On the day of the 70th anniversary of the testing of the first Soviet atomic bomb, Izvestia publishes unique photographs and memories of eyewitnesses of the events that took place at the Semipalatinsk test site. New materials shed light on the environment in which scientists created a nuclear device - in particular, it became known that Igor Kurchatov used to hold secret meetings on the banks of the river. Also extremely interesting are the details of the construction of the first reactors for the production of weapons-grade plutonium. It is impossible not to note the role of intelligence in accelerating the Soviet nuclear project.

Young but promising

The need for the speedy creation of Soviet nuclear weapons became apparent when, in 1942, it became clear from intelligence reports that scientists in the United States had made great progress in nuclear research. Indirectly, this was also indicated by the complete cessation of scientific publications on this topic back in 1940. Everything indicated that work on creating the most powerful bomb in the world was in full swing.

On September 28, 1942, Stalin signed a secret document "On the organization of work on uranium."

The young and energetic physicist Igor Kurchatov was entrusted with the leadership of the Soviet atomic project., who, as his friend and colleague Academician Anatoly Alexandrov later recalled, "has long been perceived as the organizer and coordinator of all work in the field of nuclear physics." However, the very scale of those works that the scientist mentioned was then still small - at that time in the USSR, in Laboratory No. 2 (now the Kurchatov Institute) specially created in 1943, only 100 people were engaged in the development of nuclear weapons, while in the USA about 50 thousand specialists worked on a similar project.

Therefore, work in Laboratory No. 2 was carried out at an emergency pace, which required both the supply and creation of the latest materials and equipment (and this in wartime!), And the study of intelligence data, which managed to get some information about American research.

- Exploration helped speed up the work and reduce our efforts for about a year, - said Andrey Gagarinsky, adviser to the director of the NRC "Kurchatov Institute".- In Kurchatov's "reviews" about intelligence materials, Igor Vasilievich essentially gave the intelligence officers tasks about what exactly the scientists would like to know.

Not existing in nature

The scientists of Laboratory No. 2 transported from the newly liberated Leningrad a cyclotron, which had been launched back in 1937, when it became the first in Europe. This installation was necessary for the neutron irradiation of uranium. So it was possible to accumulate the initial amount of plutonium that does not exist in nature, which later became the main material for the first Soviet atomic bomb RDS-1.

Then the production of this element was established using the first F-1 nuclear reactor in Eurasia on uranium-graphite blocks, which was built in Laboratory No. 2 in the shortest possible time (in just 16 months) and launched on December 25, 1946 under the leadership of Igor Kurchatov.

Physicists achieved industrial production volumes of plutonium after the construction of a reactor under the letter A in the city of Ozersk, Chelyabinsk Region (scientists also called it "Annushka")- the installation reached its design capacity on June 22, 1948, which already brought the project to create a nuclear charge very close.

In the realm of compression

The first Soviet atomic bomb had a charge of plutonium with a capacity of 20 kilotons, which was located in two hemispheres separated from each other. Inside them was the initiator of a chain reaction of beryllium and polonium, when combined, neutrons are released, starting a chain reaction. For powerful compression of all these components, a spherical shock wave was used, which arose after the detonation of a round shell of explosives surrounding the plutonium charge. The outer case of the resulting product had a teardrop shape, and its total mass was 4.7 tons.

They decided to test the bomb at the Semipalatinsk test site, which was specially equipped in order to assess the impact of the explosion on a variety of buildings, equipment, and even animals.

Photo: RFNC-VNIIEF Museum of Nuclear Weapons

–– In the center of the polygon there was a high iron tower, and around it a variety of buildings and structures grew like mushrooms: brick, concrete and wooden houses with different types of roofs, cars, tanks, gun turrets of ships, a railway bridge and even a swimming pool, - notes in Nikolai Vlasov, a participant in those events, wrote his manuscript “First Tests”. - So, in terms of the variety of objects, the test site resembled a fair - only without people, who were almost invisible here (with the exception of rare lonely figures who completed the installation of equipment).

Also on the territory there was a biological sector, where there were pens and cages with experimental animals.

Meetings on the beach

Vlasov also had memories of the attitude of the team towards the project manager during the testing period.

“At that time, the nickname Beard was already firmly established for Kurchatov (he changed his appearance in 1942), and his popularity embraced not only the learned fraternity of all specialties, but also officers and soldiers,” writes an eyewitness. –– Group leaders were proud of meeting with him.

Kurchatov conducted some especially secret interviews in an informal setting - for example, on the banks of the river, inviting the right person for a swim.

A photo exhibition dedicated to the history of the Kurchatov Institute, which is celebrating its 75th anniversary this year, has opened in Moscow. A selection of unique archival footage depicting the work of both ordinary employees and the most famous physicist Igor Kurchatov is in the gallery of the portal site

Igor Kurchatov, a physicist, was one of the first in the USSR to start studying the physics of the atomic nucleus, he is also called the father of the atomic bomb. In the photo: a scientist at the Physico-Technical Institute in Leningrad, 1930s

Photo: Archive of the National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute"

The Kurchatov Institute was founded in 1943. At first it was called Laboratory No. 2 of the USSR Academy of Sciences, whose employees were engaged in the creation of nuclear weapons. Later, the laboratory was renamed the Institute of Atomic Energy named after I.V. Kurchatov, and in 1991 - to the National Research Center

Photo: Archive of the National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute"

Today the Kurchatov Institute is one of the largest research centers in Russia. Its specialists are engaged in research in the field of safe development of nuclear energy. In the photo: Fakel accelerator

Photo: Archive of the National Research Center "Kurchatov Institute"

End of monopoly

The scientists calculated the exact time of the tests in such a way that the wind carried the radioactive cloud formed as a result of the explosion towards the sparsely populated areas., and exposure to harmful rainfall for humans and livestock was found to be minimal. As a result of such calculations, the historical explosion was scheduled for the morning of August 29, 1949.

