Political reforms of Peter 1. Administrative reforms of Peter I the Great
Introduction
Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great
1 Natural and geographical conditions
2 Factors facilitating reform
Chapter 2. The era of Peter the Great and the content of Peter's reforms
1 Reforms of Peter the Great
Chapter 3
1 Estimation of the essence of Peter's reforms
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
reform Peter the Great
The activities of Peter the Great as a politician and commander, as well as his contribution to the development of Russia, are issues that are of interest and concern to historians not only of our state, but also of many other countries.
But in assessing the activities of Peter, the opinions of historians are divided. Some historians, his adherents, talk about the great achievements and influences of Peter in many areas of life, which in turn led to the rise of Russia as a great and mighty power, which the whole world spoke about after Peter. It was a kind of phenomenon, because in such a short period of time, Peter the Great, with the help of his diplomatic qualities, as well as the qualities of a good statesman and commander, was able to lead Russia out of destruction into a dynamically developing state. But at the same time, historians miss out on another plan and some negative aspects of the character of Peter the Great and his activities. Another part of historians, on the contrary, is trying to discredit the name of Peter, pointing out the ways and methods by which he achieved such success in his political and military activities.
Studying the era of the reign of Peter the Great, we trace the process of development and formation of Russia, which moved from a barbarian kingdom into a mighty and great empire.
For this course project, the following tasks were set:
· The study of the preconditions and the very reasons for the need for reforms by Peter the Great.
· To analyze the main content and meaning of the reforms.
· To reveal the results of the influence of the reforms of Peter the Great on the development of the state.
This course work consists of the following sections:
·Introduction;
·Three chapters;
Conclusions
Chapter 1. Russia before the reforms of Peter the Great
.1 Natural and geographical conditions
It is often believed that with the coming to power of Peter the Great, a new era began in Russia.
What was Russia at the end of the 17th century? It was a huge territory, which was not like the countries of the West. Russia immediately caught the eye of foreigners who visited it. Often it seemed to them that it was a backward, wild and nomadic country. Although in fact, the backwardness in the development of Russia had its own reasons. The intervention and devastation of the early 18th century left a deep mark on the state's economy.
But not only the wars that ravaged the earth led Russia to a crisis, but also her social status population of that time, as well as natural and geographical conditions.
According to S.M. Solovyov, “three conditions have a special impact on the life of the people: the nature of the country where he lives; the nature of the tribe to which he belongs; the course of external events, the influences coming from the peoples that surround it. ”[№1, p.28]
When assessing how the conditions of nature affect the development of states. Solovyov made such a conclusion that nature is favorable to Western countries, but the conditions in Russia are more severe. Western Europe was divided by mountains, which served as natural fortresses for it and, in a certain sense, protected it from external attacks by enemies. On the other hand, the sea, which served as a way for the development of foreign trade of various occupations. In Russia, everything was different. She had no natural defenses and was open to attack by invaders.
On these open areas there lived a very large number of people who, in order to feed themselves, had to always work and periodically look for new fruitful lands, as well as a more prosperous habitat. In the process of resettlement to the lands that were empty, the state of Russia was formed.
Solovyov was sure that it was the natural and geographical conditions that had such a negative impact. Russia, he said, “was a state that constantly had to lead uphill struggle with neighbors, the struggle is not offensive, but defensive, and not material well-being was defended, but the independence of the country, the freedom of the inhabitants” [No. 2, p. 29]. During the war with the Mongol-Tatars, the Slavic people, including the Russians, acted as a protective shield for the Western European countries. Therefore, Russia always had to replenish its troops in order to be able to give a proper rebuff to the invaders and reliably protect its borders.
But the state of that time could not afford to maintain a large army, since trade and industry were poorly developed in Russia during this period. Therefore, people who served in the army were given lands that became their estates. On the one hand, a person received his own land for his use, but on the other hand, in order to somehow develop it, the land had to be cultivated. “The state,” Solovyov wrote, “having given land to a serviceman, was obliged to give him permanent workers, otherwise he could not serve” [No. 3, p. 32]. Therefore, at that time, the peasants were forbidden to leave their land, because they were obliged to cultivate it in order to be able to feed the owner with his military servants.
It was this that served as the basis for the emergence of serfdom in Russia. But besides the peasants, the urban population also worked to maintain the army. They were obliged to pay very large taxes to the state treasury for the maintenance of the troops.
That is, all layers of the state turned into its servants, which contributed to an even more severe feudal system, which in turn slowed down both economic situation and development in spirituality. Since on numerous economic lands, which were constantly expanding, a very small number of people worked hard. This did not create any interest in the development of labor productivity, but on the contrary, agriculture developed by depleting natural forces, and not by reproducing them. Agriculture was the least of the expenses. Because almost the entire treasury of the state went to meet the needs and development of the army. All this led to the fact that a strong state in terms of defense had practically no material base.
In addition to difficulties in the middle of the state, historians also pay attention to a number of external obstacles that hindered the development of Russia. This is that Russia did not have direct access to the sea, which meant that she could not use the cheaper route of communication with other countries. Such seas as the Baltic and Black, at that time belonged to other states, Sweden and Ottoman Empire respectively. Those seas that washed from the northern part and the east could not be used in full capacity, the reason for this was that the regions adjacent to the seas were practically undeveloped and poorly developed.
The White Sea, too, as a way to connect with the countries of Western Europe, was practically not used. Firstly, most of the year the waters are closed under ice, and the second way from Arkhangelsk to Western European countries was twice as long as to the Baltic.
Russia through Astrakhan had a connection only with Iran and Central Asia, although these countries had little influence on its development, since they themselves lagged behind in it.
1.2 Drivers for reform
The state of Russia urgently needed changes. It was related to the various factors.
National sovereignty was under threat, the reason for this was the lag of the Russian state in all sectors of the economy, political life state, which in turn led even to a military lag.
The class of feudal lords, who was in the military and court service, later became the mainstay of the power of that time, by no means met the requirements of the country's social development. This class lagged behind both in its socio-political and cultural development, sometimes they could not even clearly understand their rights and obligations as a service class and, in principle, remained simply a patriarchal social community.
In the 17th century, Russia needed an urgent change in its position. It was necessary to strengthen the position of the authorities, which was undermined by the rebellious nature of the population of that time and the social instability of that time. Russia also needed to improve the state apparatus and the army itself. In order to somehow raise the standard of living and culture, it was necessary to have access to the seas, which could give a more favorable economic situation, and this, in turn, required the timely mobilization of both resources and the human factor.
The spiritual sphere of life of Russians also needed transformation. The spirituality of that time was strongly influenced by the clergy, which in the 17th century suffered a crisis associated with the split of the church. Russia urgently needed to be returned to the depths of European civilization, and it was also necessary to create and further strengthen a rationalistic concept that would replace religion.
Changes and transformations were impossible, in fact, to be avoided, because everything that happened during the period of the 17th century led directly to this. The intensive development of crafts begins in the country, the first enterprises appear, which were called manufactories, which in turn contributed to the development of foreign trade, the borders of which were constantly expanding. In the 17th century, a policy of protectionism began to develop, which limited imports, and thereby protected the domestic market from foreign competition. This all testified that in small steps, but the economy began to move forward. Starting from the end of the 16th century and the beginning of the 17th century, the state tried to erase the conventions between Lenten landownership and patrimony. At this time, several decrees were issued, according to which the estate was approaching the estate. That gave the state the right to expand the rights to confiscate land and not allow it to be concentrated in the hands of the feudal lords or the clergy.
In 1682, the state abolished the system of distribution of official places to public positions, namely to military, administrative or court service, depending on the origin. The number of people who were taken into service increased due to the strengthening of serfdom.
In the political system, the country was an absolute monarchy and continued to develop in this direction. At that time, Left-Bank Ukraine joined Russia, and the state was able to enter the Holy League, thereby overcoming diplomatic barriers. The change in culture began with the transformation of the church. Priests began to be involved in solving everyday issues of world life. Also changed to be the upper strata of the state, which approached the European.
After analyzing all the facts, we can say with confidence that the country was fully prepared for changes in all its spheres of life. But in order for this to happen, a push was needed, some kind of impulse. This impetus was to be a person who would stand at the very source of power. And it was precisely such a person that Peter the Great became. His activities, both state and military, were influenced by such a factor as his character traits and his worldview.
Chapter 2. The era of Peter I and the content of Peter's reforms
Peter the Great immediately became involved in the rule of the country, expanding its borders and developing the country as a whole. Under Peter, the struggle for possession of the seas, namely the Black Sea, was resumed. Which opened up new opportunities for the state. And Peter was well aware of this. Therefore, in 1695 it was announced the collection of troops for a campaign against the Crimean Tatars. But this was done in order to hide the real goals, which were to organize a campaign against Azov. Peter took into account all the failures of the foresight companies and organized an army that would move in two directions. This was the first trip to Azov. Autumn bad weather, as well as the absence of the fleet, forced the commanders to announce a retreat.
In preparation for the new campaign, the main efforts were focused on building a fleet that would allow him to cut off the Azov fortress from the sea, and thereby deprive the Turks of reinforcements. It was decided to build ships of two types: sea galleys and river plows. The second Azov campaign began in May 1696 and on June 19, 1696 the Turks surrendered. The conquest of the Azov fortress was the impetus at the beginning of the formation of Russia as a maritime power.
The beginning had been made, now it was necessary to get access to the Black Sea. And in order to consolidate the successful operation and to implement new plans, Peter had to create a large and powerful navy. For this, decisions were made to organize the construction of this fleet, in addition, Peter the Great sent noble youth abroad for training marine sciences, with their subsequent use in the management of the Russian fleet.
At the same time, diplomats were sent abroad to participate in negotiations in order to find allies among European countries and organize an alliance with them. The purpose of this alliance was to act jointly against Turkey, as well as to join material support for further military operations. Peter himself was personally a member of the embassy, but in addition to the goals of negotiations, he also pursued the goal of studying maritime affairs.
After his return, Peter, under the impressions of his trip, he actively joined in the activities of the state. He began to change at the same time and in all areas. At the very first feast, Peter the Great cut off the beards of several boyars and after that, he ordered everyone to shave. In the future, shaving was replaced by a tax. If a nobleman wanted to wear a beard, he was obliged to pay a certain tax per year for it. In the future, innovations also applied to clothing, when the long dresses of the boyars were replaced by short and all comfortable suits. In the fashion of all the nobles, the maximum approached the European. So initially Peter divided the population into two groups: one is the “top” of society, which had to live, dress in European style, the other is all the rest, whose life has not changed, and they lived in the old way.
Peter the Great led the calendar, the new year began on January 1. On the eve of this, it was prescribed to decorate the houses outside and congratulate each other on the coming of the new year.
In 1699, Peter the Great issues a decree on the formation of an institution in the city of Moscow, which will be called the Town Hall or the Burgomaster's Chamber. The duties of the City Hall were to manage merchant affairs, as well as affairs that concerned the city itself. This, in turn, caused some displeasure on the part of the merchants, who were always afraid of ruin by the courts and the governor of this department. An example of such management was the Ship Chamber. It was created immediately after the capture of Azov and the purpose of this chamber is to collect taxes from merchants to build a fleet. Later, on the example of the same commission, the Town Hall was formulated, the burmisters sat in it, they, in turn, were chosen by merchants and artisans. Taxes, which were collected by officials by order of the court, were transferred into the hands of elected people. In general, although the new institution was elective and its purpose was to manage the merchants, in fact this administration represented the interests of the commercial and industrial class.
Also, the result of the trip of Peter the Great abroad was that specialists in shipbuilding and not only were invited to serve in Russia. Peter the Great was able to purchase weapons, which also had a positive effect on the development of the army. By how much, although the army was quite large, it was poorly armed.
