Classicism

Classicism(from Latin classicus - exemplary) - the artistic style of European art of the 17th-19th centuries, one of the most important features of which was the appeal to ancient art as the highest model and reliance on the traditions of the high Renaissance. The art of classicism reflected the ideas of the harmonious structure of society, but in many respects lost them in comparison with the culture of the Renaissance. The conflicts of the individual and society, ideal and reality, feelings and reason testify to the complexity of the art of classicism. The artistic forms of classicism are characterized by strict organization, balance, clarity and harmony of images.

A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art.

At the head of the direction is the Paris Academy of Arts, which owns the creation of a set of artificial dogmatic rules and supposedly unshakable laws of the composition of the picture. This Academy also established rationalistic principles for depicting emotions (“passions”) and the division of genres into “high” and “low”. The “high” genres included historical, religious and mythological genres, while the “low” genres included portrait, landscape, everyday genre, and still life.

As a certain direction, it was formed in France in the 17th century. French classicism freed a person from religious and church influence, asserting the individual as the highest value of being. Russian classicism not only adopted the Western European theory, but also enriched it with national characteristics.

Classicism was formed as an antagonistic direction in relation to the magnificent and virtuoso art of the Baroque. But when, in the second half of the 17th century, classicism became the official art of the absolutist monarchy, it absorbed elements of the baroque. This manifested itself in the architecture of Versailles, in the work of the painter Ch. Lebrun, the sculptures of F. Girardon, and A. Coisevox.

In the middle of the 18th century, against the backdrop of the enlightenment movement, on the eve of the French Revolution, a new direction of classicism arose, opposing itself to the art of the Rococo and the work of epigones - academicians. A feature of this trend was the manifestation of the features of realism, the desire for clarity and simplicity, the reflection of the educational ideal of “natural humanity”.

The period of late classicism - Empire - falls on the first third of the 19th century. It is distinguished by splendor and splendor, expressed in architecture and applied art. This period is distinguished as independent.

AT painting Classicism acquired the main importance of the logical deployment of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, with the help of chiaroscuro the subordinate role of color, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, K. Lorrain). Clear

The demarcation of plans in landscapes was also revealed with the help of color: the foreground had to be brown, the middle one - green, and the far one - blue.

At the beginning of the 17th century, young foreigners flocked to Rome to get acquainted with the heritage of antiquity and the Renaissance. The most prominent place among them was occupied by the Frenchman Nicolas Poussin, in his paintings, mainly on the themes of ancient antiquity and mythology, who gave unsurpassed examples of geometrically accurate composition and thoughtful correlation of color groups. The themes of Poussin's canvases are diverse: mythology, history, the New and Old Testament. The heroes of Poussin are people of strong characters and majestic deeds, a high sense of duty to society and the state. The public purpose of art was very important to Poussin. All these features are included in the emerging program of classicism. Another Frenchman, Claude Lorrain, in his antiquated landscapes of the environs of the "eternal city" streamlined the pictures of nature by harmonizing them with the light of the setting sun and introducing peculiar architectural scenes.

The discovery of “genuine” ancient painting during the excavations of Pompeii, the deification of antiquity by the German art historian Winckelmann, and the cult of Raphael, preached by the artist Mengs, who was close to him in terms of views, in the second half of the 18th century breathed new breath into classicism (in Western literature this stage is called neoclassicism). The largest representative of the "new classicism" was Jacques-Louis David; his extremely laconic and dramatic artistic language served with equal success to promote the ideals of the French Revolution ("Death of Marat") and the First Empire ("Dedication of Emperor Napoleon I").

In the 19th century, classicism painting enters a period of crisis and becomes a force holding back the development of art, not only in France, but also in other countries. The artistic line of David was successfully continued by Ingres, while maintaining the language of classicism in his works, he often turned to romantic subjects with an oriental flavor; his portrait work is marked by a subtle idealization of the model. Artists in other countries (such as Karl Bryullov) also imbued classically shaped works with the spirit of reckless romanticism; this combination is called academism. Numerous art academies served as its breeding grounds.

Sculpture of the era of classicism is distinguished by rigor and restraint, coherence of forms, calmness of poses, when even movement does not violate formal isolation (E. Falcone, J. Houdon).

