The coup d'état on March 11, 1801. The seven most famous palace coups in Russia. Estimates of Paul's reign in historical literature

02.11.2019

Estimates of Paul's reign in historical literature

The American historian McGrew believes that Paul's absolutism was much closer to Russian traditions than Catherine's enlightened absolutism.

Presnyakov: Pavel tried to turn the empire into his fiefdom, where there is only one owner - the emperor. He militarized the administration of the country, isolated it from the West.

Eidelman called Paul's policy unenlightened absolutism.

Kamensky argues that Pavel sought to preserve the system that had developed in Russia, abandoned innovations, and made attempts to implement counter-reforms.

Sorokin Yu.A. believes that Paul pursued the only possible policy consistent with the interests of absolutism.

Historians' opinions on the reasons for the palace coup of 1801.

Presnyakov: Court circles and guards were irritated by Paul's tyranny. His domestic and foreign policy largely contradicted the interests of the nobility.

Eidelman believed that under Paul the privileges of the nobility were limited. Pavel jeopardized the preservation of the status of the ruling class by the nobility.

Kamensky: Paul's policy was inconsistent, there was no stability and continuity, objectively Paul's policy meant an infringement on the rights of the nobility, it was an attempt to return the nobility to the state of the time of Peter I. Paul failed to get the support of society. Paul's social policy created fertile ground for a successful conspiracy against him. Paul's reign was despotic. During the three decades of Catherine's reign, Russian society passed through a stage of sociocultural development. Society did not want to put up with a petty tyrant on the throne. Pavel, with his desire for strict discipline and the militarization of society, with his attempt to close the country, interrupt the process of Europeanization, turned out to be an unacceptable figure for the nobility. The fate of the nobles depended on the whim, the mood of Paul.

Pet. Governor-General Pyotr Alexandrovich Palen. Palen attracted led to the conspiracy. book. Alexandra. He initially planned not to remove Paul from the throne, but to kill him. 4 years after the coup, Palen told Lanzheron: “Alexander did not agree to anything without demanding from me a preliminary oath promise that they would not encroach on the life of his father; I gave him my word, ... although I was convinced that it would not be fulfilled. I knew perfectly well that it was necessary to complete the revolution or not to touch it at all, and that if Paul’s life was not terminated, then the doors of his prison would soon open, a terrible reaction would take place, and the blood of the innocent, like the blood of the guilty, would soon stain both the capital and the provinces. ".

Palen was determined to limit the autocracy after the overthrow of Paul. In 1800, Palen informed Alexander of his intention to overthrow Paul from the throne and asked Alexander to give his consent to the coup. Alexander hesitated, showed indecision, but supported the talk about saving the fatherland. He shared the constitutional ideas of Palen, but historians are not aware of his plans to limit autocracy.

Alexander agreed after accession to the throne to sign the constitution.

Paul I in 1800 moved from the Winter Palace to the Mikhailovsky Castle, the construction of which was carried out by his order. Several million were spent on the construction of the castle. gold rubles The castle looked like a military fortress. He had secret stairs, corridors, so that you could quietly hide from the killers.

In 1800, Palen managed to achieve the return of Platon Zubov to St. Petersburg in order to involve him in the conspiracy. In the petition, Platon Zubov humbly asked to be allowed to faithfully serve the sovereign to the last drop of blood. In December 1800, the Zubov brothers (Platon, Nikolai, Valerian received high military posts). Nikolai Zubov, who would later be the first to strike Paul, was often invited to receptions at the imperial palace. Palen attracted Platon Zubov (Ekaterina's last lover) because he had connections. Through him, important generals could be attracted to the conspiracy. But the Zubovs, as executors of the conspiracy, were unreliable. According to Langeron (the general of the Gatchina school, he was devoted to Pavel), Platon Zubov was the most cowardly and low of people. Palen, apparently, guessed about it. He became interested in the conspiracy of General Bennigsen on the day of the coup.

In the autumn-winter of 1800-1801, guards officers were recruited. Palen did not reveal his plan to them until the last hour.

In March 1801, Paul I guessed about the conspiracy, but he did not know who was preparing it. A rumor spread in society that Pavel wants to appoint his son Nicholas, “not spoiled by his grandmother’s influence,” as his heir, or the future husband of his daughter Catherine (born in 1788), Prince of Württemberg. It was no secret to anyone that the relationship between Paul and Alexander was complicated and strained. There were rumors about the imprisonment of Alexander in the Shlisselburg fortress, and the empress in Kholmogory. The king allegedly intends to marry a third time. It is not known whether Paul really made such plans.

Palen skillfully strengthened the rumors he needed, setting up the guards and secular society against Paul.

