Foreign policy of the USSR 1953 1964 briefly
Main directions foreign policy in 1953–1964
The Cold War (economic, political and ideological confrontation between the USSR and the USA), which began in the mid-1940s, continued during the reign of N.S. Khrushchev (1953–1964). The dual nature of the foreign policy of the USSR in this period was clearly manifested in the fact that, taking the initiative of "peaceful coexistence" of powers with different political systems, the Soviet leadership, at the same time, continued to escalate the arms race. Another important reality of this time is the struggle of the USSR for the strengthening and expansion of the socialist camp. The collapse of the colonial system, which began in the late 1940s, led to the emergence on the world stage of many new states, the so-called "Third World" countries. The country's leadership believed that by providing support to these states, it was possible to expand the foothold of socialism. The victory of the Cuban revolution of 1959 aroused a lot of enthusiasm. On the other hand, after Stalin was exposed, the prestige of the Soviet Union was undermined, it was no longer considered absolute truth in the creation of a new society. Summarizing, we can say that the foreign policy of N.S. Khrushcheva was as controversial and impulsive as the personality of this leader.
Immediately after the death of I.V. Stalin, voices began to be heard in the top party leadership of the country that a further escalation of the confrontation with the United States was dangerous for the whole world. Term "detente" in relation to reducing the level of military confrontation between the USSR and the USA was first used by G.M. Malenkov in August 1953., discussing the Soviet Union's successful testing of the world's first hydrogen bomb, developed by a team of scientists headed by A.D. Sakharov and V.L. Ginzburg.
In the spirit of settling international contradictions, the USSR, with the support of the PRC, made efforts in the spring and summer of 1953 to normalize the situation on the Korean Peninsula. On July 27, 1953, a ceasefire agreement was signed between the DPRK (North Korea) and the Republic of Korea. In March 1954, Malenkov declared that "the war in modern conditions means the death of world civilization. Although he was removed from the political leadership, N.S. Khrushchev shared his position regarding the policy of "peaceful coexistence".
In September 1955, German Chancellor K. Adenauer visited Moscow. Installed diplomatic relations between Germany and the USSR. In 1956 Soviet Union restored diplomatic relations with Japan.
In September 1959, the first visit of the leader of the USSR to the USA in the history of Soviet-American relations took place. In addition to negotiations with President D. Eisenhower, N.S. Khrushchev made a report at a meeting of the UN General Assembly, in which he declared the need for "general and complete disarmament." The USSR and the USA signed a bilateral moratorium on nuclear explosions in the atmosphere. In May 1960, the leaders of the USA, USSR, Great Britain and France were to meet in Vienna to settle the Berlin question. West Berlin was not part of East Germany, and through it the influence of the capitalist countries was carried out, and the emigration of citizens of the GDR to the West also went on. But the meeting broke down, as on May 1, 1960 Soviet forces Air defense over Sverdlovsk was shot down by an American reconnaissance aircraft. The cooling of relations led to the Berlin Crisis of 1961.
In August 1961 N.S. Khrushchev urged the German communists to take action against the "subversion" of West Berlin. In 10 days, around the territory of West Berlin, a wall from reinforced concrete and barbed wire, which has become long years symbol of the division of Germany and " cold war". In October 1961 N.S. Khrushchev announced that the USSR was unilaterally waiving the moratorium on nuclear explosions in the atmosphere.
The climax of this confrontation was the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The Cuban Missile Crisis that brought the world to the brink nuclear war, occurred in October 1962 and was caused by the deployment of Soviet atomic weapons in Cuba. In response, President J.F. Kennedy was a naval blockade of Cuba and a demand to withdraw Soviet missiles from the island. AT combat readiness not only the armed forces of the USSR and the USA were brought in, but also the troops of NATO and the Department of Internal Affairs. The world was on the verge of nuclear conflict. In his memoirs, N.S. Khrushchev wrote: "The Caribbean crisis is an adornment of our foreign policy, including mine, as a member of the collective that pursued this policy and achieved brilliant success for Cuba without firing a single shot." The great powers came to the edge of the abyss, but managed to stop in time. Through intensive negotiations between Khrushchev and Kennedy and the willingness of both leaders to compromise, a peace deal was reached. The USSR removed its missiles from Cuba, while the United States guaranteed its safety and removed its medium-range missiles from Italy and Turkey.