The impetus for the development of classical sculpture in the middle of the 18th century was the works of Winckelmann and archaeological excavations of ancient cities, which expanded the knowledge of contemporaries about ancient sculpture. On the verge of baroque and classicism, such sculptors as Pigalle and Houdon fluctuated in France. Classicism reached its highest embodiment in the field of plastic art in the heroic and idyllic works of Antonio Canova, who drew inspiration mainly from the statues of the Hellenistic era (Praxiteles). In Russia, Fedot Shubin, Mikhail Kozlovsky, Boris Orlovsky, Ivan Martos gravitated towards the aesthetics of classicism.

Public monuments, which became widespread in the era of classicism, gave sculptors the opportunity to idealize the military prowess and wisdom of statesmen. Loyalty to the ancient model required sculptors to depict models naked, which was in conflict with accepted norms.

Morals. To resolve this contradiction, the figures of modernity were at first depicted by sculptors of classicism in the form of naked ancient gods: Under Napoleon, the issue was resolved by moving to the image of modern figures in ancient togas (such are the figures of Kutuzov and Barclay de Tolly in front of the Kazan Cathedral).

Private customers of the era of classicism preferred to perpetuate their names in tombstones. The popularity of this sculptural form was facilitated by the arrangement of public cemeteries in the main cities of Europe. In accordance with the classical ideal, the figures on tombstones, as a rule, are in a state of deep rest. Sculpture of classicism is generally alien to sharp movements, external manifestations of such emotions as anger.

Late, Empire classicism, represented primarily by the prolific Danish sculptor Thorvaldsen, is imbued with a rather dry pathos. The purity of lines, the restraint of gestures, the impassivity of expressions are especially valued. In the choice of role models, the emphasis shifts from Hellenism to the archaic period. Religious images are coming into fashion, which, in the interpretation of Thorvaldsen, make a somewhat chilling impression on the viewer. The tomb sculpture of late classicism often bears a slight touch of sentimentality.

main feature architecture classicism was an appeal to the forms of ancient architecture as a standard of harmony, simplicity, rigor, logical clarity and monumentality. The architecture of classicism as a whole is characterized by the regularity of planning and the clarity of volumetric form. The order, in proportions and forms close to antiquity, became the basis of the architectural language of classicism. Classicism is characterized by symmetrical axial compositions, restraint of decorative decoration, and a regular system of city planning.

The architectural language of classicism was formulated at the end of the Renaissance by the great Venetian master Palladio and his follower Scamozzi.

The most significant interiors in the style of classicism were designed by the Scot Robert Adam, who returned to his homeland from Rome in 1758. He was greatly impressed by both the archaeological research of Italian scientists and the architectural fantasies of Piranesi. In the interpretation of Adam, classicism was a style that was hardly inferior to rococo in terms of sophistication of interiors, which gained him popularity not only among democratically minded circles of society, but also among the aristocracy. Like his French colleagues, Adam preached a complete rejection of details devoid of a constructive function.

The architects of Napoleonic France drew inspiration from the majestic images of military glory left by imperial Rome, such as the triumphal arch of Septimius Severus and Trajan's Column. By order of Napoleon, these images were transferred to Paris in the form of the triumphal arch of Carruzel and the Vendôme column. In relation to the monuments of military greatness of the era of the Napoleonic wars, the term "imperial style" - Empire style is used. In Russia, Karl Rossi, Andrey Voronikhin and Andrey Zakharov showed themselves to be outstanding masters of the Empire style. In Britain, the Empire corresponds to the so-called. "Regency style" (the largest representative is John Nash).

The aesthetics of classicism favored large-scale urban development projects and led to the ordering of urban development on the scale of entire cities. In Russia, almost all provincial and many county towns were replanned in

Compliance with the principles of classic rationalism. Such cities as St. Petersburg, Helsinki, Warsaw, Dublin, Edinburgh and a number of others have turned into genuine open-air museums of classicism. Throughout the space from Minusinsk to Philadelphia, a single architectural language, dating back to Palladio, dominated. Ordinary building was carried out in accordance with the albums of standard projects.

Literature. The French poet Francois Malherbe (1555-1628), who reformed the French language and verse and developed poetic canons, is considered the founder of the poetics of classicism. The leading representatives of classicism in dramaturgy were the tragedians Corneille and Racine (1639-1699), whose main subject of creativity was the conflict between public duty and personal passions. "Low" genres also reached high development - fable (J. La Fontaine), satire (Boileau), comedy (Molière 1622-1673).