On March 9, Pavel started a conversation with Palen about the conspiracy. Pavel did not know anything for sure: neither the names nor the plans of the conspirators. He only guessed that someone was preparing a conspiracy. Palen reassured him that he would not allow a conspiracy. It became clear to Palen that the coup could not be delayed. Palen and Alexander discussed the date of the coup. - 11th of March. On this day, the Mikhailovsky Castle was supposed to be guarded by the third battalion of the Semenovsky regiment, and Alexander was the chief of the Semenovsky regiment. In this battalion Al. I was more confident than others.

A nervous, restless mood reigned in the palace. 4-6 people knew about the conspiracy. On March 11, Palen gathered many officers of the guard at his apartment and announced to them that Pavel was dissatisfied with their service, he declared that the emperor would send to Siberia all the officers with whom he was dissatisfied. A contemporary, an eyewitness to the events, wrote: “Everyone left with despondency in their hearts. Everyone wants change."

Palen planned the plot down to the last detail. There were about 500 officers in the guard, almost all under the control of Palen.

The officers involved in the conspiracy had no unity of motives. Each pursued personal interests. Someone Pavel offended, someone was sitting in a fortress, someone wanted to take revenge on Paul for their fear. The officers were not given the opportunity to think about the goals of the conspiracy. They were not asked, they were ordered.

At 11 p.m., a gvar dinner was held. officers from General Talyzin, one of the organizers of the conspiracy. Those officers who were to take part in the coup were invited to dinner by Palen. The officers drank a lot, mostly champagne. Jokes were told about Paul. At 12 o'clock Palen and the Zubovs arrived. Palen made a toast: "To the health of the new emperor." Some officers were embarrassed, others were silent, waiting for an explanation. Platon Zubov gave a speech, spoke briefly about the conspiracy. Palen and Zubov emphasized Alexander's participation in the conspiracy. The officers asked Palen what to do with Pavel. Palen answered them with a French proverb: "To eat scrambled eggs, you must first break the eggs."

Palen divided the officers into two parties, one he led himself. Another - Platon Zubov formally, but in fact - General Benigsen. Palen was afraid that Zubov would get cold feet. Everyone went to the Mikhailovsky Castle. The task of arresting or cracking down on the king was entrusted to Bennigsen and the officers of his detachment - 26 people.

The internal guard in the Mikhailovsky Castle was carried by the soldiers of one of the battalions of the Semenovsky Guards Regiment, the chief of this battalion was Prince. Alexander. Most of the conspirators fell behind the column for various reasons. The task of arresting or reprisal against the tsar (whatever happens) was entrusted to Bennigsen and his people. In the event that Pavel manages to get out, another group of conspirators was waiting for him, who were placed in the corridors, at the doors, at the stairs for observation. The king was, as it were, in a double ring of murderers. The conspirators burst into Pavel's bedroom, threw him to the floor, choked him, and beat him. The murder of Paul was reported to Alexander. He was very upset by the death of his father.

The sharp contrast between Catherine's and Paul's reigns allowed contemporaries to appreciate Catherine's reign more highly and create the myth of the "golden age of the Russian nobility." Nicholas I continued his father's policy of strengthening autocratic power.

Mosolov A.A. At the court of the last Russian emperor. M. 1993. - S. 129.

The circumstances of the assassination of the emperor are known from the memoirs of contemporaries who communicated with direct participants in the conspiracy. (The only sources created directly by the conspirators are a letter from L. L. Bennigsen and a note from K. M. Poltoratsky). The information reported by memoirists is often contradictory in detail. The modern historian Yu. A. Sorokin, who specializes in this period, writes that most likely "it will never be possible to reproduce authentic facts, separating them from the fiction of eyewitnesses and other contemporaries."

Sources on this topic are:

List of main memoir sources

“We are on a ship whose captain and crew make up a nation whose language is not familiar to us. I'm seasick and can't get out of bed. You come to announce to me that the hurricane is getting stronger and the ship is dying, because the captain has gone mad, beating the crew, in which there are more than 30 people who do not dare to resist his antics, since he has already thrown one sailor into the sea and killed another. I think the ship will perish; but you say that there is hope for salvation, since the first mate is a young man, sensible and gentle, who enjoys the confidence of the crew. I conjure you to return upstairs and present to the young man and the sailors that they should save the ship, part of which (as well as part of the cargo) belongs to the young man, that there are 30 of them against one, and that it is ridiculous to be afraid of death at the hands of a crazy captain, when soon everyone and he himself will drown because of this madness. You answer me that, not knowing the language, you cannot speak to him, that you go upstairs to see what is happening. You come back to me to announce that the danger is increasing because the madman is still in control, but that you are still hopeful. Farewell! You are happier than me, my friend, because I have no more hope.