A new thaw in relations began. In August 1963, the leaders of the USSR and the USA put their signatures under the test ban treaty nuclear weapons in the atmosphere, under water and in space. The first step has been taken on the long road to abolishing nuclear weapons. At the beginning of 1964, the memorandum of the Soviet government "On measures aimed at weakening the arms race and easing international tension" was published. Despite a significant improvement in relations with the West and numerous disarmament initiatives, Khrushchev understood "peaceful coexistence" as new form struggle, rivalry between the two systems (“...Catch up and overtake America!”), in which any methods are acceptable. Therefore, it is impossible to talk about mutually beneficial and long-term cooperation in that period.
As mentioned above, the Soviet authorities considered the strengthening and expansion of the socialist camp as one of the forms of confrontation between East and West. After the death of I.V. Stalin in March 1953 in the countries of Eastern Europe tension began to build. The peoples of these states hoped for an easing political regime, and the old party nomenclature was afraid of losing power. N.S. Khrushchev believed that in order to preserve the socialist camp, the “countries of people's democracy”, just like the USSR, needed some liberalization. De-Stalinization began in all Eastern European countries. Under these conditions, the Western countries also sought to strengthen their unity. In October 1954, the USA, Great Britain and France agreed to the restoration of the armed forces of the FRG. At the same time, Germany was admitted to NATO. Placement of American military bases (Turkey - 1952, Germany - 1955) near Soviet borders added to the USSR cause for concern. The danger of Germany's participation in NATO also consisted in the fact that West Germany refused to recognize the post-war borders with Czechoslovakia and Poland. The Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD), created by the socialist countries led by the USSR in May 1955, provided for the establishment of the Joint Command of the Armed Forces and a unified border protection system of the socialist countries.
In addition, in the summer of 1955, N.S. Khrushchev restored relations with Yugoslavia, recognizing that the country could choose its own path of transition to socialism, moving away from the Soviet experience. Soft position N.S. Khrushchev in relation to Yugoslavia aroused hope in other Eastern European countries that the time of Soviet diktat was ending for them too.
Anti-Soviet sentiments were especially strong in Poland and Hungary. Demonstrations of many thousands demanded "Freedom!", "Down with communism!", "God!", "Bread!". With regard to Poland, the crisis was overcome peacefully. By agreeing to recognize the leader of the PUWP (Polish United Workers' Party), popular in society, V. Gomulka, the Soviet authorities somewhat weakened control over political life Poland and recalled to Moscow, appointed in 1945 by the Minister of National Defense of Poland, the Soviet Marshal K.K. Rokossovsky.
In Hungary, the situation is out of control. The popular uprising that began in October 1956 led to the threat of Hungary leaving the orbit of the political influence of the USSR and gaining true independence. The Soviet leadership could not allow this. On November 4, 1956, the Soviet Armed Forces launched Operation Whirlwind to "restore order in Hungary." The Hungarian uprising was drowned in blood, and the puppet government of J. Kadar was placed at the head of the country.
Thus, speaking of liberalization and “peaceful coexistence” with the West, N.S. Khrushchev in no way allowed the thought of the collapse of the socialist camp. On the contrary, he sought to use the collapse of the world colonial system to increase the number of socialist countries. During these years, at all international meetings, the Soviet leader spoke as a consistent supporter of granting independence to the colonies. At the 1954 Geneva Conference on Indochina, the USSR achieved the withdrawal of French troops from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia and the recognition of their independence. Established in 1945 in northern Vietnam, the DRV ( Democratic Republic Vietnam) led by Ho Chi Minh enjoyed all the support of the Soviet Union. Since 1956, the USSR initiated the adoption in the UN whole group young states. The Suez crisis of 1956, when Great Britain and France supported the Israeli aggression against Egypt, and the Soviet Union, by its firm position in the UN, achieved the withdrawal of foreign troops from the Suez Canal, further strengthened the authority of the USSR among the developing countries. In 1959, the USSR supported the revolution in Cuba (in 1961, the leader of the Cuban revolution, F. Castro, began socialist transformations), and in 1961, the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement. The Soviet authorities developed political and trade contacts with Iran, Syria, Afghanistan, India, Egypt and other young states. And the government that announced the choice of the "socialist path of development" could count on gratuitous economic and military support from the USSR.
At the same time, criticism of Stalin's personality cult led to an aggravation of relations between the USSR and China. Chairman of the Communist Party of China Mao Zedong in 1960 accused the leadership of the Central Committee of the CPSU of "revisionism", and himself - the only one after the death of I.V. Stalin's authority in matters of building socialism. In response to N.S. Khrushchev recalled Soviet specialists from China, and reduced economic aid USSR to China. Mao Zedong presented the USSR with territorial claims, border conflicts began. China was supported by Albania, which by 1961 had withdrawn from the CMEA and the Warsaw Pact.