Classicism of the 18th century developed under the influence of the ideas of the Enlightenment. The work of Voltaire (1694-1778) is directed against religious fanaticism, absolutist oppression, filled with the pathos of freedom. The goal of creativity is to change the world for the better, to build society itself in accordance with the laws of classicism. From the positions of classicism, the Englishman Samuel Johnson surveyed contemporary literature, around whom a brilliant circle of like-minded people formed.

In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calms", which was essentially an adaptation of French classical rules to the Russian language. The images in classicism are devoid of individual features, as they are intended primarily to capture stable generic features that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.

Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been the focus of attention of Russian classic writers. Therefore, in Russian classicism, genres that imply a mandatory authorial assessment of historical reality have received great development: comedy (D. I. Fonvizin), satire (A. D. Kantemir), fable (A. P. Sumarokov, I. I. Khemnitser), ode (Lomonosov, G. R. Derzhavin).

Alexey Tsvetkov.
Classicism.
Classicism is an artistic style of speech and an aesthetic trend in the literature of the 17th-18th centuries, which was formed in France in the 17th century. The founder of classicism is Boileau, in particular his work "Poetic Art" (1674). Boileau was based on the principles of harmony and proportionality of parts, logical harmony and conciseness of composition, simplicity of plot, clarity of language. In France, the "low" genres - the fable (J. Lafontaine), satire (N. Boileau) - reached special development. The flourishing of classicism in world literature was the tragedies of Corneille, Racine, Molière's comedies, La Fontaine's fables, La Rochefoucauld's prose. In the era of enlightenment, the work of Voltaire, Lessing, Goethe and Schiller is associated with classicism.

The most important features of classicism:
1. Appeal to the images and forms of ancient art.
2. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative.
3. The plot is based, as a rule, on a love triangle: the heroine is the hero-lover, the second lover.
4. At the end of a classic comedy, vice is always punished and good triumphs.
5. The principle of three unities: time (action lasts no more than a day), place, action.

The aesthetics of classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres:
1. "High" genres - tragedy, epic, ode, historical, mythological, religious picture.
2. "Low" genres - comedy, satire, fable, genre painting. (The exception is the best comedies of Moliere, they were assigned to the "high" genres)

In Russia, classicism originated in the first half of the 18th century. The first writer to use classicism was Antioch Cantemir. In Russian literature, classicism is represented by the tragedies of Sumarokov and Knyazhnin, the comedies of Fonvizin, the poetry of Kantemir, Lomonosov, Derzhavin. Pushkin, Griboyedov, Belinsky criticized the "rules" of classicism.
The history of the emergence of Russian classicism according to V.I. Fedorov:
1. Literature of the time of Peter the Great; it is of a transitional nature; the main feature - an intensive process of "secularization" (that is, the replacement of religious literature with secular literature - 1689-1725) - the prerequisites for the emergence of classicism.
2. 1730-1750 - these years are characterized by the formation of classicism, the creation of a new genre system, and the in-depth development of the Russian language.
3. 1760-1770 - the further evolution of classicism, the flowering of satire, the emergence of prerequisites for the emergence of sentimentalism.
4. The last quarter of a century - the beginning of the crisis of classicism, the design of sentimentalism, the strengthening of realistic tendencies
a. Direction, development, inclination, aspiration.
b. Concept, idea of ​​presentation, images.

Representatives of classicism attached great importance to the educational function of art, striving in their works to create images of heroes worthy of imitation: resistant to the harshness of fate and the vicissitudes of life, guided in their actions by duty and reason. Literature created the image of a new man who was confident that he needed to live for the good of society, to be a citizen and a patriot. The hero penetrates the secrets of the universe, becomes an active creative nature, such literary works turn into a textbook of life. Literature posed and solved the burning questions of its time, helped readers figure out how to live. By creating new heroes, diverse in character, representing different classes, the writers of classicism made it possible for the next generation to find out how the people of the 18th century lived, what worried them, what they felt.

test

1. Characteristics of classicism as a trend in art

Classicism - artistic direction in art and literature of the 17th - early 19th centuries. In many ways, he opposed the baroque with its passion, volatility, inconsistency, asserting his principles.

Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism, which were formed simultaneously with those in the philosophy of Descartes. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, "should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself" . Of interest to classicism is only the eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual features. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art (Aristotle, Horace).

Classicism establishes a strict hierarchy of genres, which are divided into high (ode, tragedy, epic) and low (comedy, satire, fable). Each genre has strictly defined features, mixing of which is not allowed.