The plan of the conspirators

The creation of the core of a coalition of conspirators who believe in the need for change dates back to the summer of 1799. Shortly before this, in November 1798, a secret organization of officers was uncovered in Smolensk, planning the removal, and possibly the murder of Pavel Petrovich (the so-called Kanal shop).

Initially, according to their own statements, the conspirators intended to limit themselves to the arrest of Paul in order to force him to abdicate in favor of his eldest son. Panin and Palen were in solidarity with the need to introduce a constitution, but Panin saw a way in the regency, and Palen saw the destruction of Paul I. Eidelman writes that Palen “holding a cohort of discontented people in reserve, probing, probing precisely those who“ are silent and act ”, for the time being, he does not reveal his plans and almost does not inform anyone about the specific plan, deadline, even goals, for example, he explains with close accomplices about the regency, saving Paul's life with an inner conviction that the king must be killed. The theme of the regency surfaced by analogy with the situation that took place in the same days in Great Britain, where the regency of his son was officially established over the mad George III (see Regency era). In Denmark, during the reign of King Christian VII from 1784, a regent also ruled, who then became king under the name of Frederick VI. (By the way, Christian VII on the maternal side was the grandson of George I).

Bennigsen wrote: "It was decided to take possession of the special emperor and take him to a place where he could be under proper supervision, and where he would be deprived of the opportunity to do evil." It is assumed that the majority of the conspirators thought so, who were afraid to raise their hands against the royal person, and the organizers of the conspiracy planned a bloody denouement from the very beginning.

Participants in the conspiracy

Nikita Panin

Petr Palen

Platon Zubov

Nikolai Zubov

The total number of people involved in the conspiracy, according to various estimates, ranges from 180 to 300 people. Eidelman roughly divides the conspirators into three main groups:

The first - the leaders, the most dedicated, who were aware of the final plan for the murder, as well as the Zubovs
1. Panin, Nikita Petrovich- Vice Chancellor, was the mastermind behind the plot. He was expelled from St. Petersburg and was physically absent during the denouement.
2. Palen, Pyotr Alekseevich- Governor-General of St. Petersburg, took over the functions of the technical leader of the conspiracy. In November 1800 he fell into disgrace.
3. Ribas, Osip Mikhailovich- participated in the initial planning of the conspiracy, but died on December 2 (13), 1800, and there is a hypothesis that he was poisoned by Baron Palen, who was at the bedside on the night of the admiral's death, making sure that the patient, unconscious, did not betray the conspirators - because in the last month before his death, Pavel softened to Ribas, and he could betray accomplices.
4. Zubovs:
  1. Zubov, Platon Alexandrovich, the prince is the last favorite of Catherine II. He was removed from the court by Paul, but thanks to intrigue, he circled Kutaisov around his finger, and he petitioned the emperor for his return. He was attracted to the conspiracy due to the significant influence he earned in the last years of Catherine's reign, his wide connections, circle of acquaintances and officers favored by him. It was a kind of symbol of Catherine's time.
  2. Zubov, Nikolai Alexandrovich, the count is his brother, Suvorov's son-in-law. A stupid but large, physically strong man, attracted because of his family ties and the sympathy of the soldiers. They preferred not to share information with him, since his wife was very talkative.
  3. Zubov, Valerian Alexandrovich- his brother, lost his leg in the war, and therefore did not go to the castle.
  4. Zherebtsova, Olga Alexandrovna- his sister. She was considered the mistress of Ambassador Whitworth, she arranged magnificent evenings, at which conspirators could gather under a plausible pretext. Lopukhin, Pyotr Vasilyevich, a close relative of Zherebtsova, spoke about her: “Whitworth, through O. A. Zherebtsova, was in relations with the conspirators; gatherings took place in her house, the amount assigned for the murder, or at least for the removal of Emperor Paul from the throne, was to pass through her hands ... A few days before March 11, Zherebtsova found it safer for herself to go abroad and in Berlin awaited the outcome of events ... ". After the death of Pavel, in London, she received from the British government an amount corresponding to 2 million rubles. This money was to be distributed among the conspirators, especially among those who had taken part in the assassination. But Zherebtsova preferred to keep the entire amount for herself, being sure that no one would dare to demand a well-deserved reward.
Later involved officers who did not participate in the development of the strategy, but led the next step in the hierarchy. Engaged in recruitment among the third group.
1. Bennigsen, Leonty Leontievich- commander of the Izyum Light Horse Regiment, was one of the main characters who deprived Paul of the First Throne. He was exiled by Paul, then at the beginning of 1801, Count Palen returned Bennigsen to St. Petersburg, being sure that this was the performer he needed. At the beginning, Bennigsen was well received by the emperor, but soon he stopped even talking to him. The actual leader of the column of regicides who broke into the bedroom, however, in his own words, avoided participating in the direct murder.
2. Argamakov, Alexander Vasilievich- Denis Fonvizin's nephew, was a regimental adjutant of the Preobrazhensky Regiment and a parade-major of the Mikhailovsky Castle. It was necessary for the conspirators to get inside the castle through its drawbridges. He had the authority to enter the emperor to report on emergencies in the city at any time of the day; walked at the head of the column of P. A. Zubov, as the main conductor of the conspirators.
3. Golenishchev-Kutuzov, Pavel Vasilievich(according to some reports) - the emperor's adjutant wing, immediately after the coup, was appointed commander of the Cavalier Guard Regiment.
4. Muravyov-Apostol, Ivan Matveevich- the author of one of the unrealized projects of legislative limitation of the supreme power.
5. Commanders of the Guards Regiments:
  1. Depreradovich, Nikolai Ivanovich- Semenovsky;
  2. Uvarov, Fedor Petrovich- Kavalergardsky;
  3. Talyzin, Pyotr Alexandrovich- Preobrazhensky;
  4. Jankovic de Mirievo, Ivan Fedorovich- Horse Guards;
6. Regiment chiefs:
  1. Verderevsky, Nikolai Ivanovich- Kexholmsky;
  2. Ushakov- Senate battalions;
  3. Tuchkov, Pavel Alekseevich- 1st Artillery Regiment.
Middle and junior officers who were selected on the basis of their discontent, hostility, hatred for the Pavlovian system, ignorant, some of whom became direct executors, while others were just accomplices who did not stain their hands with regicide. For example:

Valerian Zubov

bennigsen

Depreradovich

Golenishchev-Kutuzov

Ants-Apostle

Poltoratsky

Those present at the murder

As is traditionally believed, none of the first group of conspirators directly stained themselves with the murder; although Bennigsen and Platon and Nikolai Zubov were among the twelve or so people who broke into the bedroom, they are believed to have prudently left it before the murder. According to some historians, evidence of their absence is a lie invented by them in order to whitewash them.

The list of persons who entered the bedroom varies depending on the memoir instructions:

Others aware of the conspiracy

Place of death

Mikhailovsky Castle

It is curious that the tsar died in the same place where he was born - the building of the Mikhailovsky Castle was erected on the site of the wooden Summer Palace of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, created by architect Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli, where on September 20 (October 1), Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna gave birth to Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich.

Mikhailovsky Castle, the place of Paul's death, for many years remained his cherished dream. The general idea of creating the castle and the first sketches of its layout belonged to the emperor himself. Work on the project of the future residence began in 1784, when he was the Grand Duke. During the design process, which lasted almost 12 years, he turned to various architectural samples that he saw during his travels abroad. The decree on the construction of the castle was issued in the very first month of the reign of Paul I, on November 28 (December 9) of the year. For the sake of the realization of this palace, many other construction projects were suspended, from where building material was even withdrawn. By order of the emperor, construction was carried out day and night.

The concept of the castle (it was this word, unusual for Russian architecture, that Pavel used) corresponded to his chivalric ideas, it also reflects his position as the master of the Order of Malta, and the walls of the castle, according to a common legend, were also painted because of the tsar's chivalrous deed - according to the color of the favorite's glove raised by him at the ball. In addition, Pavel wanted to hide behind the strong walls of the castle, not intending to stay in the Winter Palace, where so many coups took place. It is known that the king was overcome by many fears - for example, he was afraid of being poisoned.

Probably, the conspirators wanted to time the denouement to March 15 - the "Ides of March" that brought death to the tyrant Caesar, but third-party events accelerated the decision, since the emperor came to the conclusion by the evening or night of March 8 that "they want to repeat 1762". Perhaps the denunciation to the tsar was written by V.P. Meshchersky, formerly the chief of the St. Petersburg regiment, quartered in Smolensk, perhaps by the Prosecutor General P. Kh. Obolyaninov. Geiking writes, apparently relying on Palen: “No matter how hard they tried to hide all the threads of the conspiracy, the Prosecutor General Obolyaninov, apparently, still suspected something. He indirectly notified the sovereign, who spoke about this with his favorite Kutaisov; but the latter assured that this was just an insidious denunciation sent by someone to curry favor.