Innovations also affected the education of the population. Russia was in dire need of qualified personnel. In Russia itself at that time there were no such institutions, many young men went abroad to master new sciences. A little later, the Russian Empire had its own Novigatskaya school, opened in 1701, in the city of Moscow. A printing house was opened in Amsterdam, which printed books in Russian. At the same time, the first Russian order of St. Apostle Andrew the First-Called was founded.
The reform began in the administration of the state of Russia. Under Peter, there was a transition to a new state form of government, such as an absolute monarchy. The power of Peter the Great was practically limited by no one and nothing. Peter was able to replace the Boyar Duma with the Senate, which controlled from above. Thus, he rid himself of the last boyar claims and deprived them of any political competition. He got rid of the same competition from the side of the church, with the help of the Synod.
At the same time, at the end of 1699, it was committed to reform in the military sphere. Much attention was paid to the creation of a regular and qualified army. 30 new regiments were formed. The army, as before, was recruited mainly from the peasants. But if earlier they spent on their uniforms themselves, then for Peter, each recruit was given a green uniform and weapons - guns with bayonets. Since there were few experienced commanders at that time, they were replaced for some time by foreign officers.
Simultaneously with the beginning of the reforms, Peter was preparing for war against Sweden. He was sure that its conquest was absolutely necessary for Russia to develop normally further. This was facilitated by the favorable situation of that time. European countries created a coalition in order to return their lands, previously captured by the same Sweden. Russia, having signed a peace treaty with Turkey in 1700 for 30 years, also joined the war. Thus began the Great Northern War, which dragged on for 21 years.
From the very beginning, Russia and its allies were defeated. This was due to the fact that Sweden, although it was small country, but her army and preparation for military action was at the highest level, compared with her rival strength. In addition, the king of Sweden at that time was the 18-year-old Charles XII, who, unexpectedly for everyone, showed a great talent for the war, as a commander with a very high energy potential. With a detachment of only 15 thousand people, he opposed Denmark. As a result of this campaign, the Danish king signed a peace treaty in 1700, thereby withdrawing from the war. Without wasting time, Charles XII went to the Baltic states, namely to the Russian army. Privileges were on the side of the Russians, their army consisted of 40 thousand people, but these forces were not provided with food and stretched over a vast territory. That made it easier to attack them. On November 19, 1700, Charles XII unexpectedly attacked the Russian army and won. Russia retreated, the command was not ready for war.
Abroad, they sincerely rejoiced at the defeats of the Russians, even a coin was cast, which depicted a fleeing Russian soldier and a crying tsar. At first, Peter wanted to negotiate peace, but they were not successful. Having shown all his energy and analyzed the reasons for the failures, Peter the Great begins preparations for a new stage of the war. A new recruiting call was announced, cannons began to be poured intensively, and by the beginning of 1702 the Russian army was enlisting 10 regiments and 368 cannons.
Having chosen the right moment, when Charles XII, believing that he had completely defeated Russia, went to Poland and settled there for a long time, Peter, having gathered an army, began new stage war. In December 1701, Russia won its first victory. As a result of hostilities, two fortresses were taken, such as Noteburg and Nyenschanz
Peter at the head of the army finally reached the Baltic Sea. On May 16, 1703, a wooden fortress, called Peter and Paul, began to be built on the island. It was the basis of St. Petersburg. And in October, the first merchant ship arrived at the mouth of the Neva. The first ships of the Baltic Fleet were built in the shipyards of St. Petersburg.
Russian victories in the Baltic continued. But the initiative passed to the side of the Swedes when Poland surrendered and Russia was left without allies. And at this time, Sweden, after the conquest of Poland, had already occupied Saxony and crept up to the borders of the Russian state. Peter stopped offensive operations and focused on maintaining existing borders, strengthening them, and also sought to expand and improve his army and military potential in general. In order to achieve his goals, Peter the Great had to spend a lot of effort and make many sacrifices, but in the end, the goals were achieved.
In 1708, Karl met with the Russians near the town of Golovchin. Using the effect of surprise, as well as the dark time of the day and rainy weather, the Swedes defeated the Russians and forced them to retreat. This was Charles' last victory. Karl's troops suffered losses due to hunger, the Russian population, having learned that the Swedes were approaching, went into the forest, taking with them all supplies and livestock. And the Russian troops occupied all the important strategic objects. Karl had no choice but to turn south.
At this time, the Russians were already taking victories not by quantity, as usual, but by already strategically prepared battles. The initiative went over to the side of Peter, but the nature of hostilities changed dramatically. Russia abandons all previously acquired allies. For his military purposes, Peter used the territory that he conquered as a result of the battles. In 1710, Karelia, Livonia, Estonia were liberated from the Swedes, the fortresses of Vyborg, Revel, and Riga were taken.
The decisive influence on the course of the war was precisely Poltava battle which took place on June 27, 1709. As a result of a fierce battle, the Russians won a complete victory. The Swedes fled so fast that in three days they reached the banks of the Dnieper. Karl went to Turkey. In the future, the war twisted already on the Swedish possessions, which led to the collapse of the Swedish Empire.
But it was not yet the end of the war. Only in 1720, Russian troops again attacked the Swedish coast, the Russian landing deepened 5 miles deep into Sweden. In the same year, the Russian fleet defeated the Swedish squadron at Grengam Island. After that, the Swedes agreed to peace negotiations. They took place in the city of Nishtand in Finland, where on August 30, 1721, an agreement on perpetual peace was signed. The hard and long war (1700 - 1721) was over. As a result of this agreement, Ingria with St. Petersburg, all of Estonia and Livonia remained behind the Russian Empire. Fenland was ceded to Sweden.
The Northern War had a positive effect on the position of Russia. It became one of the mighty states of Europe. Also, as a result of the war, Russia was able to return its sea shores and thereby gained access to the sea. Russia became the main maritime power on the Baltic coast. As a result of the war, a strong, powerful, well-trained army was formed, as well as a powerful Baltic Fleet. On the shores of the Gulf of Finland, a new capital, St. Petersburg, was founded. All this contributed to the further development of the economic and cultural upsurge of the Russian Empire. As a result of the Northern War, other states saw Peter the Great as a great commander and diplomat who fought for the interests of his state.
But the Treaty of Nystadt did not serve to end hostilities during the reign of Peter the Great. Already in next year, 1722, Peter started a war with Iran. The main reasons for this war were, firstly, silk, which was exported from Iran in large quantities, and secondly, the Russian state attracted Iranian oil. Having learned about Peter's intentions, an uprising began in Iran, during which Russian merchants were killed, but this was precisely the reason for starting the war. In Iran, Peter did not meet much resistance and already in 1723 a peace treaty was signed with the Iranian government. According to this agreement, such cities as Derbent, Baku and Astrabad passed to Russia.
All the wars that took place during the reign of Peter the Great were connected with the fact that he constantly expanded and improved his army, as well as with the creation of one of the most powerful fleets at that time. Since before the military Per, there was no such thing as the Russian navy. Peter personally commanded the construction of this fleet. Also, before Peter, there was no specially trained army. The composition of which began to include even the nobles, starting from the age of 15. They all served. Each came to the service with his peasants, the number of which depended on the position of the nobleman. They also came to the service with their supply of food, on their horses and with their uniforms. These troops were dismissed during the peace and they gathered only in preparation for new campaigns. In addition, the archery infantry was created, the free population was part of the infantry. In addition to performing the main tasks, namely the infantry carried out police and garrison service, they had the right to engage in both craft and trade.
2.1 Reforms of Peter the Great
In 1716, a military charter was issued, which determines the order in the army, both in wartime and in peacetime. The charter required commanders to show independence and military resourcefulness during the war. Otto Pleir wrote about the Russian army in 1710: “Regarding the military forces of Russia ... one must be very surprised at what they have been brought to, to what perfection the soldiers have reached in military exercises, in what order and obedience to the orders of their superiors, and how boldly they behave in business, you won’t hear a word from anyone, much less a cry.”
The merit of Peter the Great was also that he was the creator of diplomacy in Russia. In addition to constant warriors, in the era of Peter there was still an active diplomatic activity. Permanent embassies were created, our consuls and ambassadors were sent for permanent residence abroad, and as a result, Russia was always aware of events that took place abroad. Russian diplomats were respected in many countries of the world, this was due to their ability to negotiate and substantiate their point of view, which concerned foreign policy.
The policy of Peter the Great also affected the development of industry. During the reign of Peter the Great, about 200 factories and factories were created in Russia. The largest were factories for the manufacture of cast iron, iron parts, copper, and also cloth, linen, silk, paper, and glass.
The largest enterprise of that time was a manufactory for the manufacture of sailing fabric. The production of ropes at a special Rope Yard was also set up here. "Khamovny Dvor" served the navy with a sailing canvas and ropes.
Another major industrial manufacturer was the Dutchman Tamesa, who lived and worked in Moscow. This production produced canvases. The Dutchman's factory consisted of a spinning mill, where yarn was produced from flax, then the yarn went to the weaving department, where in turn linen was made, as well as tablecloths and napkins. The final stage was the department, where the finished fabric was whitened and trimmed. The Tames factory was so famous that Peter himself and many foreigners visited it more than once. Weaving departments have always made a special impression on guests. Almost all Russians worked at the factories and produced different types of canvases, the most popular in everyday life.
As for the condition of the workers in these factories, it can be said that it wanted the best. The situation itself was very difficult. The basis of the working layer were serfs. To please the entrepreneurs, the state made concessions to them and allowed in 1721 to buy villages along with the peasants who live in them. The difference between these peasants and the peasants who worked for the landlords was only that they were bought and sold only together with factories or factories. There were also civilian employees at the factories, mostly craftsmen and artisans, but the wages were very meager. For example, at a linen manufactory located in the aisles of St. Petersburg, the weaver received about 7 rubles. Per year, master - 12 rubles, apprentice - 6 rubles. in year. Although foreign specialists were paid much more, for example, in a silk manufactory, he could earn from 400 to 600 rubles. in year.
In addition, state peasants were assigned to factories by entire volosts. As "assigned" they had to work for 3 - 4 months at the plant in compulsory order. The wages of labor were very small, and they could not even get these pennies in their hands, since they were withdrawn as a tax to the treasury.
At the same time, the development of ores in the Urals began. Back in 1699, the Nevsky Plant was erected, which exists to this day. Initially, this plant belonged to the state, but then it was given to the Tula entrepreneur N. Demidov - this was the first of the Demidov dynasty, one of the wealthiest dynasties of that time and the most cruel towards its workers. The first thing Demidov did was to build a prison for workers under the factory walls. Thanks to his factory, he was able to get rich so much that he could already make presents and gifts to the king himself.
Factories were built on the banks of rivers, to use the power of the water that moved. The basis of the construction was the dam, which was built the very first, holes were made in the dam through which water flowed, then the water flowed into the reservoirs. And already from the reservoir through wooden pipes to the wheels, the movement of which made the movement of the blowing bellows near the furnace and forges, raised hammers for forging metals, moved the levers and rotated the drilling machines.
In 1722, a shop device for artisans was introduced in Russia. The state forced urban artisans to enroll in workshops. Above each workshop was a selective foreman. Full-fledged artisans could be considered those who could afford to hire and retain apprentices and apprentices. To receive the title of master, the craftsman had to prove his skill with the foreman. Each craft workshop had its own brand, a farm mark, which was put on the product good quality.
The intensive growth of industry in the country required good roads, which were necessary for the transportation of goods and raw materials. Unfortunately, Russia could not boast of good roads. This situation was associated with a small treasury and the natural conditions of the country itself. Therefore, for a long time the best way for trade were rivers and seas. One of the important ways of communication was the Volga, on which canals were built to improve the ways of communication. Communication channels such as the Volga-Don, the Volga and the Baltic Sea were built. The canals were supposed to expand trade and ensure the flow of goods to St. Petersburg, to the Baltic Sea. Peter also improved the Petersburg port, not only as a military facility, but also as a commercial one.