- A glow broke out in the south and a red semicircle appeared, similar to the rising sun, - recalls Nikolai Vlasov. –– And three minutes after the glow faded, and the cloud disappeared into the predawn haze, we heard the rolling roar of an explosion, similar to the distant thunder of a mighty thunderstorm.

Arriving at the site of the RDS-1 operation (see reference), scientists could assess all the destruction that followed it. According to them, there were no traces of the central tower, the walls of the nearest houses collapsed, and the water in the pool completely evaporated from the high temperature.

But these destructions, paradoxically, helped to establish a global balance in the world. The creation of the first Soviet atomic bomb ended the US monopoly on nuclear weapons. This made it possible to establish the parity of strategic weapons, which still keeps countries from the military use of weapons capable of destroying the entire civilization.

Alexander Koldobsky, Deputy Director of the Institute of International Relations, National Research Nuclear University MEPhI, veteran of nuclear energy and industry:

The abbreviation RDS in relation to prototypes of nuclear weapons first appeared in the decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR of June 21, 1946 as an abbreviation of the wording "Jet engine C". In the future, this designation in official documents was assigned to all pilot designs of nuclear charges at least until the end of 1955. Strictly speaking, the RDS-1 is not exactly a bomb, it is a nuclear explosive device, a nuclear charge. Later, for the RDS-1 charge, a ballistic bomb body (“Product 501”) was created, adapted to the Tu-4 bomber. The first serial samples of nuclear weapons based on the RDS-1 were manufactured in 1950. However, these products were not tested in the ballistic corps, they were not accepted into service with the army and were stored in disassembled form. And the first test with the release of an atomic bomb from the Tu-4 took place only on October 18, 1951. Another charge was used in it, much more perfect.

North Korea is threatening the US with a super-powerful hydrogen bomb test in the Pacific. Japan, which could suffer from the tests, called North Korea's plans absolutely unacceptable. Presidents Donald Trump and Kim Jong-un swear in interviews and talk about open military conflict. For those who do not understand nuclear weapons, but want to be in the subject, "Futurist" has compiled a guide.

How do nuclear weapons work?

Like a regular stick of dynamite, a nuclear bomb uses energy. Only it is released not in the course of a primitive chemical reaction, but in complex nuclear processes. There are two main ways to extract nuclear energy from an atom. AT nuclear fission the nucleus of an atom splits into two smaller fragments with a neutron. Nuclear fusion - the process by which the Sun generates energy - involves combining two smaller atoms to form a larger one. In any process, fission or fusion, large amounts of thermal energy and radiation are released. Depending on whether nuclear fission or fusion is used, bombs are divided into nuclear (atomic) and thermonuclear .

Can you elaborate on nuclear fission?

Atomic bomb explosion over Hiroshima (1945)

As you remember, an atom is made up of three types of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. The center of the atom is called core , is made up of protons and neutrons. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged, and neutrons have no charge at all. The proton-electron ratio is always one to one, so the atom as a whole has a neutral charge. For example, a carbon atom has six protons and six electrons. Particles are held together by a fundamental force - strong nuclear force .

The properties of an atom can vary greatly depending on how many different particles it contains. If you change the number of protons, you will have a different chemical element. If you change the number of neutrons, you get isotope the same element that you have in your hands. For example, carbon has three isotopes: 1) carbon-12 (six protons + six neutrons), a stable and frequently occurring form of the element, 2) carbon-13 (six protons + seven neutrons), which is stable but rare, and 3) carbon -14 (six protons + eight neutrons), which is rare and unstable (or radioactive).

Most atomic nuclei are stable, but some are unstable (radioactive). These nuclei spontaneously emit particles that scientists call radiation. This process is called radioactive decay . There are three types of decay:

Alpha decay : The nucleus ejects an alpha particle - two protons and two neutrons bound together. beta decay : the neutron turns into a proton, an electron and an antineutrino. The ejected electron is a beta particle. Spontaneous division: the nucleus breaks up into several parts and emits neutrons, and also emits a pulse of electromagnetic energy - a gamma ray. It is the latter type of decay that is used in the nuclear bomb. Free neutrons emitted by fission begin chain reaction which releases an enormous amount of energy.

What are nuclear bombs made of?

They can be made from uranium-235 and plutonium-239. Uranium occurs in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: 238U (99.2745% of natural uranium), 235U (0.72%) and 234U (0.0055%). The most common 238 U does not support a chain reaction: only 235 U is capable of this. To achieve the maximum explosion power, it is necessary that the content of 235 U in the "stuffing" of the bomb be at least 80%. Therefore, uranium falls artificially enrich . To do this, the mixture of uranium isotopes is divided into two parts so that one of them contains more than 235 U.

Usually when isotopes are separated, there is a lot of depleted uranium that cannot start a chain reaction - but there is a way to make it do this. The fact is that plutonium-239 does not occur in nature. But it can be obtained by bombarding 238 U with neutrons.

How is their power measured?

The power of a nuclear and thermonuclear charge is measured in TNT equivalent - the amount of trinitrotoluene that must be detonated to obtain a similar result. It is measured in kilotons (kt) and megatons (Mt). The power of ultra-small nuclear weapons is less than 1 kt, while super-powerful bombs give more than 1 Mt.

The power of the Soviet Tsar Bomba, according to various sources, ranged from 57 to 58.6 megatons of TNT, the power of the thermonuclear bomb that the DPRK tested in early September was about 100 kilotons.

Who created nuclear weapons?