Relations with the West.
In the 1950s, the thesis of the peaceful coexistence of socialist and capitalist states prevailed in the USSR. Given the existence of nuclear weapons, this thesis seemed the most reasonable. It was enshrined in the materials of the XX Congress of the CPSU in 1956. At the congress, Head of State Khrushchev named the conditions for ensuring peace on the planet: the creation of a system collective security and disarmament.
However, mutual distrust still existed between the USSR and the West. Both sides preferred to conduct foreign policy from a position of strength. And the arms race continued.
In 1956 Khrushchev announced a change military doctrine USSR: transition from mass application troops on the battlefield to a nuclear missile confrontation. In 1957, the USSR passed successful trials the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. Large-scale equipment has begun missile weapons ground forces, air defense and air force forces, the construction of a powerful nuclear missile submarine fleet. In this area, the Soviet Union by the beginning of the 60s managed to achieve priority over the United States.
The Soviet Union often used its temporary military superiority in negotiations with Western countries, preferring a tough stance over compromise. This increased the tension in the world. The year 1961 turned out to be very dramatic. In July, Khrushchev's meeting with US President John F. Kennedy in Vienna ended in failure. Relations with the West worsened even more in August, when the famous Berlin Wall was erected, which became a symbolic border between the two political systems. In September, the USSR unilaterally abandoned the agreement with the United States on a moratorium on nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and carried out a series of nuclear testing. All these actions were accompanied by the threat of using nuclear missiles.
But the most dangerous was the Caribbean crisis that erupted in 1962. The reason for the crisis was the decision of the USSR to deploy medium-range nuclear missiles in Cuba. The United States responded by preparing an invasion of Cuba. The world is on the brink of nuclear war. At the last moment, Khrushchev and Kennedy managed to find a compromise, and a nuclear war was avoided. Both sides agreed to withdraw their missiles: the Soviet Union from Cuba and the US from military bases in Turkey. In addition, the United States guaranteed the security of Cuba.
The Caribbean crisis became the apogee of the confrontation between the West and the USSR. After that, a period of relative detente began in East-West relations. This became possible thanks to the mutual trust that emerged between Khrushchev and Kennedy. But after the death of Kennedy in 1963 and the removal of Khrushchev in 1964, this process was interrupted.
Relations with socialist countries.
One of major areas Soviet foreign policy was to support the allied states in Europe, Asia, Cuba.
In 1955, a military-political bloc of socialist countries headed by the USSR was created - the Warsaw Pact Organization. The agreement was signed by eight countries of Eastern and Central Europe - the USSR, the GDR, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania, Albania. The parties to the Treaty pledged to provide each other with mutual military assistance in the event of external aggression.
The socialist countries of Europe enthusiastically greeted the thesis of the 20th Congress of the CPSU on the diversity of forms of transition to socialism. In some allied states began the process of de-Stalinization and democratization.
In 1956, demonstrations and strikes of workers took place in Poland. As a result of these speeches, the leadership of the country changed here. To suppress the speeches, the Soviet leadership was ready to send troops to Poland, but the new Polish leadership managed to resolve the situation.
In the same 1956, an uprising broke out in Hungary. The leading Labor Party was sharply criticized, including for its pro-Soviet orientation. Soviet troops entered the territory of Hungary, which suppressed the uprising.
So the USSR showed that it could use weapons to protect socialism and its influence in the countries of Eastern Europe.
Relations with the Third World.
One of the outcomes of World War II was the collapse of colonial empires. In the countries of the "third world" the national liberation movement was growing. The 20th Congress of the CPSU called him one of the leading forces of the revolutionary process in the world. The Soviet leadership took vigorous measures to draw the newly-liberated countries into its orbit.
In 1955 Khrushchev and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR Bulganin made visits to India, Burma, and Afghanistan. In subsequent years, negotiations were held with the leaders of more than 30 developing countries, more than 20 cooperation agreements were signed. Developing countries were given broad economic and military aid, the Soviet leadership did everything to persuade the countries of the "third world" to its side and direct their development along the socialist path. The result of this policy was the intensification of the confrontation between the USSR and the USA. Western countries called these actions of the USSR "Soviet expansion" and launched a coordinated struggle against it.
64. Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953–1964
A new concept of foreign policy was formulated by N.S. Khrushchev at the XX Congress of the CPSU in 1956. It included:
Recognition of the multi-variant ways of building socialism;
The thesis about the need for peaceful coexistence of states with different systems (non-interference in each other's internal affairs, peaceful settlement of disputes, development of mutually beneficial cooperation, etc.);
At the same time, the old principle of "proletarian internationalism" (support for the international communist and national liberation movement) was preserved; - "the continuation of the ideological struggle against the capitalist worldview."
Relations with the countries of the socialist camp.
AT 1955 relations with Yugoslavia were normalized. The USSR refused reparations from the GDR and reduced the costs of East Germans for the maintenance of Soviet troops in Germany. Within the framework of the CMEA, the Druzhba oil pipeline and the Mir energy system were built to supply Soviet energy carriers to the countries of Eastern Europe. The economy of the socialist camp developed dynamically. In 1960, the CMEA countries, which had only 18% of the territory and 10% of the population the globe, produced 28% of world production.
Organization of the Warsaw Pact. AT 1955 in Warsaw, the USSR, the GDR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania and Albania signed Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance(Warsaw Pact). arose Warsaw Pact Organization(ATS) - military-defensive alliance of socialist countries. The supreme body of the ATS is the Political Consultative Committee. Within the framework of the ATS, the following operated: the Joint Command of the Armed Forces of the States Parties to the Treaty, the Military Council, the Headquarters of the Joint Armed Forces and the Committee of Defense Ministers. Yugoslavia refused membership in the union, later Albania withdrew from it. AT 1956 was abolished Cominformburo. Instead, they regularly met International Conferences of Communist and Workers' Parties.
The exposure of Stalinism in the USSR led to a crisis of pro-Stalinist governments in Eastern Europe. In June 1953, Soviet troops took part in the suppression of popular uprisings in the GDR. At the same time, 54 Germans died.
Crisis in Poland 1956 . Relations with the USSR have always been difficult for the Poles. After the death of Stalin's protege, 1st Secretary of the Polish United Workers' Party (PUWP) B. Beruta in 1956 workers' unrest broke out in the city of Poznań. The new leader of Poland was independent from the USSR AT.gomý lka(1905–1982). Khrushchev did not dare to send troops to Poland and accepted the demands of the Poles:
1. Return to the USSR the Minister of Defense of Poland appointed by Stalin K. K. Rokossovsky.
Revolution in Hungary 1956 After the XX Congress of the CPSU in Budapest in 1956, mass anti-Stalinist and anti-Soviet demonstrations began. The people demanded the establishment of a democratic system, the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Hungary. Stalinist leader of the Hungarian communists M. Rakoshi resigned. The demonstrators demolished the monument to Stalin and captured Budapest. Anti-Soviet minded was appointed head of the Hungarian government Imre Nagy(1896–1958). On November 1, 1956, Nagy announced that Hungary was withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact and declared its neutrality. He appealed to the UN with a request to protect the sovereignty of Hungary. After that, by order of N.S. Khrushchev entered Budapest soviet tanks. During the stubborn battles of November 4–7, 1956, the resistance of the Hungarian rebels was crushed. Killed 2.5 thousand Hungarians and 720 Soviet troops. 200 thousand Hungarians fled to the West. The UN General Assembly condemned the Soviet intervention in Hungary.
Nagy took refuge in the Yugoslav embassy, but was fraudulently lured out of there and returned to Hungary through Romanian territory. In 1958, Nagy was hanged "for high treason." The new government was headed by a loyal to the USSR Janos Kadar(1912–1989).
Soviet-Chinese relations. At first, relations with China were of a friendly nature in accordance with the slogan popular in those years, “Russian and Chinese are brothers forever!”. In 1955, the USSR returned the Port Arthur (Lushun) naval base to China, assisted in the creation of the leading branches of the military-industrial complex - nuclear, space-rocket, aviation, etc. The Soviet side handed over to China technical documentation on atomic weapons.
But after the 20th Congress of the CPSU, Soviet-Chinese relations worsened. Chinese leader Mao Zedong negatively perceived the debunking of Stalin's personality cult. Mao criticized the course proclaimed by the 20th Congress for the peaceful coexistence of the two systems. The leadership of the PRC dreamed of atomic weapons, in 1956 Mao Zedong called for "having our own atomic bomb." In 1957, at a meeting of communist and workers' parties in Moscow, Mao spoke with the theory of "the usefulness of thermonuclear war for the world revolution" that horrified the leaders of the socialist countries: "We should not be afraid nuclear war... If half of humanity is destroyed, then half will remain, but imperialism will be completely destroyed, and there will be only socialism in the whole world, and in half a century or a whole century the population will again grow by more than half.”