In 1724, a customs tariff was issued, which indicated exact dimensions duties on a particular product, both for imports and for exports. By this, the Russian government tried to expand the country's large-scale industry. If a foreign product competed with a domestic one, a very high duty was set on it, and for the goods that Russia needed, because it could not produce at its own manufactories and factories, the duty was very low.
As a result of frequent and prolonged wars, the treasury was emptied, and the maintenance of the army and navy was costly. To replenish the treasury, private trade in certain types of goods was prohibited. All trade in a certain commodity was under the direction of the state and at elevated prices. Over time, the state began to control the sale of: wine, salt, potash, caviar, furs, tar, chalk, lard, bristles. Most of this product was for export, so all trade with foreign countries was in the hands of the state.
But even this was not enough for a complete renewal and constant replenishment of the state treasury. Peter the first began to look for other ways in order to find the necessary funds. To this end, new taxes, taxes on use, were established. For example, for the use of a fishing area or a place for bee apiaries, etc.
During the reign of Peter the treasury was replenished by 2/3 indirect taxes, customs duties, income from the sale of wine and other goods. And only 1/3 of the state budget was replenished with direct taxes, which were directly paid by the population. The reason for this was that ordinary artisans and peasants were subject to direct taxes, and the clergy, nobles and wealthy entrepreneurs were exempted from this duty. Although instead of direct tax, a tax was removed from each person of a male of noble origin. This tax was intended for the maintenance of the army, so the total amount for its maintenance was divided among all the "revision souls". The conduct of such a tax greatly enriched the treasury of the state. Over time, direct taxes began to bring half the state budget. And so the plight of the peasants worsened even more. Among the peasants, mass escapes from the landowners began to occur. Peter tried to subdue the serfs and issued a decree on the capture of runaway peasants and their return to their former landowner, while the punishment for those who tried to hide the fugitives increased. Peter widely distributed land and peasants to nobles.
Also, the labor of the peasants was used to build fortresses and a new capital. For this purpose, 20 thousand people gathered in St. Petersburg twice a year for three months.
Thus, we can conclude that the peculiarity of industry in the era of Peter the Great was that it was created at the expense of the state budget, for some period it was under its control, but periodically the forms and methods of this control changed.
For a long period, the state itself created manufactories, and was their full owner. But every year the number of manufactories and factories increased, and the funds and capabilities of the state were not enough to keep and develop them in this way. Therefore, the policy that up to the industry was considered.
The state began to give away, and sometimes sell, manufactories and factories that were on the verge of closing into private hands. Thus, private enterprise began to appear, which intensively gained momentum. The position of breeders was strengthened with the help of various benefits from the state, as well as financial support, in the form of loans from merchant companies. At the same time, the state did not move away from industry, but took an active part in its development and support, as well as in obtaining income from it. For example, state control was manifested through a system of state orders. The activities of the manufactories and factories themselves were evenly controlled with the help of inspections, which were carried out periodically and unexpectedly.
Another feature of the industry in Russia was that the labor of serfs was used in manufactories and factories. As noted earlier, people from different strata of society worked in factories and plants. From the beginning, these were civilian workers, but with the growth in the number of enterprises, an acute shortage of workers began. And then the solution to this problem was the use of forced labor. This was the reason for the issuance of a law on the sale of entire villages with the peasants who lived there to work in these factories.
In turn, Peter the Great secured the position about the service of the Russian nobility, in this way he believed that this same nobility had obligations to the state and the tsar. After the equalization of rights between the patrimony and the estate, the process of combining different layers of feudal lords into one class, which had specific privileges, was completed. But the title of a nobleman could only be earned through service. In 1722, the organization of the structure of ranks was introduced, in which there was an order of subordination of lower ranks to higher ones. All positions, whether military or civilian, were divided into 14 ranks. To get a certain rank, it was necessary to go through all the previous ones in turn. And only having reached the eighth rank, the collegiate assessor or major received the nobility. Birth in this case was replaced by length of service. If a refusal of service followed, the state had the right to confiscate possessions. Even if they were hereditary estates. In Western countries, service in the state was a great privilege, but in Russia it was just a duty, one of the many duties that was not always performed qualitatively and for the benefit of this state. Therefore, the nobles cannot be considered a class that dominates the state, since this class was completely dependent on the state. It was more like a privileged class, which consisted of military and civilians who served the absolute monarchy completely and unconditionally. Their privileges ended the minute they fell out of favor with the king or left the service. The "emancipation" of the nobility occurred later - in the 30-60s. 18th century
In history, two points of view are considered that relate to the absolute monarchy of Peter the Great. The first of them is that the absolute monarchy, which was formed during the reign of Peter the Great, is identical to the absolute monarchy of Western states. The absolute monarchy of Peter had the same characteristics as in other countries - this is the power of the king, which is not limited by anyone and nothing, a constant powerful army that protects this autocracy, also in such countries it is very well developed and, moreover, at all levels of the state, the bureaucracy and finally, the centralized tax system.
As for the second point of view of historians, its essence lies in the fact that: absolute monarchy in the West arose under capitalism, and Russia was very far from that, then the Russian system of government can be called either despotism, which is close to Asian or absolute monarchy , which originated in Russia is completely typologically different from Western countries.
After analyzing all the events taking place in Russia during the period of Peter the Great, we can safely say that the second point of view has more rights to exist than the first. This can be confirmed by the fact that in Russia the absolute monarchy is independent in relation to civil society. That is, everyone unconditionally had to serve the monarch. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.
The development of the state in all spheres of activity, both industrial and political, required knowledgeable and trained people. Schools were created to train specialists. Teachers were often invited from abroad. Science and education of that time often depended on foreign countries. Since there was an acute shortage of educated teachers, they were often invited from European countries. But in addition to this, ours were often sent abroad to receive a higher and more qualified education there. To do this, in 1696, Peter the Great issues a decree on sending 61 people to study, most of whom belonged to the nobility. They could send abroad, both of good will and forcibly. If until the time of Peter the Great, only people close to the government and merchants had the right to travel, then in the era of Peter the Great, travel abroad was welcomed and encouraged. Sometimes even merchants and craftsmen were sent to study.
In the 17th century, there were two theological academies in Russia, one in Moscow, the other in Kyiv. They were created in order to get a highly educated secular population.
In 1701, a school of "mathematical and navigational sciences" was opened, whose teacher was one of the most educated people of that time, Leonty Magnitsky. Children of nobles, aged 12 to 17, were enrolled in this school, but due to the fact that they did not want to study in it, there were cases when even 20-year-old boys were accepted. Since children practically not taught to read and write entered the school, the school was divided into three departments: 1) Elementary school, 2) “digital” school, 3) novigatskaya or maritime school. In the first two departments, children of almost all classes that could afford education studied. Only the children of the nobility passed to the third stage of the exercises. The main disciplines at the school were arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, geodesy and astronomy. The term of study did not have clear boundaries, mostly they studied for about 2.5 years or more. In addition, engineering and artillery schools were arranged for the nobles. In 1715, the senior classes of the navigational school were transferred to St. Petersburg, where the academy was established. They entered the academy immediately after graduating from the digital school, and after the academy, students could also be sent abroad.
Order at the Moscow Academy was maintained with the help of rewards and punishments. This charter of the school was approved by Peter the Great himself, he personally added some paragraphs to this instruction. This clause stated that a retired soldier should calm down noisy students and maintain order in the classroom during class, and he should do this with the help of a whip. This method could be applied to any student, regardless of his surname and status.
Even in Moscow, a surgical school was created at the hospital. Nicholas Bidloo was the head of this school. The school studied anatomy, surgery, pharmacology.
Distinguished students in the navigation school for their behavior, and most importantly the level of knowledge gained, were used as teachers. They taught in new schools that were established in many Russian cities. In 1714, a decree was issued on the compulsory education of children of nobles in digital schools. At the end of the training, students received a certificate of graduation from a particular school. For example, without this certificate, the priests could not marry the nobles. Like many at that time, education was a kind of duty, which limited and slowed down the recruitment of new students. For example, in Rezani, out of 96 students, 59 simply ran away.
But in general, digital schools continued to exist, already in the 1720s their number reached 44, with a total number of students up to 2000 people. The leading place among the students was occupied by the children of the clergy, then the children of the clerks and soldiers, and the children of the nobility and townspeople had the least passion for learning. Also at that time there were special schools in which the clergy were trained, they were created in 46 cities. That is, in every major city in Russia there were two schools, digital and spiritual.
Engineering schools were also created to train personnel for the army and industry. At the Ural factories of Yekaterinburg, engineer Genin created two schools - verbal and arithmetic, each of which had about 50 students. In these schools, factory foremen, clerical workers were trained, and they also studied literacy, geometry, drawing and drawing.
In Moscow, Pastor Gluck created a school with a broader general education program. He planned to conduct lessons in philosophy, geography, various languages at his school, and it was also planned to introduce dancing and riding lessons. In this school, as in all others, only young men studied. After the death of the pastor, the program was greatly simplified. This school trained personnel for the civil service.
Another way to improve the level of education is to travel abroad to improve this level. The first such trip was before the start of the construction of the fleet. Noble nobles were sent abroad to train in shipbuilding and ship management. Yes, and Peter the Great himself repeatedly traveled abroad to learn and learn new things.
School textbooks were published in Russian, but they were translated from a foreign language. Most of all textbooks were translated on grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, geography, mechanics, surveying, for the first time were made geographic Maps. The textbooks were translated poorly and the text was very difficult for the students, often they simply memorized it. It was at this time that Russia adopted foreign words such as harbor, raid, midshipman, bot. Peter the Great introduced civil type into use. The alphabet was simplified, partly approaching Latin. All books since 1708 have been printed in this font. With little change but it has survived to this day. At the same time, Arabic numerals were introduced, which replaced the designations of the letters of the Church Slavonic alphabet.
Over time, Russian scientists began to create textbooks and manuals for education themselves.
Of the scientific work, the largest was the description of the geographical expedition, which told about the exploration of the shores of the Caspian Sea., And for the first time a map of the Caspian was compiled.
Under Peter the Great, the first printed newspaper, Vedomosti, began to appear. Its first issue was published on January 2, 1703.
Educational goals were also in mind when the theater was founded. Under Peter there were attempts to create a folk theater. So in Moscow on Red Square there was a built building for the theater. The troupe of Johann Kunsht was invited from Denmark, who was supposed to train the artists of the Russian population. At first, the theater was very popular, but over time, the audience became less and less, and as a result, the theater on Red Square was closed altogether. But this gave impetus to the development of theatrical spectacle in Russia.
The life of the upper class has also changed significantly. Before the era of Peter the female half of the boyar families lived closed, rarely born. Most of the time was spent at home, doing household chores. Under Peter the Great, balls were introduced, which were held in the houses of nobles in turn, and women were obliged to participate in them. Assemblies, as balls were called in Russia, began at about 5 o'clock and lasted until 10 o'clock in the evening.
A manual on the correct etiquette of the nobles was a book by an unknown author, which was published in 1717 under the title "Youth Pure Mirror". The book consisted of two parts. In the first part, the author marked out the alphabet, tables, numbers and numbers. That is, the first part served as a scientific book on teaching the innovations of Peter the Great. The second part, which was the main one, consisted of rules of conduct for boys and girls of the upper class. We can safely say that this was the first ethics textbook in Russia. Young people of noble origin were recommended first of all to teach foreign languages, horseback riding and dancing, Girls should dutifully obey the will of their parents, they also had to be distinguished by diligence, as well as silence. The book described the behavior of the nobles in public life, from the rules of conduct at the table to service in public administrations. The book formulated a new stereotype of the behavior of a person of the upper class. The nobleman had to avoid companies that could somehow compromise him, drunkenness, rudeness, and extravagance were also contraindicated. And the manners of behavior themselves should be as close as possible to European ones. In general, the second part was more like a collection of publications on the rules of etiquette of Western countries.