American physicist Robert Oppenheimer and General Leslie Groves

In the 1930s, an Italian physicist Enrico Fermi demonstrated that elements bombarded with neutrons could be converted into new elements. The result of this work was the discovery slow neutrons , as well as the discovery of new elements not represented on the periodic table. Shortly after Fermi's discovery, German scientists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons, resulting in the formation of a radioactive isotope of barium. They concluded that low-speed neutrons cause the uranium nucleus to break into two smaller pieces.

This work excited the minds of the whole world. At Princeton University Niels Bohr worked with John Wheeler to develop a hypothetical model of the fission process. They suggested that uranium-235 undergoes fission. Around the same time, other scientists discovered that the fission process produced even more neutrons. This prompted Bohr and Wheeler to ask an important question: could the free neutrons created by fission start a chain reaction that would release a huge amount of energy? If so, then weapons of unimaginable power could be created. Their assumptions were confirmed by the French physicist Frederic Joliot-Curie . His conclusion was the impetus for the development of nuclear weapons.

The physicists of Germany, England, the USA, and Japan worked on the creation of atomic weapons. Before the outbreak of World War II Albert Einstein wrote to the President of the United States Franklin Roosevelt that Nazi Germany plans to purify uranium-235 and create an atomic bomb. Now it turned out that Germany was far from conducting a chain reaction: they were working on a "dirty", highly radioactive bomb. Be that as it may, the US government threw all its efforts into creating an atomic bomb in the shortest possible time. The Manhattan Project was launched, led by an American physicist Robert Oppenheimer and general Leslie Groves . It was attended by prominent scientists who emigrated from Europe. By the summer of 1945, an atomic weapon was created based on two types of fissile material - uranium-235 and plutonium-239. One bomb, the plutonium "Thing", was detonated during tests, and two more, the uranium "Kid" and the plutonium "Fat Man", were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

How does a thermonuclear bomb work and who invented it?

The thermonuclear bomb is based on the reaction nuclear fusion . Unlike nuclear fission, which can take place both spontaneously and forcedly, nuclear fusion is impossible without the supply of external energy. Atomic nuclei are positively charged, so they repel each other. This situation is called the Coulomb barrier. To overcome repulsion, it is necessary to disperse these particles to crazy speeds. This can be done at very high temperatures - on the order of several million kelvins (hence the name). There are three types of thermonuclear reactions: self-sustaining (take place in the interior of stars), controlled and uncontrolled or explosive - they are used in hydrogen bombs.

The idea of ​​a thermonuclear fusion bomb initiated by an atomic charge was proposed by Enrico Fermi to his colleague Edward Teller back in 1941, at the very beginning of the Manhattan Project. However, at that time this idea was not in demand. Teller's developments improved Stanislav Ulam , making the idea of ​​a thermonuclear bomb feasible in practice. In 1952, the first thermonuclear explosive device was tested on Enewetok Atoll during Operation Ivy Mike. However, it was a laboratory sample, unsuitable for combat. A year later, the Soviet Union exploded the world's first thermonuclear bomb, assembled according to the design of physicists. Andrey Sakharov and Julia Khariton . The device resembled a layer cake, so the formidable weapon was nicknamed "Sloika". In the course of further development, the most powerful bomb on Earth, the "Tsar Bomba" or "Kuzkin's Mother", was born. In October 1961, it was tested on the Novaya Zemlya archipelago.

What are thermonuclear bombs made of?

If you thought that hydrogen and thermonuclear bombs are different things, you were wrong. These words are synonymous. It is hydrogen (or rather, its isotopes - deuterium and tritium) that is required to carry out a thermonuclear reaction. However, there is a difficulty: in order to detonate a hydrogen bomb, it is first necessary to obtain a high temperature during a conventional nuclear explosion - only then the atomic nuclei will begin to react. Therefore, in the case of a thermonuclear bomb, design plays an important role.

Two schemes are widely known. The first is the Sakharov "puff". In the center was a nuclear detonator, which was surrounded by layers of lithium deuteride mixed with tritium, which were interspersed with layers of enriched uranium. This design made it possible to achieve a power within 1 Mt. The second is the American Teller-Ulam scheme, where the nuclear bomb and hydrogen isotopes were located separately. It looked like this: from below - a container with a mixture of liquid deuterium and tritium, in the center of which there was a "spark plug" - a plutonium rod, and from above - a conventional nuclear charge, and all this in a shell of heavy metal (for example, depleted uranium). Fast neutrons produced during the explosion cause atomic fission reactions in the uranium shell and add energy to the total energy of the explosion. Adding additional layers of lithium uranium-238 deuteride allows you to create projectiles of unlimited power. In 1953 the Soviet physicist Viktor Davidenko accidentally repeated the Teller-Ulam idea, and on its basis Sakharov came up with a multi-stage scheme that made it possible to create weapons of unprecedented power. It was according to this scheme that Kuzkina's mother worked.

What other bombs are there?

There are also neutron ones, but this is generally scary. In fact, a neutron bomb is a low-yield thermonuclear bomb, 80% of the explosion energy of which is radiation (neutron radiation). It looks like an ordinary low-yield nuclear charge, to which a block with a beryllium isotope is added - a source of neutrons. When a nuclear weapon explodes, a thermonuclear reaction starts. This type of weapon was developed by an American physicist Samuel Cohen . It was believed that neutron weapons destroy all life even in shelters, however, the range of destruction of such weapons is small, since the atmosphere scatters fast neutron fluxes, and the shock wave is stronger at large distances.

But what about the cobalt bomb?

No, son, it's fantastic. No country officially has cobalt bombs. Theoretically, this is a thermonuclear bomb with a cobalt shell, which provides a strong radioactive contamination of the area even with a relatively weak nuclear explosion. 510 tons of cobalt can infect the entire surface of the Earth and destroy all life on the planet. Physicist Leo Szilard , who described this hypothetical design in 1950, called it the "Doomsday Machine".