In 1958, after an unsuccessful meeting between Khrushchev and Mao Zedong, their relationship deteriorated sharply. The PRC accused the USSR of "revisionism and betrayal of the interests of the world proletariat." In 1959, the USSR stopped economic assistance to China, and Soviet nuclear specialists were recalled from the PRC. China independently continued to create atomic bomb. On October 16, 1964, the first Chinese nuclear explosion was carried out at the Lop Nor test site, which one of the leaders of China - Zhou Enlai called "a farewell salute to Khrushchev."
USSR and Albania. In Albania, an authoritarian regime was entrenched (leader - Enver Xó ja). Albania, dissatisfied with the criticism of Stalin's personality cult, broke off diplomatic relations with the USSR in 1961 and withdrew from the CMEA and the Warsaw Pact.
Relations with Western countries.
During the "thaw" there was an improvement in relations with the West. In 1953, the USSR abandoned the demands put forward by Stalin to Turkey on the introduction of "joint defense of the Black Sea straits", in 1955 signed an agreement on the restoration of neutral Austria and the withdrawal of Soviet troops from it.
USSR and Japan. In 1956, at the Soviet-Japanese negotiations, Japan demanded the return of the four islands of the Kuril chain, transferred to the USSR by decision of the Potsdam Conference. These claims have so far clouded relations between the two states.
Germany problem. Berlin Crisis. In 1955, in Geneva, at a meeting of representatives of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France, Moscow recognized the FRG. In the same year, in Moscow, the German Chancellor K. Adená ware signed an agreement on the establishment of diplomatic relations between the USSR and the FRG. But the issue of the status of West Berlin was not resolved, which was an enclave in the center of the GDR, which was under the control of the Western powers. In 1958, Khrushchev proposed declaring West Berlin a "free city" that was not part of the FRG. At Khrushchev's meeting and US President D. Kennedy in 1961 the Western side rejected Khrushchev's proposal. In order to prevent the flight of citizens of the GDR to the west in August 1961 on the initiative of the head of the GDR W. Ulbricht(in agreement with the USSR) a concrete wall was erected around West Berlin. Thus, the Potsdam agreements, which provided for free movement throughout the city, were violated. This increased the tension, American and Soviet tanks appeared on the border of the two Berlins. The Soviet side was the first to withdraw their tanks on the orders of Khrushchev. The Berlin Wall existed until 1989 and became a symbol of the Cold War, the split of Europe into warring blocs.
Relations between the USSR and the USA were ambiguous. In 1959, the visit of N.S. Khrushchev in the USA. In 1960, at the UN General Assembly in New York, Khrushchev proposed a plan for general disarmament: to liquidate armies and navies, to leave states with only police forces. The Assembly rejected this plan. Then the USSR unilaterally reduced its Armed Forces from 5.8 million in 1955 to 2.5 million in 1960 and declared a moratorium on nuclear testing. AT 1963 The USSR, the USA and England signed in Moscow an agreement "On the prohibition of nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, outer space and under water." Khrushchev, being a man of mood, quick-tempered, inexperienced in diplomacy, and in ordinary etiquette, was often not shy in expressions. He threatened the Americans: “We will bury you!” He pounded his shoe on the table during the meeting General Assembly UN. In 1959, Khrushchev told the Vice President of the United States R. Nixon: "We will show you Kuz'kin's mother!". (This phrase caused translation problems in English).
Worsened Soviet-American relations was the fact that on May 1, 1960, Soviet air defense destroyed an American spy plane over the Urals. Pilot F. Powers ejected and was arrested. Khrushchev staged a high-profile trial of Powers in the Hall of Columns. This scandal disrupted D. Eisenhower's visit to the USSR. (Later, F. Powers was exchanged for the Soviet intelligence officer R. Abel).
Cuban Revolution of 1959 and the Caribbean crisis of 1962. In 1959, the regime was overthrown in Cuba F. Batista, the leader of the rebels came to power Fidel Ká strict He set about building socialism. In 1961, the Communist Party of Cuba was founded, diplomatic relations between Cuba and the United States were severed. The USSR provided economic and military assistance to Cuba free of charge.
