are sure that these relations were purely sponsored. The Empress often generously presented her "friends".

The results of the reign of the great empress

The time has come to characterize the reforms of Catherine II briefly and sum up the results of her reign. She carried out many transformations, sometimes very contradictory. The era of the empress is characterized by the maximum enslavement of the peasants, the deprivation of their minimum rights. Under her rule, a decree was issued prohibiting peasants from filing a complaint against their landowner. Corruption flourished, especially large sizes. The empress herself set an example, generously giving gifts to relatives and court entourage and appointing her favorites to responsible government posts. It is not surprising that after a few years of her reign, the country's treasury was empty. How did the reforms of Catherine II eventually end? Briefly, this can be said as follows: heavy economic crisis and total collapse financial system states. Be that as it may, she actively participated in public life and loved Russia, which had become her native.

We learned how the enlightened absolutism of Catherine II manifested itself during her reign, some of the provisions of which she was able to bring to life.

Table - State administrative and socio-economic reforms of Catherine II

To a lesser extent, the changes affected agriculture, the development of which was mainly of an extensive nature, i.e. It was mainly due to the development of new territories, while agricultural machinery, farming methods and, consequently, labor productivity remained practically unchanged. True, at this time the first enthusiasts of scientific agriculture appeared, to which the government contributed in every possible way. In 1765, the Free economic society for dissemination scientific knowledge in the field of management and, above all, in agronomy. The "Proceedings" published by the society were no less popular with the reading public than the works of the French enlighteners. All this, however, did not lead to serious changes in agriculture, and could not lead, as long as the basis of agricultural production was the pipes of serfs.

In general, despite all the difficulties and shortcomings, the Russian economy of the second half of the 18th century. developed quite successfully. Government decrees aimed at stimulating production and trade on the principles of free enterprise, as it were, opened the last floodgates, making it possible to fully use the potential of the feudal serf state. However, this potential could only be enough for a short time, since serfdom stood in the way of the normal development of the country as an insurmountable obstacle. What was the attitude of the empress towards serfdom and what happened in this area during her reign?

In her memoirs, Catherine spoke on this very clearly:

“The predisposition to despotism is instilled from the very early age to children who see with what cruelty their parents treat their servants, because there is no house in which there would not be iron collars, chains and various other instruments for torture at the slightest offense of those whom nature has placed in this unfortunate class that cannot be break your chains without crime. You hardly dare say that they are people like us, and even when I say it myself, I run the risk of being thrown at me with stones; why did I not suffer from such a reckless and cruel society, when certain questions related to this subject began to be discussed in the commission for drawing up a new Code, and when the ignorant nobles, whose number was immeasurably greater than I could ever imagine, because it is too high evaluated those who surrounded me every day, began to guess that these questions could lead to some improvement in the present situation of the farmers.

In another document, written by the hand of the Empress, we read:

“The great engine of agriculture is freedom and property. When each peasant is sure that something that belongs to him does not belong to another, he will improve it. State taxes are not difficult for him, in view of the fact that they are very moderate, if the state does not need an increase in income at all, farmers can settle down as they like, as long as they have freedom and property.

Catherine was not far from the truth when she said that she could be stoned at the slightest attempt to raise the issue of abolishing serfdom. In protecting their main privilege, which formed the basis of their economic well-being, the nobility, which by this time had become a serious political force, was ready to go to the end, and the empress could easily lose the throne. However, one should not think that the views of Catherine II were unequivocally feudal in nature and are comparable in this respect with the views, for example, of the revolutionary democrats of the 19th century. The denial of serfdom by the empress as an inhumane phenomenon, contrary to the basic principles of the Enlightenment and harmful from an economic point of view, was combined with the idea, on the one hand, of the spiritual underdevelopment of the people and the need to educate them, and on the other hand, of the rather benign in general relations between the peasants and their owners. Such a view was characteristic not only of the empress, but also of many enlightened people of that time. So, for example, E.R. Dashkova, in a conversation with Denis Diderot, explained to him that the people remind her of a blind man who lives on top of a rock and does not know about it. Suddenly seeing the light, he will become deeply unhappy:

“Enlightenment leads to freedom, but freedom without enlightenment would only give rise to anarchy and disorder. When lower classes my compatriots will be enlightened, then they will be worthy of freedom, since then they will only be able to use it without prejudice to their fellow citizens and without destroying the order and relations inevitable in any form of government.