Which is cooler: a nuclear bomb or a thermonuclear one?

Full-scale model of "Tsar-bomba"

The hydrogen bomb is much more advanced and technologically advanced than the atomic bomb. Its explosive power far exceeds that of an atomic one and is limited only by the number of components available. In a thermonuclear reaction, for each nucleon (the so-called constituent nuclei, protons and neutrons), much more energy is released than in a nuclear reaction. For example, during the fission of a uranium nucleus, one nucleon accounts for 0.9 MeV (megaelectronvolt), and during the fusion of a helium nucleus from hydrogen nuclei, an energy equal to 6 MeV is released.

Like bombs deliverto the target?

At first, they were dropped from aircraft, but air defenses were constantly improved, and delivering nuclear weapons in this way proved unwise. With the growth in the production of rocket technology, all rights to deliver nuclear weapons were transferred to ballistic and cruise missiles of various bases. Therefore, a bomb is no longer a bomb, but a warhead.

There is an opinion that the North Korean hydrogen bomb is too big to be installed on a rocket - so if the DPRK decides to bring the threat to life, it will be taken by ship to the site of the explosion.

What are the consequences of a nuclear war?

Hiroshima and Nagasaki are only a small part of the possible apocalypse. For example, the well-known hypothesis of "nuclear winter", which was put forward by the American astrophysicist Carl Sagan and the Soviet geophysicist Georgy Golitsyn. It is assumed that the explosion of several nuclear warheads (not in the desert or water, but in settlements) will cause many fires, and a large amount of smoke and soot will splash into the atmosphere, which will lead to global cooling. The hypothesis is criticized by comparing the effect with volcanic activity, which has little effect on the climate. In addition, some scientists note that global warming is more likely to come than cooling - however, both sides hope that we will never know.

Are nuclear weapons allowed?

After the arms race in the 20th century, countries changed their minds and decided to limit the use of nuclear weapons. The UN adopted treaties on the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons and the prohibition of nuclear tests (the latter was not signed by the young nuclear powers India, Pakistan, and the DPRK). In July 2017, a new treaty banning nuclear weapons was adopted.

"Each State Party undertakes never, under any circumstances, to develop, test, manufacture, manufacture, otherwise acquire, possess, or stockpile nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices," reads the first article of the treaty. .

However, the document will not enter into force until 50 states ratify it.

NUCLEAR WEAPON(obsolete atomic weapon) - a weapon of mass destruction of explosive action, based on the use of intranuclear energy. The energy source is either a nuclear fission reaction of heavy nuclei (for example, uranium-233 or uranium-235, plutonium-239), or a thermonuclear fusion reaction of light nuclei (see Nuclear Reactions).

The development of nuclear weapons began in the early 40s of the 20th century simultaneously in several countries, after scientific data were obtained on the possibility of a chain reaction of uranium fission, accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy. Under the leadership of the Italian physicist Fermi (E. Fermi), in 1942, the first nuclear reactor was designed and launched in the USA. A group of American scientists led by Oppenheimer (R. Oppenheimer) in 1945 created and tested the first atomic bomb.

In the USSR, scientific developments in this area were led by IV Kurchatov. The first test of an atomic bomb was carried out in 1949, and a thermonuclear one in 1953.

Nuclear weapons include nuclear munitions (rocket warheads, aerial bombs, artillery shells, mines, land mines filled with nuclear charges), means of delivering them to the target (rockets, torpedoes, aircraft), as well as various controls that ensure that the munition hits the target. Depending on the type of charge, it is customary to distinguish between nuclear, thermonuclear, and neutron weapons. The power of a nuclear weapon is estimated by its TNT equivalent, which can range from several tens of tons to several tens of millions of tons of TNT.

Nuclear explosions can be air, ground, underground, surface, underwater and high-altitude. They differ in the location of the center of the explosion relative to the earth or water surface and have their own specific features. In an explosion in the atmosphere at a height of less than 30 thousand meters, about 50% of the energy is spent on the shock wave, and 35% of the energy is spent on light radiation. With an increase in the height of the explosion (at a lower density of the atmosphere), the fraction of energy per shock wave decreases, and the light emission increases. With a ground explosion, light radiation decreases, and with an underground explosion, it may even be absent. In this case, the energy of the explosion falls on penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination and an electromagnetic pulse.

An air nuclear explosion is characterized by the appearance of a luminous area of ​​a spherical shape - the so-called fireball. As a result of the expansion of gases in a fireball, a shock wave is formed, which propagates in all directions at supersonic speed. When a shock wave passes through terrain with complex terrain, both strengthening and weakening of its action is possible. Light radiation is emitted during the glow of the fireball and propagates at the speed of light over long distances. It is sufficiently delayed by any opaque objects. Primary penetrating radiation (neutrons and gamma rays) has a damaging effect within about 1 second from the moment of explosion; it is weakly absorbed by shielding materials. However, its intensity rather quickly decreases with increasing distance from the center of the explosion. Residual radioactive radiation - products of a nuclear explosion (PYaV), which are a mixture of more than 200 isotopes of 36 elements with a half-life from fractions of a second to millions of years, spread across the planet for thousands of kilometers (global fallout). During explosions of low-yield nuclear weapons, primary penetrating radiation has the most pronounced damaging effect. With an increase in the power of a nuclear charge, the share of gamma-neutron radiation in the damaging effect of explosion factors decreases due to the more intense action of the shock wave and light radiation.