Peter wanted to educate the youth of the upper class according to the European type, while instilling in them the spirit of patriotism and service to the state. It was considered the main thing for a nobleman to protect his honor and the honor of his homeland, but at the same time, the honor of the Fatherland was defended with a sword, but a nobleman could defend his honor by filing a complaint with certain authorities. Peter was an opponent of duels. Those who violated the decree were severely punished.
The culture of the era of Peter the Great was always under the control of the state and in its main direction was the development of the culture of the nobility. This was a feature of Russian culture. The state encouraged and allocated finance from the state treasury only to those areas that it considered important. In general, the culture and art of Peter the Great went in a positive direction of development. Although even in culture, bureaucracy was traced over time. Because writers, artists, actors were in the public service, their activities were completely subordinated to the state and, accordingly, they received remuneration for their work. Culture performed state functions. The theatre, the press, and many other branches of culture served to defend and propagate the Petrine transformation.
Chapter 3
Peter's reforms are grandiose in their scope and consequences. These transformations contributed to the solution of acute tasks facing the state, primarily in the field of foreign policy. However, they could not ensure the long-term progress of the country, since they were carried out within the framework of the existing system and, moreover, they preserved the Russian feudal-serf system.
As a result of the transformations, powerful industrial production, a strong army and navy were created, which allowed Russia to achieve access to the sea, overcome isolation, close the gap with the advanced countries of Europe and turn into a great world power.
However, the accelerated modernization and borrowing of technologies were carried out at the expense of a sharp increase in the archaic forms of exploitation of the people, which paid at an extremely high price for the positive results of the reforms.
The reforms of the political system gave new strength to the serving despotic state. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.
Reforms in the field of culture and everyday life, on the one hand, created conditions for the development of science, education, literature, etc. But, on the other hand, the mechanical and violent transfer of many European cultural and everyday stereotypes prevented the full development of a culture based on national traditions.
The main thing was that the nobility, perceiving the values of European culture, sharply separated itself from the national tradition and its custodian - the Russian people, whose attachment to traditional values and institutions grew as the country modernized. This caused the deepest socio-cultural split in society, which largely predetermined the depth of contradictions and the strength of social upheavals in the early twentieth century.
The paradox of the Petrine reform was that the "Westernization" of Russia, which was of a violent nature, strengthened the foundations of Russian civilization - autocracy and serfdom, on the one hand, brought to life the forces that carried out modernization, and on the other, provoked an anti-modernization and anti-Western reaction of supporters of traditionalism and national identity.
3.1 Estimation of the essence of Peter's reforms
On the issue of assessing the essence of Peter's reforms, the opinions of scientists differ. The understanding of this problem is based either on views based on Marxist views, that is, those who believe that the policy of state power is based and conditioned by the socio-economic system, or the position according to which reforms are an expression of the sole will of the monarch. This point of view is typical of the "state" historical school in pre-revolutionary Russia. The first of this multitude of views is that of the monarch's personal desire to Europeanize Russia. Historians who adhere to this point of view consider it precisely "Europeanization" main goal Peter. According to Solovyov, the meeting with European civilization was a natural and inevitable event on the path of development of the Russian people. But Solovyov considers Europeanization not as an end in itself, but as a means, primarily stimulating economic development countries. The theory of Europeanization, naturally, did not meet with the approval of historians who seek to emphasize the continuity of the era of Peter in relation to the previous period. An important place in the debate about the essence of the reforms is occupied by the hypothesis of the priority of foreign policy goals over domestic ones. This hypothesis was first advanced by Milyukov and Klyuchevsky. Confidence in its infallibility led Klyuchevsky to the conclusion that the reforms were of varying degrees of importance: he considered the military reform initial stage transformative activity of Peter, and the reorganization of the financial system - his ultimate goal. The rest of the reforms were either the result of changes in military affairs, or prerequisites for achieving the mentioned ultimate goal. Independent value Klyuchevsky attached only economic policy. last point view of this problem - "idealistic". It is most clearly formulated by Bogoslovsky, he characterizes the reforms as the practical implementation of the principles of statehood perceived by the monarch. But here the question arises about the "principles of statehood" in the understanding of the king. Bogoslovsky believes that the ideal of Peter the Great was an absolutist state, the so-called "regular state", which, with its comprehensive vigilant care (police activity), sought to regulate all aspects of public and privacy in accordance with the principles of reason and for the benefit of the "common good". Bogoslovsky especially highlights the ideological aspect of Europeanization. He, like Solovyov, sees in the introduction of the principle of rationality, rationalism, a radical break with the past. His understanding of the reforming activity of Peter, which can be called "enlightened absolutism", found many adherents among Western historians who tend to emphasize that Peter was not an outstanding theorist, and that the reformer during his foreign trip took into account, first of all, the practical results of his contemporary political science. Some of the adherents of this point of view argue that the Petrine state practice was by no means typical of its time, as Bogoslovsky proves. In Russia under Peter the Great, attempts to implement political ideas eras were much more consistent and far-reaching than in the West. According to such historians, Russian absolutism in everything related to its role and impact on the life of Russian society took a completely different position than the absolutism of most European countries. While in Europe the governmental and administrative structure of the state was determined by social order, in Russia the opposite case took place - here the state and its policies formed the social structure.
The first who tried to define the essence of Peter's reforms from a Marxist position was Pokrovsky. He characterizes this era as an early phase in the birth of capitalism, when commercial capital begins to create a new economic basis for Russian society. As a result of the transfer of economic initiative to the merchants, power passed from the nobility to the bourgeoisie (ie, to these same merchants). The so-called "spring of capitalism" has come. The merchants needed an efficient state apparatus that could serve their purposes both in Russia and abroad. That is why, according to Pokrovsky, Peter's administrative reforms, wars and economic policy in general, are united by the interests of commercial capital. Some historians, attaching great importance to commercial capital, associate it with the interests of the nobility. And although the thesis about the dominant role of commercial capital was rejected in Soviet historiography, it can be said that the opinion regarding the class basis of the state remained dominant in Soviet historiography from the mid-1930s to the mid-1960s. During this period, the generally accepted point of view was that the Petrine state was considered " nation state landowners" or "dictatorship of the nobility". His policy expressed, first of all, the interests of the feudal feudal lords, although attention was also paid to the interests of the bourgeoisie, which was gaining strength. As a result of the analysis of the political ideology and social position of the state carried out in this direction, the opinion was established that the essence of the idea of the “common good” is demagogic, it covered the interests of the ruling class. Although this position is shared by most historians, there are exceptions. For example, Syromyatnikov, in his book on the Petrine state and its ideology, fully agrees with the theological characterization of the state of Peter as a typical absolutist state of that era. New in the controversy about the Russian autocracy was his interpretation of the class foundation of this state, which was based on Marxist definitions of the prerequisites of European absolutism. Syromyatnikov believes that Peter's unlimited powers were based on a real situation, namely: the opposing classes (the nobility and the bourgeoisie) achieved during this period such an equality of economic and political forces, which allowed the state power to achieve a certain independence in relation to both classes, to become a kind of intermediary between them. Thanks to a temporary state of equilibrium in the class struggle, state power became a relatively autonomous factor in historical development, and was able to benefit from the growing contradictions between the nobility and the bourgeoisie. The fact that the state thus stood in a certain sense above the class struggle by no means meant that it was completely impartial. An in-depth study of the economic and social policies of Peter the Great led Syromyatnikov to the conclusion that the tsar's reforming activities had an overall anti-feudal orientation, "manifested, for example, in measures taken in the interests of the growing bourgeoisie, as well as in an effort to limit serfdom." This characterization of the reforms, given by Syromyatnikov, did not find a significant response from Soviet historians. In general, Soviet historiography did not accept and criticized his conclusions (but not the facts) because they were very close to Pokrovsky's previously rejected positions. In addition, many historians do not share the opinion about the balance of power in the Petrine period, not everyone recognizes the bourgeoisie, which was barely born in the 18th century, as a real economic and political factor capable of resisting the local nobility. This was also confirmed during the discussions that took place in Russian historiography in the 70s, as a result of which a relatively complete consensus was reached regarding the inapplicability of the thesis of the “neutrality” of power and the balance of classes in relation to specific Russian conditions. However, some historians, while generally disagreeing with Syromyatnikov's opinion, share his view of Peter's autocracy as relatively independent of class forces. They substantiate the independence of the autocracy by the thesis of equilibrium in a new version. While Syromyatnikov operates exclusively with the category of social balance of two different classes - the nobility and the bourgeoisie, Fedosov and Troitsky consider the contradictory interests within the ruling class as a source of independence of the political superstructure. And if Peter the Great was able to put into practice such an extensive set of reforms contrary to the interests of individual social groups population, this was explained by the intensity of the very “intraclass struggle”, where on the one hand the old aristocracy acted, and on the other, the new, bureaucratized nobility. At the same time, the nascent bourgeoisie, supported by the reformist policy of the government, made itself known, although not so heavily, acting in alliance with the last of the named warring parties - the nobility. Another controversial point of view was put forward by A.Ya. Avrekh, the initiator of the debate about the essence of Russian absolutism. In his opinion, absolutism arose and was finally strengthened under Peter the Great. Its formation and unprecedentedly strong position in Russia became possible thanks to the relatively low level class struggle combined with stagnation in the socio-economic development of the country. Absolutism should be regarded as a form of the feudal state, but the distinguishing feature of Russia was the desire to pursue, in spite of the obvious weakness of the bourgeoisie, precisely the bourgeois policy, and to develop in the direction of the bourgeois monarchy. Naturally, this theory could not be accepted in Soviet historiography, because it contradicted some Marxist principles. This resolution of the problem did not find much recognition in the course of the ongoing discussion of Soviet historians about absolutism. Nevertheless, Averakh cannot be called an atypical participant in this controversy, which was characterized, firstly, by a clear desire to emphasize the relative autonomy of state power, and secondly, by the unanimity of scientists on the issue of the impossibility of characterizing political development only through simple conclusions, without taking into account the characteristics of each period of history. .
foreign literature about Russia in the era of Peter the Great, despite the differences in the approach of scientists to assessing the events of that time, there are some common features. Paying tribute to the ruler, to the successes that were achieved by the country, foreign authors, as a rule, judged the pre-Petrine era in the history of Russia with some underestimation or open disdain. Views have become widespread, according to which Russia made a leap from backwardness, savagery to more advanced forms of social life with the help of the "West" - ideas borrowed from there, and numerous specialists who became assistants to Peter the Great in carrying out the transformations.
Conclusion
After analyzing the studied material, one can come to the following conclusions about the uniqueness of the reforms of Peter the Great and their impact on the state of Russia.
Before Peter came to power, the main factor that influenced the development of the state was its natural and geographical position, as well as social conditions(large territory, unfortunate geographical position, etc.). In addition to internal factors, external factors also influenced development. Before Peter the Great, Russia did not have access to the seas, and thus she could not use, first of all, for trade, the fastest and cheapest ways of communication.
Peter's reforms, like most of the reforms in Russia, had its own peculiarity. They were planted from above and implemented by order. The government regime, as it were, stood above the whole society and forced absolutely everyone to serve the state, regardless of class. European forms covered and strengthened the eastern essence of the autocratic state, whose educational intentions did not coincide with political practice.
The reforms of Peter the Great began immediately after his arrival due to a border trip and concerned appearance population, especially those who were close to the state and the king himself. The changes concerned the form and type of clothing, as well as beards. Everyone had to shave their beards, except for the clergy and peasants.
During his reign, Peter the Great created a powerful Russian Empire, in which he formulated an absolute monarchy and autocracy. There was no one to control it.