Palen later said that on March 9, the emperor called him to him, and asked about the conspiracy, Palen admitted to participating in it, arranging the matter in such a way that he made this decision in order to become the “fifth column” and find out everything for the well-being of the sovereign. The best undercover agents are involved, Pahlen says. In this regard, a little-known prince of Ossetian origin Mikhail Valiev is mentioned, whom Palen calls his eyes and ears among the conspirators. As a result, Palen, using his charm, convinces the emperor that there is no danger. Tol’s contemporary writes: “If the scene of Palen with the king is not a direct fable, then it is a legend over which Palen used to laugh during his life. Something really happened, but it sounded completely different when Count Palen himself told in his circle: the emperor once said to him at a morning audience the well-known words (“They say that there is a conspiracy against me and you are one of the conspirators”); Palen, embarrassed and frightened, at first did not find anything better than to linger in a bow for a few moments in order to collect his thoughts and so that the king could not read anything in his eyes. Only after he had guessed by a quick effort to return his face to its usual expression, did he venture to straighten up. However, in his haste, he did not find a better answer than the following (spoken still with downcast eyes): “How can this happen when we have a Secret Expedition?” “That’s right,” the emperor replied, suddenly completely calmed, and left this dangerous object. According to Czartoryski, Pavel announces to Palen that he knows about the conspiracy. “It is impossible, sir,” answered Palen quite calmly. “For in that case I, who know everything, would myself be among the conspirators.” - This answer and the good-natured smile of the Governor-General completely reassured Pavel.

Young Alexander in 1802

They point out that suspicions are being raised in Paul against his wife, and he is afraid that she would not do the same as his mother Catherine did with his father. Perhaps that is why the door to the chambers of the Empress was locked (boarded up). Also, the king is afraid of poison and orders that "food was prepared for him only by a Swedish cook, who was placed in a small room near his own chambers." In order to protect himself, Pavel also summons two disgraced generals Lindener and Arakcheev to the capital, but this only accelerated the execution of the conspiracy. Eidelman questions the veracity of this call, and asks if the rumor about the imminent arrival of these warriors was another provocation by Palen.

After this dangerous conversation with the emperor, Palen secretly sees Alexander and allegedly shows him a decree condemning his mother, him and Constantine. Palen allegedly asks for the coup tomorrow, March 10; Alexander asks the 11th, and Palen will tell about this request much later, realizing that the heir will not be able to refute: “The Grand Duke forced me to postpone until the 11th day, when the third battalion of the Semenovsky regiment would be on duty, in which he was even more confident than in others. I agreed to this with difficulty and was not without anxiety in the next two days. On this day, the emperor finally agrees to a joint expedition with the French to India, starting in the spring of 1801.

On March 10, he frees Ribopierre from the fortress. On the same day, Archbishop Ambrose (Podobedov) was granted the Metropolitan of St. Petersburg, and this fact immediately gives rise to a rumor that a new bishop is needed to terminate the old royal marriage and conclude a new one. That evening, the last concert is held at the Mikhailovsky Castle. Prince Eugene of Württemberg testifies that “... the queen looked around in fear and seemed to want to understand what new, troublesome thoughts her husband was busy with. He threw only wild glances, and I wondered why he would not refuse the concert in such a mood. (...). After the concert, the emperor, as usual, retired, but his departure, expected longer than usual, was accompanied by a behavior that became clear to me only after some time. When the side doors opened, he went up to the empress, who was standing on the right, stopped in front of her, smiling mockingly, crossed his arms, incessantly puffing in his usual way, which he did, being in the highest degree of dislike, and then repeated the same threatening gestures in front of both grand dukes . Finally, he went up to Count Palen, whispered a few words in his ear with a gloomy air, and then went to supper. Everyone silently followed him, gripped by fear. (...) The Empress began to cry, and the whole family left deeply saddened. One of the ladies-in-waiting whispers something in Dibich's ear, he is later told that the young lady was talking about possible ways to arrange for the prince to escape from the palace and hide him in a prepared shelter.

The concept of a direct turn

According to Eidelman's reconstruction:

“The necessary movements of the guards regiments: push back the horse guards, Izmailovites, who were not too captured by the conspiracy, but push forward the Preobrazhenians (Talyzin), Semyonovites (Depreradovich). In each guards regiment, to have at least a few officers who can be counted on: some of them must act in the regiments, stopping a possible counterattack; others - to go to the palace or to the palace (hence, by the way, the discrepancy in the information about the number of conspirators).
“The soldiers should not know anything, but by the right time those guards units that are relatively reliable, more loyal to the heir, more saturated with conspiring officers should be at the palace by the right time. First of all, these are the 3rd and 4th battalions of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, the 1st and 3rd battalions of the Semyonovsky, which account for approximately 30 conspirator officers, that is, 7-8 per battalion.
A series of meetings of officers and generals of the conspirators with a gradual increase in the number of invited persons, until the moment comes immediately before the exit to announce the rebellion against Paul in the widest possible circle. (“Hence the plan for several dinners, which are then united at Talyzin’s apartment, the closest to the palace”).
“The idea of two officer columns that will enter the palace: one led by Palen, the other with Bennigsen”: one is an “official group”, the other is a “shock group”.
“A list has been prepared of people who hold important positions and who are sufficiently devoted to Paul; they should be arrested or isolated at the right time.” Senator Troshchinsky "was intended to deliver orders to other senators to assemble as soon as the emperor was arrested."