In a ground-based nuclear explosion, the fireball touches the surface of the earth. In this case, thousands of tons of evaporated soil are drawn into the area of ​​the fireball. At the epicenter of the explosion, a funnel appears, surrounded by melted soil. From the resulting mushroom cloud, about half of the UNE is deposited on the earth's surface in the direction of the wind, resulting in the appearance of the so-called. radioactive footprint, which can reach several hundred and thousands of square kilometers. The remaining radioactive substances, which are mainly in a highly dispersed state, are carried away into the upper layers of the atmosphere and fall to the ground in the same way as in an air explosion. In an underground nuclear explosion, the soil is either not ejected (camouflage explosion), or partially ejected outside with the formation of a funnel. The released energy is absorbed by the ground near the center of the explosion, resulting in the creation of seismic waves. During an underwater nuclear explosion, a huge gas bubble and a water column (sultan) are formed, crowned with a radioactive cloud. The explosion ends with the formation of a base wave and a series of gravitational waves. One of the most important consequences of a high-altitude nuclear explosion is the formation under the influence of X-ray, gamma radiation and neutron radiation of vast areas of increased ionization of the upper layers of the atmosphere.

Thus, nuclear weapons are a qualitatively new weapon, far superior to previously known ones in terms of damaging effect. At the final stage of World War II, the United States used nuclear weapons, dropping nuclear bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The result of this was severe destruction (in Hiroshima, out of 75,000 buildings, approximately 60,000 were destroyed or significantly damaged, and in Nagasaki, out of 52,000, more than 19,000), fires, especially in areas with wooden buildings, a huge number of human casualties (see table ). At the same time, the closer people were to the epicenter of the explosion, the more often the lesions occurred and the harder they were. So, within a radius of up to 1 km, the vast majority of people received injuries of various nature, ending in a predominantly fatal outcome, and within a radius of 2.5 to 5 km, the lesions were mostly mild. In the structure of sanitary losses, damage caused by both isolated and combined effects of damaging explosion factors was noted.

THE NUMBER OF THE DAMAGED IN HIROSHIMA AND NAGASAKI (Based on the book "The action of the atomic bomb in Japan", M., 1960)

The damaging effect of an air shock wave is determined by Ch. arr. maximum overpressure in the wave front and velocity head. Excessive pressure of 0.14-0.28 kg/cm2 usually causes minor injuries, and 2.4 kg/cm2 causes serious injuries. Damage from the direct impact of the shock wave is classified as primary. They are characterized by signs of concussion-contusion syndrome, closed trauma of the brain, chest and abdomen. Secondary damage occurs due to the collapse of buildings, the impact of flying stones, glass (secondary projectiles), etc. The nature of such injuries depends on the impact velocity, mass, density, shape and angle of contact of the secondary projectile with the human body. There are also tertiary damage, which are the result of the propelling action of the shock wave. Secondary and tertiary injuries can be very diverse, as well as injuries from falls from a height, traffic accidents and other accidents.

The light radiation of a nuclear explosion - electromagnetic radiation in the ultraviolet, visible and infrared spectrum - flows in two phases. In the first phase, which lasts thousandths - hundredths of a second, about 1% of the energy is released, mainly in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. Due to the short duration of the action and the absorption of a significant part of the waves by air, this phase is practically irrelevant in the generally striking effect of light radiation. The second phase is characterized by radiation mainly in the visible and infrared parts of the spectrum and mainly determines the damaging effect. The dose of light radiation required to cause burns of a certain depth depends on the power of the explosion. So, for example, burns of the II degree during the explosion of a nuclear charge with a power of 1 kiloton occur already at a dose of light radiation of 4 cal.cm2, and with a power of 1 megaton - at a dose of light radiation of 6.3 cal.cm2. This is due to the fact that during explosions of nuclear charges of low power, light energy is released and affects a person for tenths of a second, while with an explosion of a higher power, the time of radiation and exposure to light energy increases to several seconds.

As a result of direct exposure to light radiation on a person, so-called primary burns occur. They make up 80-90% of the total number of thermal injuries in the lesion. Skin burns in those affected in Hiroshima and Nagasaki were localized mainly on parts of the body not protected by clothing, mainly on the face and limbs. In people who were at a distance of up to 2.4 km from the epicenter of the explosion, they were deep, and at a more distant distance - superficial. The burns had clear contours and were located only on the side of the body facing the explosion. The configuration of the burn often corresponded to the outlines of the objects that shielded the radiation.

Light radiation can cause temporary blindness and organic damage to the eyes. This is most likely at night when the pupil is dilated. Temporary blindness usually lasts for a few minutes (up to 30 minutes), after which vision is fully restored. Organic lesions - acute keratoconjunctivitis and, especially, chorioretinal burns can lead to persistent impairment of the function of the organ of vision (see Burns).

Gamma-neutron radiation, affecting the body, causes radiation (radiation) damage. Neutrons in comparison with gamma radiation possess more expressed biol. activity and damaging effect at the molecular, cellular and organ levels. As you move away from the center of the explosion, the intensity of the neutron flux decreases faster than the intensity of gamma radiation. Thus, an air layer of 150-200 m reduces the intensity of gamma radiation by about 2 times, and the intensity of the neutron flux - by 3-32 times.

In the conditions of the use of nuclear weapons, radiation injuries can occur with a general relatively uniform and uneven exposure. Irradiation is classified as uniform, when penetrating radiation affects the entire body, and the difference in doses to individual parts of the body is insignificant. This is possible if a person is at the time of a nuclear explosion in an open area or on the trail of a radioactive cloud. With such exposure, with an increase in the absorbed dose of radiation, signs of dysfunction of radiosensitive organs and systems (bone marrow, intestines, central nervous system) consistently appear and certain clinical forms of radiation sickness develop - bone marrow, transient, intestinal, toxemic, cerebral. Uneven exposure occurs in cases of local protection of individual parts of the body by elements of fortifications, equipment, etc.