So, Catherine could not openly fight the feudal lords, although she had certain plans for changing the position of the peasantry. Meanwhile, the very phenomenon of serfdom, like any other phenomenon of social and political life, could not, of course, remain unchanged, but it changed in the direction of intensifying the exploitation of the peasants and worsening their situation.

It is clear, however, that Catherine could not complete the implementation of her program for the creation of estates in Russia, bypassing the most numerous estate - the peasants. Documents testify that a draft letter of commendation was also prepared for the peasants, but it was not approved. The letter was not addressed to all peasants, but only to the state, who were called in it "free villagers" and endowed with rights similar to those of townspeople. According to the draft charter, the villages were supposed to have new system management - the village foreman, the headman and the "management chamber", similar in function to the provincial noble assembly and city society. Like other estates, the peasants were divided into six categories, the first two being exempt from corporal punishment.

Considering all three letters, the modern American historian David Griffiths came to the conclusion that together they form a "constitution in the pre-revolutionary sense of the word", meaning that initially, before French Revolution 1789, the word "constitution" meant in general a way of arranging, organizing something. A holistic examination of letters, from the point of view of D. Griffiths, “discovers a holistic political program, reflecting the clear and interconnected ideas of the empress about the form of social structure. These are not liberal or conservative views, neither pro- nor anti-noble. These are notions of a well-regulated society by a class structure, characteristic of the beginning of the New Age.

However, as already mentioned, the third charter was never published. The reasons for this are clear: the resistance of the nobility, which Catherine was unable to overcome. Under these conditions, the empress realized her goal to the extent that it was generally possible without fear of causing serious social upheavals, and from this point of view, her reforms must be recognized as successful. It was from Catherine's time, according to historians, that we can talk about the emergence of full-fledged estates in Russia. But the Empress herself continued to work on legislation even after 1785 and, as the surviving archival documents testify, she did not abandon the idea of ​​creating a class system in full. So, she intended to establish special body with functions supreme court, consisting of elected representatives of the three estates: nobles, burghers and peasants. Her developments in the field of family, property, and criminal law have also been preserved. A new reform of the Senate was scheduled for 1797. Among the projects, one can also find reflections on ways to eliminate serfdom. So, in one of the notes we read:

“Here is a convenient way: to state that as soon as anyone sells land from now on, all serfs will be declared free from the moment of purchase by its new owner, and within a hundred years all or at least most of lands change owners, and now the people are free.

As you can see, Catherine did not hope for an early liberation of the peasants, and in general she considered the “abrupt coup” to be harmful. According to other sources, she was preparing a decree that declared free all the children of serfs born after 1785, however, all these were just projects. Real reforms seemed not only in the sphere of internal administration, estate organization and economy. Among the most important is the reform of education.

Being diligent student Enlightenment philosophers, Catherine understood that the success of any social transformation depends on the level of enlightenment of the people, on their ability to perceive the new.

At the beginning, it was mentioned that the example of the empress, who was fond of reading and writing, had a beneficial effect on the development of Russian culture. It was the one short period, during which there was a kind of union between the state and culture, when culture was in dire need of state support.

Catherine's great merit is the rise of cultural life in the country. She was bad at fine arts, but with her an impressive basis of the collections of today's Hermitage arose: her art agents traveled to the impoverished courts of European rulers and sovereign persons, buying masterpieces and entire collections for northern Semiramis, as the French enlighteners called Catherine. The Empress, to put it mildly, did not really feel musical harmony, but under her rule, the opera troupe of Italians received a permanent “registration” in St. Petersburg, and Paisiello’s opera The Barber of Seville was first performed in the Hermitage concert hall in 1782, in the sixty-sixth year, Catherine, when she happened to see and hear the singing of greeting cants, folk melodies and dances, drew attention to the education of the national musical shift. And this was expressed in concrete support for Russian musicians through the directorate of the imperial theaters.

The era of Catherine II is the heyday of Russian architecture. At that time, the architects R.P. Nikitin, Yu.M. Felten, J.B. Wallen - Delamotte, I.E. Starov, V.I. Bazhenov.