omens

Timeline March 11

Anna Lopukhina (Gagarina) - favorite of the emperor

The conspirators infiltrate the castle

When on the gloomy Neva
The star of midnight sparkles
And a carefree head
Restful sleep burdens,
The pensive singer looks
On menacingly sleeping in the mist
Desert monument of a tyrant,
Oblivion abandoned palace -

2:00 Alexander and Konstantin in a carriage leave the Mikhailovsky Castle, full of drunken officers. Alexander calls his mother to come, but she refuses. Eidelman writes that the empress dowager, who wanted to gain power, wandered around the palace until Bennigsen managed to lock her up and isolate her. Only at six o'clock in the morning does she agree to go to the Winter Palace.

After the murder

In the morning, a manifesto written by D.P. Troshchinsky was published, in which the subjects were informed that Pavel had died of apoplexy.

The behavior of Paul I, his extreme irritability and petty captiousness caused discontent in the highest circles, especially in the capitals. Therefore, literally from the first months of his reign, an opposition began to take shape, uniting all those dissatisfied with Paul I. Even during his accession, plans for a coup d'état were hatched in Suvorov's inner circle. In 1796, A.M. Kakhovsky, one of the leaders of the circle that was opened two years later, considered the possibility of an active military protest.

By 1797, there were three main opposition camps: 1) the group of P.S. Dekhterev - A.M. Kakhovsky in Smolensk; 2) a circle of "young friends" of Alexander Pavlovich in St. Petersburg; 3) the so-called conspiracy of N.P. Panin - P.A. Palen.

The Smolensk conspirators had connections in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and other cities of the empire. They carefully studied public sentiment and sought to establish contacts with all opposition elements. Hence there was a special interest in those persons who were in any way implicated in anti-government actions. The members of the circle tried in every possible way to support them and counteract what actively or passively served the "despotic regime" of Paul I. The members of the "canal shop", as they called themselves, sought by all available means to increase dissatisfaction with the regime among the population, contributed to the dissemination of information that discredited the government, distributed cartoons, poems, songs criticizing Paul I, talked about the situation in Russia, taxes, "oppression" and "burdening". The group of Smolensk conspirators also discussed the issue of the assassination of the emperor, A.M. Kakhovsky was even ready to donate his estate for expenses for such an enterprise. At the same time, members of the circle, apparently, did not rule out an open military action.

The conspiracy became known in St. Petersburg, and at the beginning of 1798, F.I. Lindener, one of the “Gatchins”, was sent to Smolensk to conduct an investigation, during which all its participants were arrested and then exiled.

A.A. Bezborodko and D.P. Troshchinsky maintained contact with the heir. At their secret meetings, these people talked about political affairs in the country, looking for the best forms for its reorganization. In 1798, the circle even published the St. Petersburg Journal, on the pages of which the propaganda of the concept of “true monarchy”, which was widespread during the Enlightenment, was carried out. The investigation into the case of the Smolensk conspiracy led to the curtailment of the main activities of this circle.

At the same time, an opposition group was formed in St. Petersburg, associated with the clan of the last favorite of Catherine II, P.A. Zubov. In the first period of the conspiracy, the most prominent role was played by Vice-Chancellor N.P. Panin. In collaboration with the English ambassador Whitworth and Zubov, he formed a circle of conspirators who, in view of the alleged “mental illness” of Paul, had the goal of establishing a regency and handing it over to Alexander, convincing Paul to “treat”. Panin dedicated the heir to the throne to his plans. The total number of conspirators reached 60 people.

But before the conspirators began to act, Pavel began to suspect Panin and in the fall of 1800 sent him to a village near Moscow. The leadership of the conspiracy passed into the hands of Pavel's favorite, the St. Petersburg military governor P.A. Palen. The conspiracy was strengthened by the spring of 1801.

On the night of March 11-12, the conspirators entered the newly built new residence of Paul - Mikhailovsky Castle, having previously replaced the emperor's guards with their own people. Out of 40 or 50 conspirators, eight people reached Pavel's rooms. Palen was not among them. The premeditation of the emperor's assassination is difficult to assert; perhaps, to some extent, it was caused by Paul's firm intransigence in the demand of the conspirators to agree to abdication. In any case, according to the participants in the event themselves, the murder took place during the emperor's "passionate" explanations with them. Later memoirs claim that the murder of Paul was completely accidental.

First quarter of the 19th century marked by reforms, primarily in the field of public administration. These reforms are associated with the names of Emperor Alexander I and his closest associates - M. Speransky and N. Novosiltsev. However, these reforms were half-hearted and were not completed. The main reforms carried out under Alexander I:

Decree "On free cultivators";

ministerial reform;

Preparation of a reform plan by M. Speransky;

Granting the Constitutions to Poland and Bessarabia;

Preparation of a draft of the Russian Constitution and a program for the abolition of serfdom;

Establishment of military settlements.