In this case, various organs are damaged unevenly, which affects the clinic of radiation sickness. So, for example, with general exposure with a predominant effect of radiation on the head region, neurological disorders can develop, and with a predominant effect on the abdomen, segmental radiation colitis, enteritis. In addition, in radiation sickness resulting from irradiation with a predominance of the neutron component, the primary reaction is more pronounced, the latent period is less long; during the height of the disease, in addition to general clinical signs, there are disorders of bowel function. When evaluating the biological effect of neutrons as a whole, one should also take into account their adverse effect on the genetic apparatus of somatic and germ cells, in connection with which the risk of long-term radiological consequences increases in exposed people and their descendants (see Radiation sickness).

On the trace of a radioactive cloud, the main part of the absorbed dose is due to external prolonged gamma irradiation. However, in this case, the development of a combined radiation injury is possible, when PYaV simultaneously act directly on open areas of the body and enter the body. Such lesions are characterized by a clinical picture of acute radiation sickness, beta skin burns, and damage to internal organs, to which radioactive substances have an increased affinity (see Incorporation of radioactive substances).

When exposed to the body of all damaging factors, combined lesions occur. In Hiroshima and Nagasaki, among the victims who survived on the 20th day after the use of nuclear weapons, such victims amounted to 25.6 and 23.7%, respectively. Combined lesions are characterized by an earlier onset of radiation sickness and its severe course due to the complicating effect of mechanical injuries and burns. In addition, the erectile lengthens and the torpid phase of shock deepens, reparative processes are perverted, and severe purulent complications often occur (see Combined lesions).

In addition to the destruction of people, one should also take into account the indirect impact of nuclear weapons - the destruction of buildings, the destruction of food supplies, the disruption of water supply, sewerage, power supply, etc., as a result of which the problem of housing, feeding people, carrying out anti-epidemic measures, medical care for a huge number of victims.

The data presented show that sanitary losses in a war with the use of nuclear weapons will differ significantly from those in wars of the past. This difference mainly consists in the following: in previous wars, mechanical injuries prevailed, and in a war with the use of nuclear weapons, radiation, thermal and combined injuries, accompanied by high lethality, will occupy a significant proportion along with them. The use of nuclear weapons will be characterized by the emergence of centers of mass sanitary losses; at the same time, due to the mass nature of the lesions and the simultaneous arrival of a large number of victims, the number of people in need of medical care will significantly exceed the real capabilities of the medical service of the army and especially the medical service of the Civil Defense (see Medical Service of Civil Defense). In a war with the use of nuclear weapons, the lines between the army and front-line areas of the active army and the deep rear of the country will be erased, and sanitary losses among the civilian population will significantly exceed losses in the troops.

The activity of the medical service in such a difficult situation should be based on the unified organizational, tactical and methodological principles of military medicine, formulated by N. I. Pirogov and subsequently developed by Soviet scientists (see Military medicine, Medical evacuation support system, Staged treatment, etc. ). With a massive influx of the wounded and sick, it is necessary first of all to single out persons with lesions incompatible with life. In conditions when the number of wounded and sick many times exceeds the real capabilities of the medical service, qualified assistance should be provided in cases where it will save the lives of the victims. Sorting (see. Medical triage), carried out from such positions, will contribute to the most rational use of medical forces and means to solve the main task - in each case to help the majority of the wounded and sick.

The environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons in recent years have attracted increasing attention of scientists, especially specialists studying the long-term results of the massive use of modern types of nuclear weapons. The problem of the environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons was considered in detail and scientifically substantiated in the report of the International Committee of Experts in the Field of Medicine and Public Health "The consequences of nuclear war for the health of the population and health services" at the XXXVI World Health Assembly, held in May 1983. This report was developed by the specified committee of experts, which included authoritative representatives of medical science and health from 13 countries (including Great Britain, the USSR, the USA, France and Japan), pursuant to resolution WHA 34.38, adopted by the XXXIV World Health Assembly on May 22, 1981, Soviet The Union was represented in this committee by prominent scientists - experts in the field of radiation biology, hygiene and medical protection, Academicians of the USSR Academy of Medical Sciences N. P. Bochkov and L. A. Ilyin.

The main factors arising from the massive use of nuclear weapons that can cause catastrophic environmental consequences, according to modern views, are: the destructive effect of the damaging factors of nuclear weapons on the Earth's biosphere, which entails the total destruction of the animal world and vegetation in the territory subjected to such an impact; a sharp change in the composition of the Earth's atmosphere as a result of a decrease in the proportion of oxygen and its pollution by products of a nuclear explosion, as well as nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides and a huge amount of dark small particles with high light-absorbing properties emitted into the atmosphere from the zone of fires raging on earth.

As evidenced by numerous studies carried out by scientists in many countries, intense thermal radiation, which is about 35% of the energy released as a result of a thermonuclear explosion, will have a strong igniting effect and lead to the ignition of almost all combustible materials located in the areas of nuclear strikes. The flame will cover vast areas of forests, peatlands and settlements. Under the influence of the shock wave of a nuclear explosion, oil and natural gas supply lines (pipelines) can be damaged, and combustible material released to the outside will further intensify fires. As a result, a so-called fiery hurricane will arise, the temperature of which can reach 1000 °; it will continue for a long time, covering all new areas of the earth's surface and turning them into lifeless ashes.

The upper layers of the soil, which are the most important for the ecological system as a whole, will be especially affected, since they have the ability to retain moisture and are the habitat of organisms that support the processes of biological decomposition and metabolism in the soil. As a result of such unfavorable environmental changes, soil erosion will increase under the influence of wind and precipitation, as well as the evaporation of moisture from bare land. All this will eventually lead to the transformation of the once prosperous and fertile regions into a lifeless desert.