As for industry, it also had its own characteristics. The development of enterprises was fully supported by the state. Large sums were allocated from the state treasury for the construction of new manufactories, factories and plants. Therefore, for some time they were under the control of the state. But in the end they passed into private hands, although the state still controlled the activities of private entrepreneurs. And the second feature of the industry was that serfs worked at these same manufactories and factories. That is free labor. Thanks to this, the growth and development of manufactories, and industry as a whole, has increased.
As for culture, it was mainly aimed at the development of education. Schools were built which generally gave several thousand people elementary education, which further contributed to a cultural upsurge and a change in attitude towards school education. In addition to schools, special education developed. The progress of science was on the face.
The reforms of Peter the Great were very large-scale and brought very great results. As a result of these reforms, those tasks that were formulated in the state, and which needed to be addressed urgently, were solved. Peter the Great was able to solve the assigned tasks, but practically failed to consolidate the process. This was due to the system that existed in the state, as well as serfdom. The main part of the population were peasants, being constantly under oppression, they did not show any initiative in the development of their state.
Bibliography
1. Anisimov E.V. Time of Peter's reforms. About Peter I. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2002.
Bagger Hans. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: Progress.: 1985, 200 p.
Klyuchevsky V.O. historical portraits. Figures of historical thought. / Comp., intro. Art. and note. V.A. Alexandrova. Moscow: Pravda, 1991. 624 p.
Klyuchevsky V.O. Russian history course. T. 3 - M., 2002. 543 p.
Lebedev V.I. Reforms of Peter the Great. M.: 1937
Polyakov L.V. Kara-Murza V. Reformer. Russians about Peter the Great. Ivanovo, 1994
Soloviev S.M. Public readings on the history of Russia. Moscow: Progress, 1962
Soloviev S.M. On the history of the new Russia. M.: Enlightenment, 1993
Collection: Russia during the reforms of Peter the Great M.: Nauka, 1973
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Estate (social) reforms of Peter I - chronological table
1714 - Decree of March 23, 1714 "On Single Inheritance": a ban on the crushing of noble estates, they must be entirely transferred to one heir. The same decree eliminates the difference between estates and fiefdoms, which henceforth are inherited in the same way. Decrees on the compulsory education of children of nobles, clerks and clerks. The prohibition to promote to officers the nobles who did not serve as privates in the guard.
1718 - The abolition of servitude and the state of free walking people through the extension of tax and recruitment duty to both of these states.
1721 - Permission for "merchant people" to acquire populated estates for factories. Decree on the receipt of hereditary nobility by non-nobles who rose to the rank of chief officer in the army.
1722 - Compilation of revision tales with equal inclusion in them of serfs, serfs and persons of "intermediate" free states: all of them are now equalized in social status, as a single estate. "Table of Ranks" puts the bureaucratic hierarchy, the principle of merit and service in place of the aristocratic hierarchy of the breed.
Peter I. Portrait by J. M. Nattier, 1717
Administrative reforms of Peter I - chronological table
1699 - Introduction of city self-government: the establishment of city halls from elected mayors and the central Burmister Chamber in Moscow.
1703 - Foundation of St. Petersburg.
1708 - Partition of Russia into eight provinces.
1711 - Establishment of the Senate - the new supreme administrative body of Russia. Establishment of a fiscal system headed by a Chief Fiscal to control all branches of administration. The beginning of the connection of counties in the province.
1713 - The introduction of landrats on the ground (noble councils under the governors, the governor is only their chairman).
1714 - Transfer of the Russian capital to St. Petersburg.
1718 - Establishment (instead of the old Moscow orders) collegiums (1718-1719) - new higher administrative bodies by industry.
The building of the Twelve Colleges in St. Petersburg. Unknown artist of the third quarter of the 18th century. Based on an engraving by E. G. Vnukov from a drawing by M. I. Makhaev
1719 - The introduction of a new regional division (11 provinces, divided into provinces, counties and districts), which also includes the lands conquered from Sweden. The abolition of landrats, the transfer of noble self-government from the province to the county. Establishment of county zemstvo offices and elected zemstvo commissars attached to them.
1720 - Transformation of city government: the establishment of city magistrates and the Chief Magistrate. Magistrates receive broader rights in comparison with the former town halls, but are elected less democratically: only from the "first-class" citizens.
Financial reforms of Peter I - chronological table
1699 - Introduction of stamped paper (with a special tax on it).
1701 - New taxes: "dragoon" and "ship" money (for the maintenance of cavalry and fleet). The first wide re-coinage of the coin with a decrease in the content of the precious metal in it.
1704 - Introduction of a tax on baths. Establishment of state-owned monopolies on salt and oak coffins.
1705 - Introduction of the "beard" tax.
1718 - Destruction of most state-owned monopolies. Decree on the census (first revision) of the population in order to prepare for the introduction of the poll tax.
1722 - Completion of the first revision and the introduction of a poll tax based on its results.
Economic reforms of Peter I - chronological table
1699 - Establishment of state-owned ironworks in the Verkhotursk district in the Urals, which were then given into the possession of N. Demidov from Tula.
1701 - Start of work on the arrangement of the water communication between the Don and the Oka across the Upa River.
1702 - Construction of a canal that established water communication between the upper reaches of the Volga and the Neva (1702-1706).
1703 - Construction of an iron-smelting and iron-working plant on Lake Onega, from which the city of Petrozavodsk then grows.
1717 - Cancellation of forced recruitment of workers for the construction of St. Petersburg.
1718 - Start of construction of the Ladoga Canal.
1723 - Foundation of Yekaterinburg - a city to manage the vast Ural mining district.
Military reforms of Peter I - chronological table
1683-1685 - A set of "amusing soldiers" for Tsarevich Peter, from which the first two regular guards regiments were later formed: Preobrazhensky and Semyonovsky.
1694 - "Kozhukhovsky campaigns" of amusing soldiers of Peter I.
1697 - Decree on the construction of fifty ships for the Azov campaign by the "Kumpans", headed by large secular and spiritual landowners (the first attempt to create a strong Russian fleet).
1698 - The destruction of the streltsy army after the suppression of the third rebellion of the streltsy.
1699 - Decree on the recruitment of the first three recruiting divisions.
1703 - The shipyard in Lodeynoye Pole launches 6 frigates: the first Russian squadron on the Baltic Sea.
1708 - The introduction of a new order of service for the Cossacks after the suppression of the Bulavin uprising: the establishment of compulsory military service for them by Russia instead of the previous contractual relations.
1712 - Painting of the content of the regiments in the provinces.
1715 - Establishment of a permanent recruiting rate.
Church reforms of Peter I - chronological table
1700 - Death of Patriarch Adrian and prohibition to choose his successor.
1701 - Restoration of the Monastic Order - transfer of church estates to the management of the secular administration.
1714 - Permission for the Old Believers to openly confess their faith, subject to the payment of a double salary.
1720 - Closing of the Monastyrskiy Prikaz and return of real estate to the clergy.
1721 - Establishment (in place of the former sole patriarchate) of the Holy Synod - the body for collegiate management of church affairs, which, moreover, closely dependent on secular power.
Reforms of Peter I - transformations in state and public life carried out during the reign of Peter I in Russia. state activity Peter I can be conditionally divided into two periods: 1696-1715 and 1715-1725.
The peculiarity of the first stage was the haste and not always thoughtful nature, which was explained by the conduct of the Northern War. The reforms were aimed primarily at raising funds for warfare, were carried out by force and often did not lead to the desired result. In addition to state reforms, extensive reforms were carried out at the first stage in order to modernize the way of life. In the second period, the reforms were more systematic.
A number of historians, such as V.O. Klyuchevsky, pointed out that the reforms of Peter I were not something fundamentally new, but were only a continuation of those transformations that were carried out during the 17th century. Other historians (for example, Sergei Solovyov), on the contrary, emphasized the revolutionary nature of Peter's transformations.
Historians who have analyzed Peter's reforms hold different views on his personal participation in them. One group believes that Peter did not play any role in both the formulation of the reform program and the process of its implementation. leading role(which was attributed to him as a king). Another group of historians, on the contrary, writes about the great personal role of Peter I in carrying out certain reforms.
Public Administration Reforms
See also: Senate (Russia) and Colleges (Russian Empire)
At first, Peter I did not have a clear program of reforms in the sphere of public administration. The emergence of a new state institution or a change in the administrative-territorial administration of the country was dictated by the conduct of wars, which required significant financial resources and the mobilization of the population. The system of power inherited by Peter I did not allow raising enough funds to reorganize and increase the army, build a fleet, build fortresses and St. Petersburg.
From the first years of Peter's reign, there was a tendency to reduce the role of the ineffective Boyar Duma in government. In 1699, the Near Office, or the Council (Council) of Ministers, was organized under the tsar, consisting of 8 trusted persons who controlled individual orders. It was a prototype of the future Governing Senate, formed on February 22, 1711. The last mention of the Boyar Duma dates back to 1704. A certain mode of operation was established in the Council: each minister had special powers, reports and minutes of meetings appear. In 1711, instead of the Boyar Duma and the Council that replaced it, the Senate was established. Peter formulated the main task of the Senate as follows: “Look at the expenses throughout the state, and set aside unnecessary, and especially vain ones. Collect money as possible, because money is the artery of war.
Created by Peter for the current administration of the state during the absence of the tsar (at that time the tsar went on the Prut campaign), the Senate, consisting of 9 people (presidents of the collegiums), gradually turned from a temporary into a permanent higher government institution, which was enshrined in the Decree of 1722. He controlled justice, was in charge of trade, fees and expenses of the state, oversaw the serviceability of serving military service by the nobles, he was transferred to the functions of the Discharge and Ambassadorial orders.
Decisions in the Senate were taken collectively, at a general meeting and supported by the signatures of all members of the highest state body. If one of the 9 senators refused to sign the decision, then the decision was considered invalid. Thus, Peter I delegated part of his powers to the Senate, but at the same time placed personal responsibility on its members.
Simultaneously with the Senate, the post of fiscals appeared. The duty of the Chief Fiscal in the Senate and the Fiscals in the provinces was to secretly supervise the activities of institutions: they identified cases of violation of decrees and abuses and reported to the Senate and the Tsar. Since 1715, the work of the Senate was monitored by the auditor general, from 1718 renamed the chief secretary. Since 1722, the control over the Senate has been carried out by the Prosecutor General and the Chief Prosecutor, to whom the prosecutors of all other institutions were subordinate. No decision of the Senate was valid without the consent and signature of the Attorney General. The Prosecutor General and his Deputy Chief Prosecutor reported directly to the sovereign.
The Senate, as a government, could make decisions, but their implementation required an administrative apparatus. In the years 1717-1721, a reform of the executive bodies of government was carried out, as a result of which, in parallel with the system of orders with their vague functions, 12 colleges were created according to the Swedish model - the predecessors of future ministries. In contrast to orders, the functions and spheres of activity of each collegium were strictly delimited, and relations within the collegium itself were based on the principle of collective decisions. Were introduced:
· Collegium of foreign (foreign) affairs - replaced the Ambassadorial Order, that is, it was in charge of foreign policy.
· Military Collegium (Military) - staffing, weapons, equipment and training of the land army.
· Admiralty Board - naval affairs, fleet.
· The patrimonial collegium - replaced the Local Order, that is, it was in charge of noble land ownership (land litigation, transactions for the purchase and sale of land and peasants, the investigation of fugitives were considered). Founded in 1721.
· Board of Chambers - collection of state revenues.
The state-offices-collegium - was in charge of the state's expenses,
· Revision Board - control of the collection and spending of public funds.
· Commerce Board - issues of shipping, customs and foreign trade.
· Berg College - mining and metallurgical business (mining and factory industry).
Manufactory College - light industry (manufactories, that is, enterprises based on the division of manual labor).
· The College of Justice - was in charge of civil proceedings (the Serf Office operated under it: it registered various acts - bills of sale, on the sale of estates, spiritual wills, debt obligations). Worked in civil and criminal litigation.