The purpose of these reforms was to improve the mechanism of public administration, the search for optimal management options for Russia. The main features of these reforms were their half-hearted nature and incompleteness. These reforms led to minor changes in the system of public administration, but did not solve the main problems - the peasant question and the democratization of the country.

Alexander I came to power as a result of a palace coup in 1801, which was carried out by the opponents of Paul I, dissatisfied with the sharp departure of Paul 1 from Catherine's orders. During the coup, Paul I was killed by conspirators and Alexander I, the eldest son of Paul and grandson of Catherine, was elevated to the throne. The short and tough 5-year reign of Paul I ended. At the same time, a return to Catherine's order - the idleness and permissiveness of the nobility - would be a step backwards. The way out was limited reforms, which were an attempt to adapt Russia to the requirements of the new century.

To prepare reforms in 1801, an Unofficial Committee was created, which included the closest associates - "young friends" of Alexander I:

N. Novosiltsev; A. Czartoryski; P. Stroganov; V. Kochubey.

This committee for 4 years (1801 - 1805) was the think tank of the reforms. Most of Alexander's supporters were supporters of constitutionalism and European orders, but most of their radical proposals were not implemented due to the indecision of Alexander I, on the one hand, and the possible negative reaction of the nobles who brought him to the throne, on the other.

The main issue dealt with by the Unofficial Committee in the first years of its existence was the development of a program for the abolition of serfdom in Russia, the supporters of which were the majority of the committee members. However, after long hesitation, Alexander I did not dare to take such a radical step. Instead, in 1803 the emperor issued a Decree "On free cultivators" of 1803, which, for the first time in the history of feudal Russia, allowed landowners to release peasants into freedom for a ransom. However, this Decree did not solve the peasant problem. The chance to abolish serfdom in a timely manner was missed. Other reforms of the Private Committee were:

Ministerial reform - instead of the Petrine collegiums in Russia, European-style ministries were created;

Senate reform - The Senate became a judicial body;

Education reform - several types of schools were created: from the simplest (parochial) to gymnasiums, broad rights were given to universities.

In 1805, the Secret Committee was disbanded due to its radicalism and disagreements with the emperor.

In 1809, Alexander I ordered Mikhail Speransky, Deputy Minister of Justice and a talented lawyer and statesman, to prepare a new reform plan. The purpose of the reforms planned by M. Speransky was to give the Russian monarchy a "constitutional" appearance, without changing its autocratic essence. During the preparation of the reform plan, M. Speransky put forward the following proposals:

While maintaining the power of the emperor, introduce in Russia the European principle of separation of powers;

To do this, create an elected parliament - the State Duma (legislative power), the Cabinet of Ministers (executive power), the Senate (judicial power);

to elect the State Duma through popular elections, to endow it with legislative advisory functions; give the emperor the right, if necessary, to dissolve the Duma;

Divide the entire population of Russia into three estates - nobles, "middle class" (merchants, petty bourgeois, townspeople, state peasants), "working people" (serfs, servants);

Give voting rights only to nobles and representatives of the "average state";

To introduce a system of local self-government - to elect a provincial duma in each province, which would form the provincial council - the executive body;

The Senate - the highest judicial body - should be formed from representatives elected by the provincial dumas, and thus concentrate "folk wisdom" in the Senate;

The cabinet of ministers of 8 - 10 ministers should be formed by the emperor, who would personally appoint the ministers, and who would be personally responsible to the autocrat;

The connecting link between the three branches of power - the State Duma, the judicial Senate and the Cabinet of Ministers - to make a special body - the State Council, appointed by the emperor, which would coordinate the work of all branches of power and be a "bridge" between them and the emperor;

At the top of the entire system of power was to be the emperor - the head of state endowed with broad powers and the arbiter between all branches of power.

Of all the main proposals of Speransky, only a small part of them was actually implemented:

In 1810, the State Council was created, which became the legislature appointed by the emperor;

At the same time, the ministerial reform was improved - all ministries were organized according to a single model, ministers began to be appointed by the emperor and bear personal responsibility to him.

The rest of the proposals were rejected and remained the plan.

The turning point in the course of the reforms was the Note on Ancient and New Russia in its Political and Civil Relations, sent in 1811 to the Emperor by the well-known historian and public figure N. Karamzin. N. Karamzin's "Note" became a manifesto of conservative forces opposed to Speransky's reforms. In this "Note on Ancient and New Russia" N. Karamzin, analyzing the history of Russia, spoke out against reforms that would lead to unrest, and for the preservation and strengthening of autocracy - the only salvation of Russia.