The smoke from giant fires, mixed with solid particles from products of ground-based nuclear explosions, will envelop a larger or smaller surface (depending on the scale of the use of nuclear weapons) of the globe in a dense cloud that will absorb a significant part of the sun's rays. This dimming, while simultaneously cooling the earth's surface (the so-called thermonuclear winter), can continue for a long time, having a detrimental effect on the ecological system of territories far removed from the zones of direct use of nuclear weapons. At the same time, one should also take into account the long-term teratogenic impact on the ecological system of these territories of global radioactive fallout.

The extremely unfavorable environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons are also the result of a sharp reduction in the ozone content in the protective layer of the earth's atmosphere as a result of its pollution with nitrogen oxides released during the explosion of high-power nuclear weapons, which will entail the destruction of this protective layer, which provides natural biol. protection of cells of animal and plant organisms from the harmful effects of UV radiation from the sun. The disappearance of vegetation cover over vast areas, combined with atmospheric pollution, can lead to serious climate changes, in particular, to a significant decrease in the average annual temperature and its sharp daily and seasonal fluctuations.

Thus, the catastrophic environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons are due to: the total destruction of the habitat of flora and fauna on the Earth's surface in vast areas directly affected by nuclear weapons; long-term pollution of the atmosphere by thermonuclear smog, which has an extremely negative impact on the ecological system of the entire globe and causes climate change; prolonged teratogenic effect of global radioactive fallout falling from the atmosphere on the Earth's surface, on the ecological system, partially preserved in areas that were not subjected to total destruction by the damaging factors of nuclear weapons. According to the conclusion recorded in the report of the International Committee of Experts presented to the XXXVI World Health Assembly, the damage caused to the ecosystem by the use of nuclear weapons will become permanent and possibly irreversible.

At present, the most important task for humanity is the preservation of peace, the prevention of nuclear war. The core direction of the foreign policy activity of the CPSU and the Soviet state has been and remains the struggle for the preservation and strengthening of world peace and curbing the arms race. The USSR has taken and is taking persistent steps in this direction. The most specific large-scale proposals of the CPSU were reflected in the Political Report of the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU MS Gorbachev to the 27th Congress of the CPSU, in which the fundamental Foundations of a comprehensive system of international security were put forward.

Bibliography: Bond V., Flidner G. and Archambault D. Radiation death of mammals, trans. from English, M., 1971; The action of the atomic bomb in Japan, trans. from English, ed. Edited by A. V. Lebedinsky. Moscow, 1960. Action of nuclear weapons, trans. from English, ed. P. S. Dmitrieva. Moscow, 1965. Dinerman A. A. The role of environmental pollutants in violation of embryonic development, M., 1980; And about y-rysh A. I., Morokhov I. D. and Ivanov S. K. A-bomb, M., 1980; The consequences of nuclear war for public health and health services, Geneva, WHO, 1984, bibliogr.; Guidelines for the treatment of combined radiation injuries at the stages of medical evacuation, ed. Edited by E. A. Zherbina. Moscow, 1982. Guidelines for the treatment of those burned at the stages of medical evacuation, ed. V. K. Sologub. Moscow, 1979. Guide to the medical service of the Civil Defense, ed. A. I. Burnazyan. Moscow, 1983. Guide to traumatology for the medical service of civil defense, ed. A. I. Kazmina. Moscow, 1978. Smirnov E. I. The scientific organization of military medicine is the main condition for its great contribution to the victory, Vestn. USSR Academy of Medical Sciences, JNs 11, p. 30, 1975; he, the 60th anniversary of the Armed Forces of the USSR and Soviet military medicine, Sov. health care, No. 7, p. 17, 1978; he, War and military medicine 1939-1945, M., 1979; Chazov E. I., Ilyin L. A. and Guskova A. K. The danger of nuclear war: The point of view of Soviet medical scientists, M., 1982.

E. I. Smirnov, V. N. Zhizhin; A. S. Georgievsky (environmental consequences of the use of nuclear weapons)

Introduction

Interest in the history of the emergence and significance of nuclear weapons for mankind is determined by the significance of a number of factors, among which, perhaps, the first row is occupied by the problems of ensuring a balance of power in the world arena and the relevance of building a system of nuclear deterrence of a military threat to the state. The presence of nuclear weapons always has a certain influence, direct or indirect, on the socio-economic situation and the political balance of power in the "owner countries" of such weapons. This, among other things, determines the relevance of the research problem we have chosen. The problem of the development and relevance of the use of nuclear weapons in order to ensure the national security of the state has been quite relevant in domestic science for more than a decade, and this topic has not yet exhausted itself.

The object of this study is atomic weapons in the modern world, the subject of the study is the history of the creation of the atomic bomb and its technological device. The novelty of the work lies in the fact that the problem of atomic weapons is covered from the standpoint of a number of areas: nuclear physics, national security, history, foreign policy and intelligence.

The purpose of this work is to study the history of the creation and the role of the atomic (nuclear) bomb in ensuring peace and order on our planet.

To achieve this goal, the following tasks were solved in the work:

the concept of "atomic bomb", "nuclear weapon", etc. is characterized;

the prerequisites for the emergence of atomic weapons are considered;

the reasons that prompted mankind to create atomic weapons and use them are revealed.

analyzed the structure and composition of the atomic bomb.

The set goal and objectives determined the structure and logic of the study, which consists of an introduction, two sections, a conclusion and a list of sources used.