The peak of the confrontation between East and West was the "Caribbean" ("missile", or "Cuban") crisis. Soviet leadership on request F. Castro adopted an adventurous decision to create a nuclear missile base in Cuba, 160 km away. off the coast of the United States (in response to the deployment of American nuclear missiles"Thor" in Turkey in 1959). At that time, the ratio of the nuclear forces of the USSR and the USA was 1 to 17. The appearance of our missiles in Cuba practically balanced the degree of nuclear risk for both countries. In 1962, a traitor - Colonel of the GRU (Main Intelligence Directorate) of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR O. Penkó vsky revealed these plans. There was a panic in the USA. The Soviet side denied the fact of deploying missiles. Then, at the UN, the Americans launched a photo exhibition of the deployment of Soviet missiles in Cuba. President D. Kennedy announced a blockade of Cuba. On October 22, 1962, the armed forces of the United States and NATO, on the one hand, and the Armed Forces of the USSR and the Department of Internal Affairs, on the other, were put on full alert. Kennedy and Khrushchev exchanged sharp threatening messages. The world was on the brink of nuclear war. Then the parties agreed to a compromise. The USSR dismantled the missiles in Cuba, the US withdrew the Tor missiles from Turkey and guaranteed the security of Cuba. Thus the crisis was settled.
Relations with Third World States. Suez Crisis . In the second half of the 1950s-early 1960s. the collapse of the colonial system. The USSR sought to direct the countries freed from colonial dependence along the socialist path of development. The countries of the "third" world were provided with economic and military assistance. The USSR provided military assistance to the rebels during the conflicts in Algeria (1962-1964), Yemen (1962-1963). Intensive Soviet assistance was received by India, Indonesia, Burma, Syria, Iraq, Egypt, Algeria, Congo and others.
Egypt after the revolution in 1953 was proclaimed a republic, in 1956 British troops were withdrawn from the country. Government G. A. Nasser nationalized the British and French-controlled Suez Canal. In response, in 1956 Britain, France and Israel launched an aggression against Egypt. G.A. Nasser signed an agreement on the supply of Soviet weapons. The Soviet government threatened to use force and demanded an end to the aggression. The ultimatum had an effect, and foreign troops left Egypt. The authority of the USSR Arab world increased sharply. In 1964, in Egypt, Soviet specialists built the Aswan Dam on the Nile River.
Thus, The foreign policy of the USSR (like the USA) was strongly ideologized, which kept the world on the brink of disaster.
The results of the leadership of N. S. Khrushchev difficult to assess unambiguously.
Positive aspects of the activities of N. S. Khrushchev:
In domestic politics: - condemnation of the personality cult of I. V. Stalin;
The beginning of the rehabilitation of victims of Stalinist repressions;
Issuance of passports to collective farmers;
Beginning of payments to collective farmers of state pensions.
In foreign policy: -promotion of the concept of peaceful coexistence of states with different social systems;
Restoration of friendly relations with Yugoslavia.
Negative aspects of N.S. Khrushchev:
In domestic politics: -unsuccessful administrative reform, which led to confusion and the growth of the bureaucracy;
Scale cuts Armed Forces when hundreds of thousands of officers were thrown to the mercy of fate;
Destruction of household plots of collective farmers;
the adoption of a utopian program to build communism by 1980;
The persecution of the creative intelligentsia, the restriction of the "thaw".
In foreign policy: -Caribbean crisis;
Suppression of popular unrest in the GDR, Poland, Hungary.
The “Khrushchev decade” gave rise to adventurous initiatives, ill-conceived reforms, economic miscalculations, and eventually led to a crisis in the beginning. 1960s The people are tired of Khrushchev's struggle for a "bright future" with the deterioration of real life.
The inconsistency of the 10-year reign of N.S. Khrushchev symbolizes the monument on his grave at the Novodevichy cemetery. Sculptor's headstone E. Unknown, consists of white and black marble slabs, symbolizing both positive and negative episodes of Khrushchev's leadership.
Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964.
Foreign policy of the USSR in 1945-1953.
The international situation in the post-war period was determined by the beginning of the Cold War. Having concentrated during the years of the war gigantic financial resources, The United States has made a breakthrough in the military, economic, scientific fields. Already in 1945 ᴦ. President Truman, in his message to Congress, spoke of the vital importance of ruling the world.
In March 1946 ᴦ. W. Churchill, in the presence of H. Truman, delivered a famous speech at the American College in Fulton. He called for the unification of the countries of the West, primarily in military area, against the ʼʼcommunist threatʼʼ emanating from the USSR and controlled by it communist parties Europe. There was a call to maintain a monopoly on the possession and use of atomic weapons. At the same time already in 1949 ᴦ. nuclear weapons were tested in the USSR.
To strengthen economic cooperation in the socialist camp in 1949 ᴦ. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) was created, at first it included the USSR, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Victory in 1949 ᴦ. revolution in China strengthened the position of the USSR in Asia and the Far East.