Special merit belongs to the Empress in the development of Russian journalism, which flourished in the 60-70s of the 18th century. In 1769, the empress founded the satirical magazine Vsyakaya Vsyachina, the official editor of which was her state secretary G.V. Kozitsky. This publication was necessary for Catherine to be able to express her point of view on socially significant problems. In the journal, she published several articles in which she explained in an allegorical manner the reasons for the failure of the Legislative Commission.

Catherine 2, like most monarchs who ruled for at least some considerable time, sought to carry out reforms. Moreover, Russia went to her in plight: the army and navy were weakened, a large external debt, corruption, the collapse of the judicial system, etc., etc.

Provincial reform:

"Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire" was adopted on November 7, 1775. Instead of the former administrative division into provinces, provinces and counties, territories began to be divided into provinces and counties. The number of provinces increased from twenty-three to fifty.

Judicial reform:

Each class had its own court. The nobility was judged by the Zemstvo court, the townspeople– magistrates, peasants– reprisals. The higher courts were the courts, whose members were appointed. Supreme FateThe Senate was the main body of the Russian Empire.

Secularization reform:

It was held in 1764. All monastic lands, as well as the peasants who lived on them, were transferred to the jurisdiction of a specially established College of Economy. The state took over the maintenance of monasticism, but from that moment on it received the right to determine the number of monasteries and monks necessary for the empire.

Senate Reform:

On December 15, 1763, Catherine II issued a manifesto “On the Establishment of Departments in the Senate, Justice, Votchinnaya and Revision Collegiums, and on Separation According to These Cases.” The role of the Senate was narrowed, and the powers of its head, the Prosecutor General, on the contrary, were expanded. The Senate became the highest court. It was divided into six departments.

City Reform:

The reform of Russian cities was regulated by the "Charter on the Rights and Benefits of the Cities of the Russian Empire", which was issued by Catherine II in 1785. New elective institutions were introduced. At the same time, the number of voters increased. Residents of cities were divided into six categories according to various property, class characteristics, as well as merit to society and the state.

Police reform:

In 1782, Empress Catherine II introduced the "Charter of the Deanery or Policeman". According to it, the deanery council became the body of the city police department. It consisted of bailiffs, a mayor and a police chief, as well as townspeople determined through elections. The punishments used by the police were arrest, reprimand, imprisonment in a workhouse, a fine, and in addition– prohibition of certain activities.

Education reform

The creation of public schools in the cities laid the foundation for the state system of general education schools in Russia. They were of two types: the main schools in the provincial towns and small ones in the county ones. The school reform was carried out in 1782, and earlier in 1764 a school was opened at the Academy of Arts, as well as the Society of Two Hundred Noble Maidens, then (in 1772)– commercial school.

Monetary reform

In the reign of Catherine II, the State Bank and the Loan Office were formed. And also, for the first time in Russia, paper money (banknotes) was put into circulation. 27. Russia and Europe in the XVIII century. Changes in international position countries.

In the 1820s, England remained one of the most implacable opponents of Russia in Europe. The British authorities feared the growth of the political and naval power of Russia and“ Russian threat” Hannover– hereditary possession of the English king. Besides, London was afraid of losing its intermediary role in externalth trade of Russia and become dependent on the export of Russian shipbuilding materials. Absence of normal diplomatic relations, interrupted in 1720., and the reduction in trade turnover caused damage to both parties and their economic interests.

After the death of Catherine I, a new foreign policy of Russia was proclaimed, which corresponded to the interests of the country. According to Vice-Chancellor A.I. Osterman, Russia is in a difficult international environment of that time sought“ run away” from everything, what could be worse“ inwhat space to enter” (avoid any military clashes. She didn't want war now just for herself, but also between European countries. From here and the turn of the policy towards England.

During the 20s of the XVIII century. the question of restoring diplomatic relations between Russia and England was raised repeatedly. As early as 1727, Russia's policy clearly outlined a line towards a gradual rapprochement with England while maintaining and further strengthening the Russo-Austrian alliance.

Relations between Russia and Spain in the first half of the 18th century. took shape in difficult conditions of confrontation between the Vienna (Austria and Spain) and Hanoverian (England, France and Prussia) blocs.

Spanish diplomacy made every effort to attract Russia to the Vienna Union.