Classicism appeared in France. Two stages can be distinguished in the formation and development of this style. The first stage dates back to the 17th century. For the classics of this period, works of ancient art were unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, where the ideal was order, rationality, harmony. In their works, they sought beauty and truth, clarity, harmony, and completeness of construction. Second stage, 18th century. It entered the history of European culture as the Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason. Man attached great importance to knowledge and believed in the ability to explain the world. The main character is a person who is ready for heroic deeds, subordinating his interests to the general, spiritual impulses to the voice of reason. He is distinguished by moral steadfastness, courage, truthfulness, fidelity to duty. The rational aesthetics of classicism is reflected in all forms of art.

The architecture of this period is characterized by orderliness, functionality, proportionality of parts, a tendency to balance and symmetry, clarity of ideas and constructions, and strict organization. From this point of view, the symbol of classicism is the geometric layout of the royal park at Versailles, where trees, shrubs, sculptures and fountains were located according to the laws of symmetry. The standard of Russian strict classics was the Tauride Palace, built by I. Starov.

In painting, the logical unfolding of the plot, a clear balanced composition, a clear transfer of volume, the subordinate role of color with the help of chiaroscuro, the use of local colors (N. Poussin, C. Lorrain, J. David) acquired the main importance.

In poetic art, there was a division into "high" (tragedy, ode, epic) and "low" (comedy, fable, satire) genres. Outstanding representatives of French literature P. Corneille, F. Racine, J.B. Moliere had a great influence on the formation of classicism in other countries.

An important moment of this period was the creation of various academies: sciences, painting, sculpture, architecture, inscriptions, music and dance.

The art style classicism (from Latin classicus Ї “exemplary”) arose in the 17th century in France. Based on the ideas of regularity, the rationality of the world order, the masters of this style "sought for clear and strict forms, harmonious patterns, the embodiment of high moral ideals." They considered the works of ancient art to be the highest, unsurpassed examples of artistic creativity, therefore they developed ancient plots and images. Classicism in many ways opposed the Baroque with its passion, variability, inconsistency, asserting its principles in various types of art, including music. In 18th century opera classicism is represented by the works of Christoph Willibald Gluck, who created a new interpretation of this type of musical and dramatic art. The pinnacle in the development of musical classicism was the work of Joseph Haydn,

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Ludwig van Beethoven, who worked mainly in Vienna and formed the Viennese classical scale in the musical culture of the second half of the 18th - early 19th centuries. Classicism in music is in many ways not similar to classicism in literature, theater or painting. In music it is impossible to rely on ancient traditions - they are almost unknown. In addition, the content of musical compositions is often associated with the world of human feelings, which are not amenable to strict control of the mind. However, the composers of the Viennese school created a very harmonious and logical system of rules for constructing a work. Thanks to such a system, the most complex feelings were clothed in a clear and perfect form. Suffering and joy became for the composer a subject of reflection, not experience. And if in other types of art the laws of classicism already at the beginning of the 19th century. seemed outdated to many, then in music the system of genres, forms and rules of harmony developed by the Viennese school retains its significance to this day.

Antique origins of classicism architecture in France in the era of absolutism

The beginning of French classicism is associated with the construction of the church of St. Genevieve in Paris, the simplified form of which testifies to the emergence of a new aesthetic approach. It was designed in 1756. Jacques Germain Soufflot (1713-1780)...

Art in the cultural system

Directions, trends and styles in art are a kind of "visiting cards" that mark the intense spiritual life of each era, the constant search for beauty, its ups and downs...

Art of Ancient Russia

Having adopted Christianity from Byzantium, Russia naturally adopted certain foundations of culture. But these foundations were reworked and acquired in Russia their specific, deeply national forms...

Art and Culture in the Late 19th and Early 20th Centuries: Futurism, Dadaism, Surrealism, Abstract Art and Others

Culture of the 20th century

Avant-garde - (fr. avant-garde - "vanguard") - a set of diverse innovative movements and trends in the artistic culture of modernism in the first third of the 20th century: futurism, dadaism, surrealism, cubism, suprematism, fauvism, etc...

Culture of Belarus in 1954-1985.

Since the second half of the 50s. a new stage began in the development of Belarusian music, characterized by a deeper assimilation of the essence and the rejection of illustrativeness. M. Aladov, L. Abelievich, G. Butvilovskiy, Y. Glebov, A...

Culture and art of the 17th–19th centuries

The nature of labor has changed significantly: manufactory has developed successfully, which entailed a division of labor, which led to fairly high successes in material production ...