· The Spiritual College or the Most Holy Governing Synod - managed (a) church affairs, replaced (a) the patriarch. Founded in 1721. This collegium/Synod included representatives of the higher clergy. Since their appointment was carried out by the tsar, and the decisions were approved by him, we can say that the Russian emperor became the actual head of the Russian Orthodox Church. The actions of the Synod on behalf of the highest secular power were controlled by the chief prosecutor - a civil official appointed by the tsar. By a special decree, Peter I (Peter I) ordered the priests to carry out an enlightening mission among the peasants: to read sermons and instructions to them, to teach children prayers, to instill in them reverence for the tsar and the church.
· The Little Russian Collegium - exercised control over the actions of the hetman, who owned power in Ukraine, because there was a special regime of local government. After the death in 1722 of Hetman I. I. Skoropadsky, new elections of hetman were prohibited, and the hetman was appointed for the first time by royal decree. The college was headed by a royal officer.
On February 28, 1720, the General Regulations introduced a single system of office work in the state apparatus for the whole country. According to the regulations, the collegium consisted of the president, 4-5 advisers and 4 assessors.
Central location in the control system was occupied by the secret police: the Preobrazhensky order (in charge of cases of state crimes) and the Secret Chancellery. These institutions were under the jurisdiction of the emperor himself.
In addition, there were the Salt Office, the Copper Department, and the Land Survey Office.
The "first" colleges were called the Military, Admiralty and Foreign Affairs.
On the rights of colleges there were two institutions: the Synod and the Chief Magistrate.
The colleges were subordinate to the Senate, and to them - the provincial, provincial and county administration.
The results of the management reform of Peter I are ambiguously considered by historians.
Regional reform
Main article: Regional reform of Peter I
In 1708-1715, a regional reform was carried out in order to strengthen the vertical of power in the field and better provide the army with supplies and recruits. In 1708, the country was divided into 8 provinces headed by governors endowed with full judicial and administrative power: Moscow, Ingermanland (later St. Petersburg), Kyiv, Smolensk, Azov, Kazan, Arkhangelsk and Siberia. The Moscow province gave more than a third of the proceeds to the treasury, followed by the Kazan province.
The governors were also in charge of the troops located on the territory of the province. In 1710, new administrative units appeared - shares, uniting 5536 households. The first regional reform did not solve the set tasks, but only significantly increased the number of civil servants and the cost of their maintenance.
In 1719-1720, the second regional reform was carried out, which eliminated the shares. The provinces began to be divided into 50 provinces headed by governors, and the provinces were superdistricts headed by zemstvo commissars appointed by the Chamber Collegium. Only military and judicial matters remained under the jurisdiction of the governor.
Judicial reform
Under Peter, the judicial system underwent radical changes. The functions of the Supreme Court were given to the Senate and the College of Justice. Below them were: in the provinces - gofgerichts or court courts of appeal in large cities, and provincial collegiate lower courts. The provincial courts handled civil and criminal cases of all categories of peasants except monasteries, as well as townspeople not included in the settlement. Since 1721, the magistrate conducted the court cases of the townspeople included in the settlement. In other cases, the so-called one-man court acted (cases were decided solely by a zemstvo or city judge). However, in 1722 the lower courts were replaced by provincial courts headed by a voivode. Also, Peter I was the first person to carry out judicial reform, regardless of the state of the country.
Control over the activities of civil servants
To control the execution of decisions on the ground and reduce rampant corruption, since 1711, the position of fiscals was established, who were supposed to “secretly visit, denounce and denounce” all abuses, both higher and lower officials, pursue embezzlement, bribery, and accept denunciations from private individuals . At the head of the fiscals was the chief fiscal, appointed by the emperor and subordinate to him. The Chief Fiscal was a member of the Senate and maintained contact with subordinate fiscals through the fiscal desk of the Senate Chancellery. Denunciations were considered and monthly reported to the Senate by the Punishment Chamber - a special judicial presence of four judges and two senators (existed in 1712-1719).
In 1719-1723. the fiscals were subordinate to the College of Justice, with the establishment in January 1722 of the post of prosecutor general were supervised by him. Since 1723, the chief fiscal was the general fiscal, appointed by the sovereign, his assistant was the chief fiscal, appointed by the Senate. In this regard, the fiscal service withdrew from the subordination of the College of Justice and regained departmental independence. The vertical of fiscal control was brought to the city level.
Military reform
Army reform: in particular, the introduction of regiments of a new order, reformed according to a foreign model, was begun long before Peter I, even under Alexei I. However, the combat effectiveness of this army was low. Reforming the army and creating a fleet became necessary conditions for victory in the Northern War of 1700-1721 years. Preparing for the war with Sweden, Peter ordered in 1699 to make a general recruitment and start training soldiers according to the model established by the Preobrazhenians and Semyonovites. This first recruitment gave 29 infantry regiments and two dragoons. In 1705, every 20 households had to put up one recruit for life service. Subsequently, recruits began to be taken from a certain number of male souls among the peasants. Recruitment to the fleet, as well as to the army, was carried out from recruits.
Church reform
One of the transformations of Peter I was the reform of church administration he carried out, aimed at eliminating church jurisdiction autonomous from the state and subordinating the Russian church hierarchy to the Emperor. In 1700, after the death of Patriarch Adrian, Peter I, instead of convening a council to elect a new patriarch, temporarily appointed Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky of Ryazan as the head of the clergy, who received the new title of Custodian of the Patriarchal Throne or "Exarch".
To manage the property of the patriarchal and episcopal houses, as well as monasteries, including the peasants belonging to them (approximately 795 thousand), the Monastic order was restored, headed by I. A. Musin-Pushkin, who again became in charge of the trial of the monastic peasants and control income from church and monastery land holdings. In 1701, a series of decrees was issued to reform the management of church and monastery possessions and the organization of monastic life; the most important were the decrees of January 24 and 31, 1701.
In 1721, Peter approved the Spiritual Regulations, the drafting of which was entrusted to the Pskov bishop, Ukrainian tsar's close associate Feofan Prokopovich. As a result, a radical reform of the church took place, which eliminated the autonomy of the clergy and completely subordinated it to the state. In Russia, the patriarchate was abolished and the Spiritual College was established, soon renamed the Holy Synod, which was recognized by the Eastern patriarchs as equal in honor to the patriarch. All members of the Synod were appointed by the Emperor and took an oath of allegiance to him upon taking office. War time stimulated the removal of valuables from the monastic vaults. Peter did not go for the complete secularization of church and monastery possessions, which was carried out much later, at the beginning of the reign of Catherine II.
financial reform
The Azov campaigns, the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the maintenance of a permanent recruit army created by Peter I required huge funds, which were collected by financial reforms.
At the first stage, it all came down to finding new sources of funds. To the traditional customs and tavern fees were added fees and benefits from the monopolization of the sale of certain goods (salt, alcohol, tar, bristles, etc.), indirect taxes(bath, fish, horse taxes, tax on oak coffins, etc.), the obligatory use of stamped paper, the minting of coins of lesser weight (damage).
In 1704, Peter carried out a monetary reform, as a result of which the main monetary unit was not money, but a penny. From now on, it began to equal not ½ money, but 2 money, and this word first appeared on coins. At the same time, the fiat ruble was also abolished, which had been a conditional monetary unit since the 15th century, equated to 68 grams of pure silver and used as a standard in exchange transactions. The most important measure in the course of the financial reform, the poll tax was introduced instead of the prior taxation. In 1710, a "household" census was carried out, which showed a decrease in the number of households. One of the reasons for this decrease was that, in order to reduce taxes, several households were surrounded by one wattle fence, and one gate was made (this was considered one household during the census). Due to these shortcomings, it was decided to switch to a poll tax. In 1718-1724, a second census of the population was carried out in parallel with the revision of the population (revision of the census), which began in 1722. According to this revision, there were 5,967,313 people in the taxable state.
Based on the data obtained, the government divided by the population the amount of money needed to maintain the army and navy.
As a result, the size of the per capita tax was determined: the serf landowners paid the state 74 kopecks, the state peasants - 1 ruble 14 kopecks (since they did not pay dues), the urban population - 1 ruble 20 kopecks. Only men were taxed, regardless of age. The nobility, clergy, as well as soldiers and Cossacks were exempted from the poll tax. The soul was countable - between revisions, the dead were not excluded from tax lists, newborns were not included, as a result, the tax burden was unevenly distributed.
As a result of the tax reform, the size of the treasury was significantly increased. If in 1710 income extended to 3,134,000 rubles; then in 1725 there were 10,186,707 rubles. (according to foreign sources - up to 7,859,833 rubles).
Transformations in industry and commerce
Main article: Industry and trade under Peter I
Realizing during the Great Embassy the technical backwardness of Russia, Peter could not ignore the problem of reforming Russian industry. In addition, the creation of their own industry was dictated by military needs, as indicated by a number of historians. Having started the Northern War with Sweden in order to gain access to the sea and proclaiming as a task the construction of a modern fleet in the Baltic (and even earlier - in Azov), Peter was forced to build manufactories designed to meet the sharply increased needs of the army and navy.
One of the main problems was the lack of qualified craftsmen. The tsar solved this problem by attracting foreigners to the Russian service on favorable terms, by sending Russian nobles to study in Western Europe. Manufacturers received great privileges: they were exempted from military service with their children and craftsmen, they were subject only to the court of the Manufacture Collegium, they got rid of taxes and internal duties, they could bring the tools and materials they needed from abroad duty-free, their houses were freed from military quarters.
Significant measures have been taken on the exploration of minerals in Russia. Previously, the Russian state was completely dependent on foreign countries for raw materials, primarily Sweden (iron was transported from there), but after the discovery of deposits iron ore and other minerals to the Urals, the need for iron purchases has disappeared. In the Urals, in 1723, the largest ironworks in Russia was founded, from which the city of Yekaterinburg developed. Under Peter, Nevyansk, Kamensk-Uralsky, Nizhny Tagil were founded. Arms factories (cannon yards, arsenals) appear in the Olonets region, Sestroretsk and Tula, gunpowder factories - in St. Petersburg and near Moscow, the leather and textile industries develop - in Moscow, Yaroslavl, Kazan and the Left-Bank Ukraine, which was conditioned by the need to produce equipment and uniforms for the Russian troops, silk weaving, the production of paper, cement, a sugar factory and a trellis factory appear.
In 1719, the “Berg Privilege” was issued, according to which everyone was given the right to search, melt, boil and clean metals and minerals everywhere, subject to the payment of a “mountain tax” of 1/10 of the cost of production and 32 shares in favor of the owner of that land where ore deposits are found. For hiding ore and trying to prevent mining, the owner was threatened with confiscation of land, corporal punishment and even the death penalty "through the fault of looking."
The main problem in the Russian manufactories of that time was the lack of work force. The problem was solved by violent measures: entire villages and villages were assigned to manufactories, the peasants of which worked out their taxes to the state at manufactories (such peasants will be called ascribed), criminals and beggars were sent to the factories. In 1721, a decree followed, which allowed "merchant people" to buy villages, the peasants of which could be resettled for manufactories (such peasants would be called sessional).
Trade has been further developed. With the construction of St. Petersburg, the role of the main port of the country passed from Arkhangelsk to the future capital. River channels were built.
In particular, Vyshnevolotsky (Vyshnevolotsk water system) and Obvodny canals were built. At the same time, two attempts to build the Volga-Don Canal ended in failure (although 24 locks were built), while tens of thousands of people worked on its construction, working conditions were difficult, and mortality was very high.
Some historians characterize Peter's policy in trade as a policy of protectionism, which consists in supporting domestic production and imposing higher duties on imported products (this corresponded to the idea of mercantilism). So, in 1724, a protective customs tariff was introduced - high duties on foreign goods that could be manufactured or already produced by domestic enterprises.