In 1948-1949 he. the Berlin crisis erupted. The USSR made an attempt to block Western countries' access to West Berlin, setting the condition for renouncing the blockade to renounce the creation of a West German state. At the same time, the division of Germany into two states - the FRG and the GDR - could not be prevented. The creation of ᴦ in 1949 contributed to the tension. military-political bloc NATO, which included the leading Western powers.
The peak of the aggravation of relations between the USSR and the USA fell on the Korean War (1950-1953). The USSR and China supported the pro-Soviet North Korea, USA - South. Soviet military specialists and US troops sent to assist the South Korean government engaged in direct combat clashes. Nevertheless, a large-scale war was avoided. July 27, 1953 ᴦ. A truce was signed that ended the conflict.
After Stalin's death, a turn took place in Soviet foreign policy, expressed in the recognition of the possibility of peaceful coexistence of the two systems, the granting of greater independence to the socialist countries, and the establishment of broad contacts with third world states. In 1954 ᴦ. Khrushchev, Bulganin and Mikoyan visited China, during which the parties agreed to expand economic cooperation. In 1955 ᴦ. Soviet-Yugoslav reconciliation took place. The easing of tension between East and West was the signing of the treaty with Austria by the USSR, USA, Great Britain and France. The USSR was withdrawing its troops from Austria. Austria pledged to remain neutral. In June 1955 ᴦ. in Geneva, the first meeting after Potsdam of the leaders of the USSR, the USA, Great Britain and France, which, however, did not lead to the conclusion of any agreement. In September 1955 ᴦ. During the visit of the USSR, German Chancellor Adenauer, diplomatic relations were established between the two countries.
In 1955 ᴦ. The USSR, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and the GDR signed a defensive Warsaw Pact.
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The countries pledged to resolve conflicts arising between them by peaceful means, to cooperate in actions to ensure the peace and security of peoples, to consult on international affairs affecting their common interests. Joint armed forces and a common command were created to direct their activities. A Political Consultative Committee was formed to coordinate foreign policy actions. Speaking at the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev emphasized the importance of international detente and recognized the diversity of ways to build socialism. De-Stalinization in the USSR had a contradictory effect on the socialist countries. In October 1956 ᴦ. In Hungary, an uprising broke out aimed at establishing a democratic regime in the country. This attempt was suppressed by the armed forces of the USSR and other countries of the Warsaw Pact. Beginning in 1956, a split in Soviet-Chinese relations arose. The Chinese communist leadership, led by Mao Zedong, was unhappy with the criticism of Stalin and the Soviet policy of peaceful coexistence. Mao Zedong's opinion was shared by the leadership of Albania.
In relations with the West, the USSR proceeded from the principle of peaceful coexistence and simultaneous economic competition between the two systems, which in the long term, according to the Soviet leadership, should have led to the victory of socialism throughout the world. In 1959 ᴦ. The first visit of a Soviet leader to the United States took place. N. S. Khrushchev was received by President D. Eisenhower. On the other hand, both sides actively developed the arms program. In 1953 ᴦ. The USSR announced the creation of a hydrogen bomb in 1957 ᴦ. successfully tested the world's first intercontinental ballistic missile. The launch of the Soviet satellite in October 1957 ᴦ. in this sense, literally shocked the Americans, who realized that from now on their cities are within reach Soviet missiles. Early 60s. turned out to be especially stressful.
First, the flight of an American spy plane over the territory of the USSR was interrupted in the Yekaterinburg region by a precise missile hit. The visit strengthened the international prestige of the USSR. At the same time, West Berlin remained an acute problem in relations between East and West. In August 1961, the GDR government erected a wall in Berlin, violating the Potsdam agreements. the tense situation in Berlin continued for several more years. The deepest after 1945 ᴦ. a crisis in the relations of the great powers arose in the autumn of 1962 ᴦ. it was caused by the deployment of Soviet missiles capable of carrying atomic weapon, in Cuba. After negotiations, the Cuban Missile Crisis was settled. The easing of tension in the world led to the conclusion of a number of international treaties, incl. agreement 1963 ᴦ. in Moscow on the prohibition of nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere, space and under water. AT short time more than a hundred states joined the Moscow Treaty. The expansion of political and economic ties with other countries, the development of personal contacts between heads of state led to a short-term softening of the international situation.