Culture and Art of Ancient Babylon

culture art babylon Babylon, the famous ancient city in Mesopotamia, the capital of Babylonia; located on the Euphrates River, 89 km south of modern Baghdad and north of Hilla. In the ancient Semitic language it was called "Bab-ilu"...

In the second half of the 18th century, classicism established itself as the dominant trend in the artistic culture of St. Petersburg. This was facilitated by his mastery of Russian literature in the 1940s and 1950s...

The achievements of the portrait genre in sculpture are primarily associated with the work of F.I. Shubin (Fig. 1). After graduating from the Academy of Arts in the class of Gillet with a large gold medal...

Petersburg in the second half of the 18th century. Russian Enlightenment

Shchedrin F.F. studied at the Academy of Arts, was a pensioner in Italy and France, where he lived for 10 years (1775 - 1785). Performed by him in Paris in 1776, "Marsyas" is full of a tragic worldview. Here the influence is not only of antiquity ...

The artistic culture of France in the era of classicism

Classicism is one of the most important trends in the art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities...

CLASSICISM, one of the most important areas of art of the past, an artistic style based on normative aesthetics, requiring strict adherence to a number of rules, canons, unities. The rules of classicism are of paramount importance as a means to ensure the main goal - to enlighten and instruct the public, referring it to sublime examples. The aesthetics of classicism reflected the desire for the idealization of reality, due to the rejection of the image of a complex and multifaceted reality. In theatrical art, this direction has established itself in the work, first of all, of French authors: Corneille, Racine, Voltaire, Molière. Classicism had a great influence on the Russian national theater (A.P. Sumarokov, V.A. Ozerov, D.I. Fonvizin and others).Historical roots of classicism. The history of classicism begins in Western Europe at the end of the 16th century. In the 17th century reaches its highest development, associated with the flowering of the absolute monarchy of Louis XIV in France and the highest rise of theatrical art in the country. Classicism continues to fruitfully exist in the 18th - early 19th centuries, until it was replaced by sentimentalism and romanticism.. As an artistic system, classicism finally took shape in the 17th century, although the very concept of classicism was born later, in the 19th century, when an irreconcilable war of romance was declared on it.

"Classicism" (from the Latin "

classicus ”, i.e. "exemplary") assumed a stable orientation of the new art to the antique way, which did not at all mean a simple copying of antique samples. Classicism carries out continuity with the aesthetic concepts of the Renaissance, which were oriented towards antiquity.

Having studied the poetics of Aristotle and the practice of the Greek theater, the French classics proposed the rules of construction in their works, based on the foundations of rationalistic thinking of the 17th century. First of all, this is strict observance of the laws of the genre, the division into higher genres - ode, tragedy, epic and lower ones - comedy, satire.

The laws of classicism were most characteristically expressed in the rules for constructing a tragedy. From the author of the play, first of all, it was required that the plot of the tragedy, as well as the passions of the characters, be believable. But the classicists have their own understanding of plausibility: not just the similarity of what is depicted on the stage with reality, but the consistency of what is happening with the requirements of reason, with a certain moral and ethical norm.

The concept of a reasonable predominance of duty over human feelings and passions is the basis of classicism aesthetics, which differs significantly from the concept of a hero adopted in the Renaissance, when complete freedom of the individual was proclaimed, and man was declared the “crown of the universe”. However, the course of historical events disproved these ideas. Overwhelmed by passions, a person could not decide, find support. And only in serving society, a single state, the monarch, who embodied the strength and unity of his state, could a person express himself, assert himself, even at the cost of abandoning his own feelings. The tragic conflict was born on a wave of colossal tension: ardent passion collided with an inexorable duty (unlike

Greek tragedy of fatal predestination, when the will of man turned out to be powerless). In the tragedies of classicism, reason and will were decisive and suppressed spontaneous, poorly controlled feelings.Hero in the tragedies of classicism. The classicists saw the veracity of the characters' characters in strict subordination to internal logic. The unity of the character of the hero is the most important condition for the aesthetics of classicism. Summarizing the laws of this direction, the French author N. Boileau-Depreo in his poetic treatise poetic art , claims:

Let your hero be carefully thought out,
May he always be himself.

The one-sidedness, the inner static nature of the hero does not, however, exclude the manifestation of living human feelings on his part. But in different genres, these feelings manifest themselves in different ways, strictly according to the chosen scale - tragic or comic. N. Boileau says about the tragic hero:

The hero, in whom everything is small, is only suitable for a novel,
May he be brave, noble,
But still, without weaknesses, he is not nice to anyone ...
He cries from resentment - a useful detail,
So that we believe in its plausibility ...
So that we crown you with enthusiastic praise,
We should be excited and touched by your hero.
From unworthy feelings let him be free
And even in weaknesses he is mighty and noble.