In the same year, 1811, Speransky's reforms were terminated. In March 1812, M. Speransky was appointed Governor-General of Siberia - in fact, he was sent into an honorable exile.

The behavior of Paul I, his extreme irritability and petty captiousness caused discontent in the highest circles, especially in the capitals. Therefore, literally from the first months of his reign, an opposition began to take shape, uniting all those dissatisfied with Paul I. Even during his accession, plans for a coup d'état were hatched in Suvorov's inner circle. In 1796 A.M.Kakhovsky, one of the leaders of the circle that was opened two years later, considered the possibility of an active military protest.

The Smolensk conspirators had connections in Moscow, St. Petersburg, Kyiv and other cities of the empire. They carefully studied public sentiment and sought to establish contacts with all opposition elements. Hence there was a special interest in those persons who were at least somehow involved in anti-government actions. The members of the circle tried in every possible way to support them and counteract what actively or passively served the "despotic regime" of Paul I. The members of the "canal shop", as they called themselves, sought by all available means to increase dissatisfaction with the regime among the population, contributed to the dissemination of information that discredited the government, distributed cartoons, poems, songs criticizing Paul I, talked about the situation in Russia, taxes, "oppression" and "burdening". The group of Smolensk conspirators also discussed the issue of the assassination of the emperor, A.M. Kakhovsky was even ready to donate his estate for expenses for such an enterprise. At the same time, members of the circle, apparently, did not rule out an open military action.

In 1797-1799. anti-Pavlovian sentiments also existed at the court itself, where a circle of political orientation arose. It was attended by the heir to the throne Alexander, his wife Elizaveta Alekseevna, A. Czartorysky, N. N. Novosiltsev, P. A. Stroganov, V. P. Kochubey; A.A. Bezborodko and D.P. Troshchinsky maintained contact with the heir. At their secret meetings, these people talked about political affairs in the country, looking for the best forms for its reorganization. In 1798, the circle even published the St. Petersburg Journal, on the pages of which the propaganda of the concept of “true monarchy”, which was widespread during the Enlightenment, was carried out. The investigation into the case of the Smolensk conspiracy led to the curtailment of the main activities of this circle.

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The American historian McGrew believes that Paul's absolutism was much closer to Russian traditions than Catherine's enlightened absolutism.

Presnyakov: Pavel tried to turn the empire into his fiefdom, where there is only one owner - the emperor. He militarized the administration of the country, isolated it from the West.

Eidelman called Paul's policy unenlightened absolutism.

Kamensky argues that Pavel sought to preserve the system that had developed in Russia, abandoned innovations, and made attempts to implement counter-reforms.

Sorokin Yu.A. believes that Paul pursued the only possible policy consistent with the interests of absolutism.

Historians' opinions on the reasons for the palace coup of 1801.

Presnyakov: Court circles and guards were irritated by Paul's tyranny. His domestic and foreign policy largely contradicted the interests of the nobility.

Eidelman believed that under Paul the privileges of the nobility were limited. Pavel jeopardized the preservation of the status of the ruling class by the nobility.

Kamensky: Paul's policy was inconsistent, there was no stability and continuity, objectively Paul's policy meant an infringement of the rights of the nobility, it was an attempt to return the nobility to the state of the time of Peter I. Paul failed to get the support of society. Paul's social policy created fertile ground for a successful conspiracy against him. Paul's reign was despotic. During the three decades of Catherine's reign, Russian society passed through a stage of sociocultural development. Society did not want to put up with a petty tyrant on the throne. Pavel, with his desire for strict discipline and the militarization of society, with his attempt to close the country, interrupt the process of Europeanization, turned out to be an unacceptable figure for the nobility. The fate of the nobles depended on the whim, the mood of Paul.

Palace coup on March 11, 1801.

Alexander agreed after accession to the throne to sign the constitution.

In the autumn-winter of 1800-1801, guards officers were recruited. Palen did not reveal his plan to them until the last hour.

Palen skillfully strengthened the rumors he needed, setting up the guards and secular society against Paul.

Palen planned the plot down to the last detail. There were about 500 officers in the guard, almost all under the control of Palen.

The sharp contrast between Catherine's and Paul's reigns allowed contemporaries to appreciate Catherine's reign more highly and create the myth of the "golden age of the Russian nobility." Nicholas Icontinued his father's policy of strengthening autocratic power.

1Mosolov A.A. At the court of the last Russian emperor. M. 1993. - S. 129.

The coup d'état on March 11, 1801. The seven most famous palace coups in Russia. Estimates of Paul's reign in historical literature

The plan of the conspirators

Participants in the conspiracy

Those present at the murder

Others aware of the conspiracy

Place of death

The concept of a direct turn

omens

Timeline March 11

The conspirators infiltrate the castle

After the murder

Russia at the end of the 17th - first quarter of the 18th centuries

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