The most important tasks of the USSR in the international arena were: the speedy reduction military threat and the end of the Cold War, expansion international relations, strengthening the influence of the USSR in the world as a whole. This could be achieved only through the implementation of a flexible and dynamic foreign policy based on a powerful economic and military potential (primarily nuclear).
Positive shift in international environment, which has been emerging since the mid-1950s, has become a reflection of the process of formation of new approaches to solving complex international problems accumulated over the first post-war decade. The updated Soviet leadership (since February 1957 ᴦ. for 28 years A.A. Gromyko was the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR) assessed Stalin's foreign policy as unrealistic, inflexible and even dangerous.
Much attention was paid to the development of relations with the states of the "third world" ( developing countries) India, Indonesia, Burma, Afghanistan, etc.
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The Soviet Union assisted them in the construction of industrial and agricultural facilities (participation in the construction of a metallurgical plant in India, the Aswan Dam in Egypt, etc.). During the stay of N.S. Khrushchev as head of state with the financial and technical assistance of the USSR was built in different countries there are about 6000 enterprises in the world.
In 1964 ᴦ. the policy of reforms carried out by N.S. Khrushchev. The transformations of this period were the first and most significant attempt to reform Soviet society. The desire of the country's leadership to overcome the Stalinist legacy, to renew the political and social structures only partially succeeded. The transformations carried out on the initiative from above did not bring the expected effect. The deterioration of the economic situation caused dissatisfaction with the reform policy and its initiator N.S. Khrushchev. In October 1964 ᴦ. N.S. Khrushchev was relieved of all his posts and dismissed.
Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Foreign policy of the USSR in 1953-1964." 2017, 2018.
The 20th Congress of the CPSU put forward new provisions in the field of foreign policy: I) on the possibility of preventing a new world war; 2) about the peaceful coexistence of two socio-economic systems, socialist and capitalist; 3) about the diversity of ways to build socialism. At the same time, the post-Stalin leadership remained a supporter of an irreconcilable ideological struggle on the world stage, constantly conducted "anti-imperialist propaganda", supported the communist and national liberation movements in every possible way, believed in the triumph of communism throughout the world, and strove to expand its spheres of influence.
The priority direction of Soviet foreign policy was the strengthening of the socialist camp. First of all, relations with Yugoslavia were settled. In 1955, a military-political organization was created - the Warsaw Pact, which, in addition to the USSR, included Bulgaria, Hungary, the GDR, Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Albania (the latter left the bloc in 1962). The Soviet Union supported the Cuban Revolution (1959) and gained an ally 90 miles from the US coast. In the east, Soviet policy was aimed at strengthening relations with North Vietnam. The processes taking place in the USSR in the 1950s painfully affected some countries Eastern bloc. In 1956, a struggle for power unfolded in Poland, accompanied by an increase in anti-Soviet sentiment.
To "restore order" had to resort to a show of force: Soviet tanks were moved to Warsaw. In the same year, a powerful popular uprising against the communist regime took place in Hungary. It was suppressed Soviet troops with tanks and artillery. West Berlin was separated from East Berlin in 1961 by a wall that became a symbol of the Cold War. Relations with China and Albania became more complicated, which opposed the decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU, especially against the criticism of Stalin. The leadership of China, headed by Mao Zedong, began to claim leadership in the international communist and national movements, put forward demands for a change in the Soviet-Chinese border.
One of the main directions of Soviet foreign policy was the normalization of relations with capitalist countries. In 1954 (after a five-year break) a meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, the USA, England and France was held. In 1955, diplomatic relations were established with the FRG. In 1959, N. S. Khrushchev visited the United States, the result of this visit was a cooperation agreement. The state of affairs complicated the behavior of the Soviet leader, his statements addressed to the Western audience, such as: "We will bury you", a hooligan act at the session of the UN General Assembly in 1960. At the same time, there were also forces in the United States that were not interested in normalizing the Soviet American connections. This was evidenced by the provocative flight of the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft over the territory of the USSR (1960). The development of events did not lead to a relaxation of international tension, but to an acute international crisis called Caribbean. In 1962, the USSR, in agreement with F. Castro, deployed its missiles in Cuba.
In response, the Americans set up a blockade of the island. The situation came close to a nuclear missile war. It was avoided thanks to tense Soviet-American negotiations. The resolution of the crisis was the signing of international treaties: on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, the prohibition of their testing in water, atmosphere, space (1963).
The Soviet Union supported the regimes that came to power as a result of revolutions in Egypt (1952), Iraq (1958), Yemen (1962). Trips by party and government delegations to India, Burma, Afghanistan contributed to the strengthening Soviet influence in these countries.