To reveal the human character in the understanding of the classicists means to show the nature of the action of eternal passions, unchanged in their essence, their influence on the fate of people.Basic rules of classicism. Both high genres and low ones were obliged to instruct the public, to elevate its morals, to enlighten feelings. In tragedy, the theater taught the spectator resilience in the struggle of life, the example of a positive hero served as a model of moral behavior. The hero, as a rule, a king or a mythological character was the main character. The conflict between duty and passion or selfish desires was necessarily resolved in favor of duty, even if the hero died in an unequal struggle.

In the 17th century the idea became dominant that only in serving the state does a person acquire the possibility of self-affirmation. The flowering of classicism was due to the assertion of absolute power in France, and later in Russia.

The most important norms of classicism - the unity of action, place and time - follow from those substantive premises that were discussed above. In order to more accurately convey the idea to the viewer and inspire selfless feelings, the author did not have to complicate anything. The main intrigue should be simple enough so as not to confuse the viewer and not deprive the picture of integrity. The demand for unity of time was closely connected with the unity of action, and many different events did not occur in the tragedy. The unity of place has also been interpreted in different ways. It could be the space of one palace, one room, one city, and even the distance that the hero could cover within twenty-four hours. Particularly bold reformers decided to stretch the action for thirty hours. The tragedy must have five acts and be written in Alexandrian verse (iambic six-foot).

Excites the visible more than the story,
But what can be tolerated by the ear, sometimes cannot be tolerated by the eye.

(N. Boileau) The authors. The pinnacle of classicism in tragedy was the works of French poets P. Corneille ( Sid , Horace, Nycomedes), who was called the father of French classical tragedy and J. Racine ( Andromache, Iphigenia, Phaedra, Atholiy). With their work, these authors during their lifetime caused heated debate about the incomplete observance of the rules regulated by classicism, but perhaps it was the digressions that made the works of Corneille and Racine immortal. About French classicism in its best examples, A.I. Herzen wrote: “... a world that has its limits, its limitations, but also has its strength, its energy and high grace ...”.

Tragedy, as a demonstration of the norm of a person's moral struggle in the process of self-affirmation of the personality, and comedy, as an image of deviation from the norm, showing the absurd and therefore ridiculous aspects of life - these are the two poles of the artistic understanding of the world in the theater of classicism.

About the other pole of classicism, comedy, N. Boileau wrote:

If you want to become famous in comedy,
Choose nature as your teacher...
Know the townspeople, study the courtiers;
Between them consciously look for characters.

In comedies, observance of the same canons was required. In the hierarchically ordered system of dramatic genres of classicism, comedy occupied the place of a low genre, being the antipode of tragedy. It was addressed to that sphere of human manifestations, where reduced situations operated, the world of everyday life, self-interest, human and social vices reigned. The comedies of J-B. Molière are the pinnacle of comedies of classicism.

If the pre-Moliere comedy sought mainly to amuse the viewer, introducing him to the elegant salon style, then the Moliere comedy, absorbing carnival and laughter beginnings, at the same time contained the truth of life and the typical authenticity of the characters. However, the theoretician of classicism N. Boileau, paying tribute to the great French comedian as the creator of "high comedy", at the same time blamed him for turning to farcical and carnival traditions. The practice of the immortal classicists again turned out to be broader and richer than theory. Otherwise, Moliere is faithful to the laws of classicism - the character of the hero, as a rule, is focused on one passion. Encyclopedist Denis Diderot credited Molière with stingy and Tartuffe the playwright “recreated all the mean and tartuffes of the world. The most common, most characteristic features are expressed here, but this is not a portrait of any of them, so none of them recognize themselves. From the point of view of realists, such a character is one-sided, devoid of volume. Comparing the works of Molière and Shakespeare, A.S. Pushkin wrote: “Moliere's miser is mean and nothing more; in Shakespeare, Shylock is stingy, quick-witted, vindictive, child-loving, witty.