The number of factories and factories at the end of Peter's reign reached 233, including about 90 large manufactories.
autocracy reform
Before Peter, the order of succession to the throne in Russia was in no way regulated by law, and was entirely determined by tradition. Peter in 1722 issued a decree on the order of succession to the throne, according to which the reigning monarch during his lifetime appoints himself a successor, and the emperor can make anyone his heir (it was assumed that the king would appoint “the most worthy” as his successor). This law was in effect until the reign of Paul I. Peter himself did not use the law of succession to the throne, since he died without indicating a successor.
estate policy
The main goal pursued by Peter I in social policy is the legal registration of class rights and obligations of each category of the Russian population. As a result, a new structure of society developed, in which the class character was more clearly formed. The rights and duties of the nobility were expanded, and, at the same time, the serfdom of the peasants was strengthened.
Nobility
1. Decree on education of 1706: boyar children must receive either primary school or home education without fail.
2. Decree on estates of 1704: noble and boyar estates are not divided and are equated to each other.
3. Decree of the same inheritance of 1714: a landowner with sons could bequeath all his real estate to only one of them of his choice. The rest were required to serve. The decree marked the final merger of the noble estate and the boyar estate, thereby finally erasing the differences between them.
4. Division of military, civil and court service into 14 ranks. Upon reaching the eighth grade, any official or military man could receive the status of a personal nobleman. Thus, a person's career depended primarily not on his origin, but on achievements in public service.
The place of the former boyars was taken by the “generals”, consisting of the ranks of the first four classes of the “Table of Ranks”. Personal service mixed the representatives of the former tribal nobility with people raised by the service. Peter's legislative measures, without significantly expanding the class rights of the nobility, significantly changed his duties. Military affairs, which in Moscow times was the duty of a narrow class of service people, is now becoming the duty of all sections of the population. The nobleman of the time of Peter the Great still has the exclusive right to land ownership, but as a result of the decrees on uniform inheritance and on revision, he is responsible to the state for the tax serviceability of his peasants. The nobility is obliged to study in order to prepare for the service. Peter destroyed the former isolation of the service class, opening, through the length of service through the Table of Ranks, access to the environment of the gentry to people of other classes. On the other hand, by the law of single inheritance, he opened the exit from the nobility to merchants and the clergy to those who wanted it. The nobility of Russia becomes a military-bureaucratic estate, whose rights are created and hereditarily determined by public service, and not by birth.
Peasantry
Peter's reforms changed the position of the peasants. From different categories of peasants who were not in serfdom from the landlords or the church (black-eared peasants of the north, non-Russian nationalities, etc.), a new single category of state peasants was formed - personally free, but paying dues to the state. The opinion that this measure“destroyed the remnants of the free peasantry” is incorrect, since the population groups that made up the state peasants were not considered free in the pre-Petrine period - they were attached to the land (Council Code of 1649) and could be granted by the tsar to private individuals and the church as serfs. State. peasants in the 18th century had the rights of personally free people (they could own property, act as one of the parties in court, elect representatives to estate bodies, etc.), but were limited in movement and could be (up to early XIX centuries, when this category is finally approved as free people) were transferred by the monarch to the category of serfs. Legislative acts relating to the serfs proper were contradictory. Thus, the interference of landlords in the marriage of serfs was limited (decree of 1724), it was forbidden to put serfs in their place as defendants in court and keep them on the right for the debts of the owners. The norm was also confirmed on the transfer of landowners' estates, who ruined their peasants, to custody, and the serfs were given the opportunity to enroll in soldiers, which freed them from serfdom (by decree of Empress Elizabeth on July 2, 1742, the serfs lost this opportunity). By the decree of 1699 and the verdict of the Town Hall in 1700, peasants engaged in trade or handicraft were granted the right to move into the settlements, freeing themselves from serfdom (if the peasant was in one). At the same time, measures against fugitive peasants were significantly tightened, large masses of palace peasants were distributed to private individuals, and landowners were allowed to recruit serfs. A decree on 7 April 1690 was allowed to yield, for the unpaid debts of "local" serfs, which was effectively a form of serf trading. The taxation of serfs (that is, personal servants without land) with a poll tax led to the merging of serfs with serfs. The church peasants were subordinated to the monastic order and removed from the power of the monasteries. Under Peter, a new category of dependent farmers was created - peasants assigned to manufactories. These peasants in the 18th century were called possessive. By decree of 1721, nobles and merchants-manufacturers were allowed to buy peasants to manufactories to work for them. The peasants bought to the factory were not considered the property of its owners, but were attached to production, so that the owner of the factory could neither sell nor mortgage the peasants separately from the manufactory. Posessional peasants received a fixed salary and performed a fixed amount of work.
Transformations in the sphere of culture
Peter I changed the beginning of the chronology from the so-called Byzantine era (“from the creation of Adam”) to “from the Nativity of Christ”. The year 7208 of the Byzantine era became the year 1700 from the Nativity of Christ, and the New Year began to be celebrated on January 1. In addition, the uniform use of the Julian calendar was introduced under Peter.
After returning from the Great Embassy, Peter I fought against external manifestations"outdated" way of life (the most famous ban on beards), but no less paid attention to the involvement of the nobility in education and secular Europeanized culture. Secular educational institutions began to appear, the first Russian newspaper was founded, translations of many books into Russian appeared. Success in the service of Peter made the nobles dependent on education.
Under Peter in 1703 the first book appeared in Russian with Arabic numerals. Until that date, they were designated by letters with titles (wavy lines). In 1708, Peter approved a new alphabet with a simplified type of letters (the Church Slavonic font remained for printing church literature), the two letters "xi" and "psi" were excluded.
Peter created new printing houses, in which 1312 titles of books were printed in 1700-1725 (twice as many as in the entire previous history of Russian book printing). Thanks to the rise of printing, paper consumption increased from 4,000 to 8,000 sheets at the end of the 17th century to 50,000 sheets in 1719.
There have been changes in the Russian language, which included 4.5 thousand new words borrowed from European languages.
In 1724, Peter approved the charter of the Academy of Sciences being organized (opened in 1725 after his death).
Of particular importance was the construction of stone Petersburg, in which foreign architects took part and which was carried out according to the plan developed by the tsar. He created a new urban environment with previously unfamiliar forms of life and pastime (theatre, masquerades). Has changed interior decoration houses, lifestyle, food composition, etc.
By a special decree of the tsar in 1718, assemblies were introduced, representing a new form of communication between people in Russia. At the assemblies, the nobles danced and mingled freely, unlike earlier feasts and feasts. The reforms carried out by Peter I affected not only politics, economics, but also art. Peter invited foreign artists to Russia and at the same time sent talented young people to study "arts" abroad, mainly to Holland and Italy. In the second quarter of the XVIII century. "Peter's pensioners" began to return to Russia, bringing with them new artistic experience and acquired skills.
On December 30, 1701 (January 10, 1702), Peter issued a decree ordering to write full names in petitions and other documents instead of derogatory half-names (Ivashka, Senka, etc.), do not fall on your knees in front of the king, wear a hat in the cold in winter in front of the house where the king is, do not shoot. He explained the need for these innovations in this way: “Less baseness, more zeal for service and loyalty to me and the state - this honor is characteristic of the king ...”
Peter tried to change the position of women in Russian society. He by special decrees (1700, 1702 and 1724) forbade forced marriage and marriage. It was prescribed that there should be at least six weeks between the betrothal and the wedding, "so that the bride and groom could recognize each other." If during this time, the decree said, “the bridegroom does not want to take the bride, or the bride does not want to marry the groom,” no matter how the parents insisted, “there is freedom.” Since 1702, the bride herself (and not just her relatives) was given the formal right to terminate the betrothal and upset the arranged marriage, and neither side had the right to “beat with a forehead for a penalty”. Legislative prescriptions 1696-1704 about public festivities introduced the obligation to participate in the celebrations and festivities of all Russians, including "female".
Gradually, among the nobility, a different system of values, worldview, aesthetic ideas took shape, which was fundamentally different from the values and worldview of most representatives of other estates.
Education
On January 14, 1700, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences was opened in Moscow. In 1701-1721, artillery, engineering and medical schools were opened in Moscow, an engineering school and a naval academy in St. Petersburg, mining schools at the Olonets and Ural factories. In 1705, the first gymnasium in Russia was opened. The goals of mass education were to be served, created by decree of 1714, by digital schools in provincial cities, called upon "to teach children of all ranks to read and write, numbers and geometry." It was supposed to create two such schools in each province, where education was supposed to be free. Garrison schools were opened for soldiers' children, and a network of theological schools was established to train priests in 1721.
According to the Hanoverian Weber, during the reign of Peter several thousand Russians were sent to study abroad.
Peter's decrees introduced compulsory education for nobles and clergy, but a similar measure for the urban population met with fierce resistance and was canceled. Peter's attempt to create an all-estate elementary school failed (the creation of a network of schools ceased after his death, most of the digital schools under his successors were redesigned into class schools for the training of the clergy), but nevertheless, during his reign, the foundations were laid for the spread of education in Russia.
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History table: Reforms of Emperor Peter I
Peter I is one of the most prominent rulers of the Russian state, who ruled from 1682 to 1721. During his reign, reforms were carried out in many areas, many wars were won, and the foundation for the future greatness of the Russian empire was laid!