This was facilitated by the anti-Russian orientation of the Hanoverian League, as well as the common interests of Russia and Austria in Turkey, Poland and Sweden. In the rescript to the Russian representative in Madrid of the College of Commerce, Advisor I.A. Shcherbatov, it was prescribed

December 13, 1726 maintain close ties“ Caesar's minister, maybe we're all roman- by the royal majesty in close friendship we acquire. In July 1726 G. Russia joinedAustro- Spanish coalition, thereby supporting the balance of power in Europe. However, she rejected the offer of Spainand join the fight against the Hanoverian League. With the accession of Russia to the Vienna Union, the Spaniards expected to act more vigorously against their opponents and, above all, France.

At the beginning of 1725, the cabinet of Catherine I declared loyalty to the foreign policy course determined by Peter I. While carefully observing the diplomatic struggle between various blocs, St. Petersburg did not immediately decide on the choice of allies. The greatest interest among the leading European countries France represented, with the help of which Russia hoped to strengthen its position in Poland, Sweden and Turkey, where France's influence was especially great. In March 1725 it was decided to ally with France.

Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland, who ascended the Russian throne in 1730 after the death of Peter II, supported the idea of ​​a Russian-French rapprochement. In 1732, the empress agreed to start negotiations with Magnan on the conclusion of a union treaty between the two countries. However, very soon these negotiations reached an impasse due to too large differences in foreign policy guidelines.

Laws that do not preserve measure in good are the reason that from here immeasurable evil is born.

Catherine II

The policy of enlightened absolutism pursued by Catherine required the reformation of the country, which had just begun to move away from the era of Palace coups. Such changes did take place in Russia, but the reforms of Catherine II, unlike, for example, those of Peter the Great, did not so much create a strong state as they created a strong elite in the state. Moreover, the closer to the end of Catherine's reign, the more pronounced this trend becomes.

The main directions of the reforms of Catherine II

The reforms of Catherine II affected all aspects of domestic policy. She reformed the country, creating a centralization of power in St. Petersburg, as well as influencing social structure countries to form an elite. Below is a table that discusses the main directions of the empress's reform activities and some of the results to which this led.

Reorganization of the Senate

The reform of the reorganization of the Senate by Catherine II was carried out on December 25, 1763. The main idea of ​​this reform was to create a system of judicial administration of the country, where the functions of power would be divided among six departments:

1. Solved the most important cases from the field of politics in St. Petersburg.
2. Resolved court cases in St. Petersburg.
3. Carried out supervisory functions over education, art, medicine, transport and science.
4. Controlled the Russian military industry. This department was responsible for both land and sea units.
5. Resolved political affairs in Moscow.
6. Implementation of judicial functions in Moscow.

The Prosecutor General was appointed head of the Senate and the First Department. He had the right to personally report to the emperor. The rest of the Departments were headed by chief prosecutors, who reported and reported to the head of the Senate.

Secularization

After the death of Peter 1, the church began to restore its privileges and influence. Yes, the church was removed from the government of the country, but it retained its lands, property and the right to own serfs. The latter was liquidated in 1764, when the secularization of church lands took place. This reform included:

• Churches and monasteries are deprived of the right to land and serfs. As a result, more than 900 thousand peasants moved from the status of "church" to the status of "state".
• Churches and monasteries retained the right to immovable property.

Thus, a blow was dealt to the independence and independence of the church, because it lost its main source of income.

Local government system

Considering Reforms local government Catherine 2, it is important to note that these changes created the foundations of the bureaucracy, significantly expanding the staff of officials. The reform was published in 1775 and was called "Institution for the administration of the provinces of the All-Russian Empire." Provinces in Russia appeared under Peter 1. Peter Alekseevich divided the country into 8 provinces. Catherine 2 instead of 8 provinces introduced 50, which were also divided into counties.

A brief summary of these reforms of Catherine 2:

• The country was divided into provinces (population 300-400 thousand people), which were divided into counties (population 20-30 thousand people).
• At the head of the province was the governor-general, who recruited a staff of assistants, vice-governors. The chief of police also obeyed him.
• The final formation of the judiciary.
• Local government was transferred into the hands of the elected estates, on which the authorities planned to rely.

Simultaneously with the creation of a local government system, Catherine II limited the independence, autonomy, of individual regions of the country. For example, in 1764 Ukraine was deprived of autonomy and in the same year the system of hetmanship was liquidated. Razumovsky was the last hetman of Ukraine. It was a step for the country to act uniform laws and there were no exceptions. In the same 1764, other Cossack lands - Don, Yaik and Zaporozhye - were deprived of autonomy.