For Molière, the essence of comedy consisted mainly in the criticism of socially harmful vices and in the optimistic belief in the triumph of human reason ( Tartuffe

, Stingy , misanthrope, Georges Danden). Classicism in Russia. During its existence, classicism has evolved from the court-aristocratic stage, represented by the work of Corneille and Racine, to the enlightenment period, already enriched by the practice of sentimentalism (Voltaire). A new take-off of classicism, revolutionary classicism, occurred during the period of the French Revolution. This direction was most clearly expressed in the work of F.M. Talma, as well as the great French actress E. Rachel.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered to be the creator of the canon of Russian classical tragedy and comedy. Frequent visits to the performances of European troupes, which toured in the capital in the 1730s, contributed to the formation of Sumarokov's aesthetic taste, his interest in the theater. Sumarokov's dramatic experience was not a direct imitation of French models. Sumarokov's perception of the experience of European drama occurred at the moment when in France classicism entered the last, enlightening stage of its development. Sumarokov followed, basically, Voltaire. Infinitely devoted to the theatre, Sumarokov laid the foundations for the repertoire of the Russian stage of the 18th century, creating the first samples of the leading genres of Russian classic dramaturgy. He wrote nine tragedies and twelve comedies. The laws of classicism are also observed by Sumarokov's comedy. “To laugh without reason is the gift of a vile soul,” said Sumarokov. He became the founder of the social comedy of manners with its inherent moralizing didacticism.

The pinnacle of Russian classicism is the work of D.I. Fonvizin ( Brigadier

, Undergrowth), the creator of a truly original national comedy, who laid the foundations of critical realism within this system.Theatrical school of classicism. One of the reasons for the popularity of the comedy genre is a closer connection with life than in tragedy. “Choose nature as your mentor,” N. Boileau instructs the author of the comedy. Therefore, the canon of the stage embodiment of tragedy and comedy within the framework of the artistic system of classicism is as different as these genres themselves.

In the tragedy, depicting lofty feelings and passions and affirming the ideal hero, appropriate expressive means were assumed. It is a beautiful solemn pose, as in a painting or sculpture; enlarged, ideally completed gestures depicting generalized high feelings: love Passion, Hatred, Suffering, Triumph, etc. The sublime plasticity corresponded to the melodious recitation, percussive accents. But the outer sides should not obscure, according to the theoreticians and practitioners of classicism, the content side, showing the clash of thoughts and passions of the heroes of the tragedy. During the heyday of classicism, a coincidence of external form and content took place on the stage. When the crisis of this system came, it turned out that within the framework of classicism it was impossible to show a person's life in all its complexity. And

a certain cliché was established on the stage, prompting the actor to frozen gestures, postures, cold recitation.

In Russia, where classicism appeared much later than in Europe, outwardly formal clichés became obsolete much faster. Along with the flourishing of the theater of "gestures", recitation and "singing", the direction is actively asserting itself, calling for the words of the realist actor Shchepkin - "to take samples from life."

The last surge of interest in the tragedy of classicism on the Russian stage occurred during the Patriotic War of 1812. The playwright V. Ozerov created a number of tragedies on this topic, using mythological plots. They were successful due to their consonance with modernity, reflecting the colossal patriotic upsurge of society, and also thanks to the brilliant play of the tragic actors of St. Petersburg E.A. Semenova and A.S. Yakovlev.

In the future, the Russian theater focused mainly on comedy, enriching it with elements of realism, deepening the characters, expanding the scope of the normative aesthetics of classicism. A great realistic comedy by A.S. Griboyedov was born from the bowels of classicism Woe from Wit (1824). Ekaterina Yudina LITERATURE Derzhavin K. Theater of the French Revolution 1789–1799, 2nd ed. M., 1937
Danilin Yu. The Paris Commune and the French Theater. M., 1963
Literary Manifestos of Western European Classicists. M., 1980

Classicism as a trend in art originated in France at the end of the 17th century. In his treatise "Poetic Art" Boileau outlined the basic principles of this literary trend. He believed that a literary work is created not by feelings, but by reason; Classicism is generally characterized by the cult of reason, caused by the conviction that only an enlightened monarchy, absolute power, can change life for the better. As in the state there should be a strict and clear hierarchy of all branches of power, so in literature (and in art) everything should be subject to uniform rules, strict order.

Translated from Latin, classicus means exemplary or first class. Classical writers were modeled on ancient culture and literature. The French classics, having studied the poetics of Aristotle, determined the rules of their works, which they later adhered to, and this became the basis for the formation of the main genres of classicism.

Classification of genres in classicism

Classicism is characterized by a strict division of literary genres into high and low.