Table navigation: Reforms of Peter 1:
| Reforms in the field: | Reform date: | Name of the reform: | The essence of the reform: | Outcomes and significance of the reform: |
| In the army and navy: | 1. Creation of a regular army | The creation of a professional army that replaced the local militia and archery troops. Formation based on recruitment duty | Russia became a great military and naval power and won the Northern War, gaining access to the Baltic Sea | |
| 2. Construction of the first Russian fleet | A regular navy appears | |||
| 3. Training of personnel and officials abroad | Training of military and sailors from foreign professionals | |||
| In the economic sphere: | 1. Militarization of the economy | State support for the construction of metallurgical plants in the Urals. During the period of military difficulties, the bells were melted down into cannons. | An economic base has been created for conducting military operations - strengthening the defense capability of the state | |
| 2. Development of manufactories | Creation of many new manufactories Registration of peasants to enterprises (affiliated peasants) | Industry growth. The number of manufactories increased by 7 times. Russia is becoming one of the leading industrial powers in Europe. There is a creation and modernization of many industries. | ||
| 3. Trade reform | 1. Protectionism - support for your manufacturer; export more goods than import; high customs duties on the import of foreign goods. 1724 - Customs tariff 2. Construction of canals 3. Search for new trade routes | The growth of industry and the flourishing of trade | ||
| 4. Handicraft | Association of artisans in workshops | Improving the quality and productivity of artisans | ||
| 1724 | 5. Tax reform | A poll tax was introduced (was charged from males) instead of a household tax. | Budget growth. Increasing the tax burden on the population | |
| Reforms in the sphere of state and local self-government: | 1711 | 1. Creation of the Governing Senate | 10 people who made up the inner circle of the king. Helped the king in state affairs and replaced the king during his absence | Increasing efficiency government agencies. Strengthening of royal power |
| 1718-1720 | 2. Creation of boards | 11 colleges have replaced many orders. The cumbersome and intricate system of executive power has been put in order. | ||
| 1721 | 3. The adoption of the imperial title by Peter | Increasing the authority of Peter 1 abroad. Discontent of the Old Believers. | ||
| 1714 | 4. Decree on uniform inheritance | He equated estates to estates, nobles to boyars. Property inherited by only one son | The elimination of the division into boyars and nobles. The emergence of the landless nobility (due to the ban on the fragmentation of land between heirs) After the death of Peter 1, it was canceled. | |
| 1722 | 5. Adoption of the Table of Ranks | 14 ranks have been established for officials and the military. Having risen to the 8th rank, the official became a hereditary nobleman | Career opportunities were opened for everyone, regardless of background | |
| 1708 | 6. Regional reform | The country was divided into eight provinces | Strengthening authority local authorities. Putting things in order | |
| 1699 | urban reform | Elective Chamber of Burmese established | Development of local self-government | |
| Church reforms: | 1700 | 1. Liquidation of the patriarchate | The emperor became the de facto head of the Orthodox Church | |
| 1721 | 2. Creation of the Synod | Replaced the patriarch, the composition of the Synod was appointed by the king | ||
| In the field of folk culture and life: | 1. Introduction of European style | Mandatory wearing of European clothes and shaving of beards - tax was introduced for refusal. | Many were dissatisfied, the king was called the Antichrist | |
| 2. Introduction of a new chronology | The chronology from the Nativity of Christ replaced the chronology “from the creation of the world”. The beginning of the year has been moved from September to January. | Instead of 7208, 1700 came. The chronology has been preserved to this day | ||
| 3. Introduction of the civil alphabet | ||||
| 4. Transfer of the capital to St. Petersburg | Peter did not like Moscow with its "rooted antiquity", built a new capital near the sea | A “window to Europe” has been cut. High mortality among the builders of the city | ||
| In the field of education and science: | 1. Education reform | Training of specialists abroad Establishment of schools in Russia Support for book publishing | Improving the quality of education, the number of educated people. Training of specialists. Serfs could not study in public schools | |
| 1710 | 2. Introduction of the civil alphabet | Replaced the old Church Slavonic alphabet | ||
| 3. Creation of the first Russian Museum of the Kunstkamera | ||||
| 1724 | 4. Decree on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences | It was created after the death of Peter 1 |
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The goals of the reforms of Peter I (1682-1725) are the maximum strengthening of the power of the tsar, the growth of the military power of the country, the territorial expansion of the state and access to the sea. The most prominent associates of Peter I are A. D. Menshikov, G. I. Golovkin, F. M. Apraksin, P. I. Yaguzhinsky. |
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military reform. A regular army was created with the help of conscription, new charters were introduced, a fleet was built, equipment in the Western style. |
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Public Administration Reform. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (1711), orders by boards. The "Table of Ranks" was introduced. The decree of succession allows the king to appoint anyone heir to the throne. The capital in 1712 was transferred to St. Petersburg. In 1721, Peter took the imperial title. |
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Church reform. The patriarchate was liquidated, the church began to be controlled by the Holy Synod. The priests were transferred to state salaries. |
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Changes in the economy. Poll tax introduced. Created up to 180 manufactories. State monopolies for various goods have been introduced. Canals and roads are being built. |
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social reforms. The decree on single inheritance (1714) equated estates with estates and forbade them to be divided during inheritance. Passports are introduced for peasants. Serfs and serfs are actually equated. |
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Reforms in the field of culture. Navigation, Engineering, Medical and other schools, the first public theater, the first newspaper Vedomosti, a museum (Kunstkamera), the Academy of Sciences were created. The nobles are sent to study abroad. Western dress for nobles is introduced, beard shaving, smoking, assemblies. |
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Results. Absolutism is finally formed. The military power of Russia is growing. The antagonism between the tops and the bottoms is aggravated. Serfdom begins to acquire slave forms. Top class merged into one nobility. |
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In 1698, the archers, dissatisfied with the worsening conditions of service, rebelled, in 1705-1706. there was an uprising in Astrakhan, on the Don and in the Volga region in 1707-1709. - the uprising of K. A. Bulavin, in 1705-1711. - in Bashkiria. |
The time of Peter the Great is the most important milestone in Russian history. There is an opinion that the reform program matured long before his reign, but if this is so, then Peter went much further than his predecessors. True, he began reforms not when he formally became king (1682) and not when he deposed his sister, Tsarina Sophia, but much later. In 1698, having returned from Europe, he began to introduce new orders: from now on, everyone had to shave their beards or pay a tax. New clothes were introduced (according to the European model). Education was reformed - mathematical schools were opened (foreigners taught in them). In Russia, they began to print scientific books in a new printing house. The army was reformed, the Streltsy regiment was disbanded, and the archers were partly sent to different cities, partly they were transferred to soldiers. Local self-government bodies were created - the Town Hall in Moscow and Zemsky huts in other cities - then they were transformed into magistrates (they collected taxes and duties). The tsar decided important matters himself (received ambassadors, issued decrees). As before, orders continued to exist, as before, their unification went on (in 1711 they were replaced by colleges). Peter tried to simplify and centralize power as much as possible. The church was reformed, its property was received by the monastery order, the income went to the treasury. In 1700, the Northern War began for access to the Baltic. She went with varying success, managed to win back the lands along the Neva River, the fortress of St. Petersburg was founded here - the future capital, for its protection in the north another fortress was built - Krondstadt. The construction of the fleet in the Baltic was founded - at the mouth of the Neva, the Admiralty shipyard was laid. Production was reformed: artisans united in workshops, manufactories were created. Ore mining developed in the Urals. The nobility occupied a special position in society - it owned land and peasants, under Peter its composition changed, it included people from other estates. According to the new rank division - "Table of Ranks", a person who received the 8th rank became a nobleman (14 ranks in total), the service was divided into military and civil. The Boyar Duma was replaced by the Senate (judicial, administrative and judicial power). Since 1711, the service of fiscals appeared (they exercised control over all administrations). The Synod was approved to manage church affairs. Peter divided the country into 8 provinces (power was exercised by the Governor) and 50 provinces. 10/22/1720 - at a meeting of the Senate, Peter I was officially named Emperor, and Russia - an empire. In the last years of his life, Peter changed the rule of inheritance of power, from now on the ruler himself could appoint an heir. Peter died on January 28, 1725 from a long illness.
Peter I and his transformations in the first quarter of the 18th century.
Peter I came to the throne in 1682, began to rule independently from 1694. Historians, arguing about the meaning of what Peter did, are unanimous in the opinion that his reign was an era in Russian history. His activities cannot be explained only by a passion for European orders and hostility to the old Russian way of life. Of course, the personal qualities of the tsar were reflected in the transformations of the beginning of the 18th century: impulsiveness, cruelty, firmness, purposefulness, energy, openness, characteristic of his nature, are also characteristic of his activities. But the reforms had their own objective prerequisites, which by the end of the 17th century. clearly defined.
The reforms were made possible by the processes that gained momentum during the reign of Father Peter I Alexei Mikhailovich. In the socio-economic sphere: the beginning of the formation of a single Russian market, the success of foreign trade, the emergence of the first manufactories, elements of protectionism (protection of domestic production from foreign competition). In the field state structure: the triumph of absolutist tendencies, the termination of the Zemsky Sobors, the improvement of the system of central authorities and administration. In the military sphere: regiments of the "new system", attempts to change the system of recruiting the army. In the field of foreign policy: military and diplomatic activity in the Black Sea and Baltic areas. In the spiritual sphere: the secularization of culture, the strengthening of European influences, including as a result of Nikon's church reforms. The noted changes, significant in themselves, nevertheless did not eliminate the main thing - Russia's lag behind the Western European powers did not decrease. The intolerance of the situation began to be realized, the understanding of the need for reforms became more and more broad. “They were going on the road, but they were waiting for someone, they were waiting for the leader, the leader appeared” (S. M. Solovyov).
The transformations covered all areas of public life - the economy, social relations, the system of power and administration, the military sphere, the church, culture and life. Until the mid 1710s. they were carried out without a clear plan, under the pressure of circumstances, mainly military ones. Then the reforms took on a more holistic character.
Radical changes have taken place in industry. The state in every possible way contributed to the growth of manufactories in metallurgy, shipbuilding, textile, leather, rope, glass production. The centers of the metallurgical industry were the Urals, Lipetsk, Karelia, shipbuilding - St. Petersburg and Voronezh, textile production - Moscow. For the first time in the history of the country, the state took on the role of an active and active participant in economic processes. Large manufacturing enterprises were founded and maintained at the expense of the treasury. Many of them were transferred to private owners on preferential terms. The problem of providing enterprises with a labor force, which was extremely acute under the rule of serfdom and the absence of a free labor market, was solved by the Petrine state by applying the recipe traditional for the serf economy. It assigned peasants or convicts, vagabonds, and beggars to manufactories and assigned to them. A bizarre combination of the new (manufactory production) with the old (serf labor) is a characteristic feature of the Petrine reforms as a whole. Another instrument of state influence on economic development was measures that corresponded to the principles of mercantilism (the doctrine according to which money imported into the country should be more than money exported from it): the establishment of high customs duties on goods produced in Russia, the promotion of exports, the provision of benefits factory owners.
Peter I completely changed the system of state administration. The place of the Boyar Duma, which had not played a significant role since 1700, was taken in 1711 by the Governing Senate, which had legislative, administrative and judicial power. Initially, the Senate consisted of nine people, later the position of Prosecutor General was established. In 1717-1718. orders were liquidated and collegiums were created (at first 10, then their number increased) - Foreign Affairs, Admiralty, Military, Chamber Collegium, Justice Collegium, Manufactory Collegium, etc. Their activities were determined by the General Regulations (1720). Unlike orders, the boards were built on the principles of collegiality, delineation of powers, and strict regulation of activities. Bureaucratic mechanisms were introduced into the public administration system (hierarchy, strict subordination, following instructions, reducing the manager's personality to the level of the function performed by him), which took precedence over the ancient principles of parochialism and generosity. With the adoption of the Table of Ranks (1722), which divided all civil servants - military, civilian and courtiers - into 14 classes and opened up brilliant prospects for advancement to the nobility for people from the social lower classes (an official who received VIII class in civilian service became a hereditary nobleman), bureaucratic the car has finally come together. The involvement of the nobles in public service was supposed to be facilitated by the “Decree on Single Succession” (1714), according to which all lands were inherited only by one of the sons. The reforms of the central government were combined with the introduction of a new territorial division of the country into eight provinces, headed by governors who were subordinate to the monarch and had full authority over the population entrusted to them. Later, the provincial division was supplemented by a division into 50 provinces headed by governors. The transformation of the church into an element of the state apparatus corresponded to the spirit and logic of the transformations. In 1721, Peter created the Holy Synod, headed by a secular chief prosecutor, to manage church affairs.
The most important element of the transformation was the introduction of a recruiting system for completing the army. The recruit was sent for lifelong military service from a certain number of peasants and other tax-paying estates. In 1699-1725. 53 recruits were carried out for the army and the navy, which was created by Peter - a total of more than 200 thousand people. The regular army was subject to uniform military regulations and instructions.
The maintenance of the army, the construction of manufactories, an active foreign policy required a lot of money. Until 1724, more and more taxes were introduced: on a beard, smoke, a bath, honey, stamped paper, etc. In 1724, after the census of the population, the male population of the tax-paying estates was subject to a per capita tax. Its size was determined simply: the amount of expenses for the maintenance of the army and navy was divided by the number of adult men and the desired figure was displayed.
The above transformations are not exhausted (for culture and way of life, see ticket number 10, for foreign policy - ticket number 11). Their main goals are clear: Peter sought to Europeanize Russia, overcome the backlog, create a regular, effective state, make the country a great power. These goals have been largely achieved. The proclamation of Russia as an empire (1721) can be considered a symbol of success. But behind the brilliant imperial façade, serious contradictions were hidden: the reforms were carried out by force, relying on the punitive power of the state apparatus, due to the most severe exploitation of the population. Absolutism was established, and its main support was the overgrown bureaucratic apparatus. The lack of freedom of all classes intensified - the nobility, subject to the strict guardianship of the state, including. The cultural split of Russian society into a Europeanized elite and a mass of the population alien to the new values has become a reality. Violence was recognized as the main engine of the country's historical development.
- Palace coups, their socio-political essence and consequences.
- Culture and life of the peoples of Russia in the XVIII century (enlightenment and science, architecture, sculpture, painting, theater).