• Ode - a work of praise and praise in poetic form;
• Tragedy is a dramatic work with a harsh ending;
• The heroic epic is a narrative story about the events of the past, which shows the whole picture of time as a whole.

The heroes of such works could only be great people: kings, princes, generals, noble nobles who devote their lives to serving the fatherland. In the first place they have not personal feelings, but civic duty.

Low Genres:

• Comedy is a dramatic work that ridicules the vices of society or a person;
• Satire is a type of comedy, distinguished by its sharpness of narration;
• A fable is a satirical work of an instructive nature.

The heroes of these works were not only representatives of the nobility, but also commoners, servants.

Each genre had its own writing rules, its own style (the theory of three styles), it was not allowed to mix high and low, tragic and comic.

The students of the French classics, diligently adopting their standards, spread classicism throughout Europe. The most prominent foreign representatives are: Molière, Voltaire, Milton, Corneille and others.

The main features of classicism

• Classicist authors drew inspiration from the literature and art of ancient times, from the works of Horace, Aristotle, thus the basis was the imitation of nature.
• The works were built on the principles of rationalism. Clarity, clarity and consistency are also characteristic features.
• The construction of images is determined by common features for time or era. Thus, each character is a thoughtful personification of a period of time or a layer of society.
• A clear division of heroes into positive and negative. Each hero embodies some one main feature: nobility, wisdom or stinginess, meanness. Often the characters have "talking" surnames: Pravdin, Skotinin.
• Strict adherence to the hierarchy of genres. Correspondence of style to genre, prevention of mixing different styles.
• Compliance with the rule of "three unities": place, time and action. All events take place in one place. The unity of time means that all events fit into a period of no more than a day. And the action - the plot was limited to one line, one problem, which was discussed.

Features of Russian classicism

A. D. Kantemir

Like European, Russian classicism adhered to the basic rules of direction. However, he did not become just a follower of Western classicism - supplemented by his national spirit of originality, Russian classicism became an independent trend in fiction with its own features and characteristics:

Satirical direction - genres such as comedy, fable and satire, telling about specific phenomena of Russian life (Kantemir's satires, for example, "On those who blaspheme the teaching. To their own mind", Krylov's fables);

• Classicist authors instead of antiquity took as a basis the national-historical images of Russia (the tragedies of Sumarokov "Dmitry the Pretender", "Mstislav", Knyazhnin's "Rosslav", "Vadim Novgorodsky");
• The presence of patriotic pathos in all the works of this time;
• The high level of development of the ode as a separate genre (odes of Lomonosov, Derzhavin).

The founder of Russian classicism is considered to be A. D. Kantemir with his famous satires, which had political overtones and more than once became the cause of fierce disputes.

V. K. Trediakovsky did not particularly excel in the artistry of his works, but he had a lot of works in the literary direction as a whole. He is the author of such concepts as "prose" and "poetry". It was he who conditionally divided the works into two parts and was able to give them definitions, substantiated the system of syllabic-tonic versification.

A.P. Sumarokov is considered the founder of the dramaturgy of Russian classicism. He is considered the "father of the Russian theater" and the creator of the national theater repertoire of that time.

One of the brightest representatives of Russian classicism is M. V. Lomonosov. In addition to a huge scientific contribution, Mikhail Vasilievich carried out a reform of the Russian language and created the doctrine of the "three calms".

D. I. Fonvizin is considered the creator of Russian everyday comedy. His works "Foreman" and "Undergrowth" still have not lost their significance and are studied in the school curriculum.

G. R. Derzhavin is one of the last major representatives of Russian classicism. He was able to inscribe vernacular into strict rules in his works, thereby expanding the scope of classicism. He is also considered the first Russian poet.

The main periods of Russian classicism

There are several divisions into periods of Russian classicism, but, summarizing, they can be reduced to the main three:

1. 90 years of the XVII century - 20 years of the XVIII century. Also called the Petrine era. During this period, as such, there are no Russian works, and translated literature is actively developing. This is where Russian classicism originates as a result of reading translated works from Europe. (F. Prokopovich)
2. 30-50 years of the XVII century - a bright surge of classicism. There is a clear genre formation, as well as reforms in the Russian language and versification. (V. K. Trediakovsky, A. P. Sumarokov, M. V. Lomonosov)
3. The 60-90s of the 18th century are also called the Catherine era or the Age of Enlightenment. Classicism is the main one, but at the same time, the emergence of sentimentalism is already observed. (D. I. Fonvizin, G. R. Derzhavin, N. M. Karamzin).