ATOMIC BOMB: COMPOSITION, BATTLE CHARACTERISTICS AND PURPOSE OF CREATION

Before starting to study the structure of the atomic bomb, it is necessary to understand the terminology on this issue. So, in scientific circles, there are special terms that reflect the characteristics of atomic weapons. Among them, we highlight the following:

Atomic bomb - the original name of an aviation nuclear bomb, the action of which is based on an explosive nuclear fission chain reaction. With the advent of the so-called hydrogen bomb, based on a thermonuclear fusion reaction, a common term for them was established - a nuclear bomb.

A nuclear bomb is an aerial bomb with a nuclear charge that has great destructive power. The first two nuclear bombs with a TNT equivalent of about 20 kt each were dropped by American aircraft on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively, on August 6 and 9, 1945, and caused enormous casualties and destruction. Modern nuclear bombs have a TNT equivalent of tens to millions of tons.

Nuclear or atomic weapons are explosive weapons based on the use of nuclear energy released during a chain nuclear fission reaction of heavy nuclei or a thermonuclear fusion reaction of light nuclei.

Refers to weapons of mass destruction (WMD) along with biological and chemical weapons.

Nuclear weapons - a set of nuclear weapons, means of their delivery to the target and controls. Refers to weapons of mass destruction; has tremendous destructive power. For the above reason, the US and the USSR invested heavily in the development of nuclear weapons. According to the power of the charges and the range of action, nuclear weapons are divided into tactical, operational-tactical and strategic. The use of nuclear weapons in war is disastrous for all mankind.

A nuclear explosion is the process of instantaneous release of a large amount of intranuclear energy in a limited volume.

The action of atomic weapons is based on the fission reaction of heavy nuclei (uranium-235, plutonium-239 and, in some cases, uranium-233).

Uranium-235 is used in nuclear weapons because, unlike the more common isotope uranium-238, it can carry out a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.

Plutonium-239 is also referred to as "weapon-grade plutonium" because it is intended to create nuclear weapons and the content of the 239Pu isotope must be at least 93.5%.

To reflect the structure and composition of the atomic bomb, as a prototype, we analyze the plutonium bomb "Fat Man" (Fig. 1) dropped on August 9, 1945 on the Japanese city of Nagasaki.

atomic nuclear bomb explosion

Figure 1 - Atomic bomb "Fat Man"

The layout of this bomb (typical for plutonium single-phase munitions) is approximately the following:

Neutron initiator - a beryllium ball with a diameter of about 2 cm, covered with a thin layer of yttrium-polonium alloy or polonium-210 metal - the primary source of neutrons for a sharp decrease in the critical mass and acceleration of the onset of the reaction. It fires at the moment of transferring the combat core to a supercritical state (during compression, a mixture of polonium and beryllium occurs with the release of a large number of neutrons). At present, in addition to this type of initiation, thermonuclear initiation (TI) is more common. Thermonuclear initiator (TI). It is located in the center of the charge (similar to NI) where a small amount of thermonuclear material is located, the center of which is heated by a converging shock wave, and in the process of a thermonuclear reaction against the background of the temperatures that have arisen, a significant amount of neutrons is produced, sufficient for the neutron initiation of a chain reaction (Fig. 2).

Plutonium. The purest plutonium-239 isotope is used, although to increase the stability of physical properties (density) and improve the compressibility of the charge, plutonium is doped with a small amount of gallium.

A shell (usually made of uranium) that serves as a neutron reflector.

Compression sheath made of aluminium. Provides greater uniformity of compression by a shock wave, while at the same time protecting the internal parts of the charge from direct contact with explosives and hot products of its decomposition.

Explosive with a complex detonation system that ensures the simultaneous detonation of the entire explosive. Synchronicity is necessary to create a strictly spherical compressive (directed inside the ball) shock wave. A non-spherical wave leads to the ejection of the material of the ball through inhomogeneity and the impossibility of creating a critical mass. The creation of such a system for the location of explosives and detonation was at one time one of the most difficult tasks. A combined scheme (lens system) of "fast" and "slow" explosives is used.

Body made of duralumin stamped elements - two spherical covers and a belt connected by bolts.

Figure 2 - The principle of operation of the plutonium bomb

The center of a nuclear explosion is the point at which a flash occurs or the center of the fireball is located, and the epicenter is the projection of the explosion center onto the earth or water surface.

Nuclear weapons are the most powerful and dangerous type of weapons of mass destruction, threatening all mankind with unprecedented destruction and destruction of millions of people.

If an explosion occurs on the ground or fairly close to its surface, then part of the energy of the explosion is transferred to the Earth's surface in the form of seismic vibrations. A phenomenon occurs, which in its features resembles an earthquake. As a result of such an explosion, seismic waves are formed, which propagate through the thickness of the earth over very long distances. The destructive effect of the wave is limited to a radius of several hundred meters.

As a result of the extremely high temperature of the explosion, a bright flash of light occurs, the intensity of which is hundreds of times greater than the intensity of the sun's rays falling on Earth. A flash releases a huge amount of heat and light. Light radiation causes spontaneous combustion of flammable materials and burns the skin of people within a radius of many kilometers.

A nuclear explosion produces radiation. It lasts about a minute and has such a high penetrating power that powerful and reliable shelters are required to protect against it at close distances.

A nuclear explosion is capable of instantly destroying or incapacitating unprotected people, openly standing equipment, structures and various materiel. The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion (PFYAV) are:

shock wave;

light radiation;

penetrating radiation;

radioactive contamination of the area;

electromagnetic pulse (EMP).

During a nuclear explosion in the atmosphere, the distribution of the released energy between the PNFs is approximately the following: about 50% for the shock wave, 35% for the share of light radiation, 10% for radioactive contamination, and 5% for penetrating radiation and EMP.

Radioactive contamination of people, military equipment, terrain and various objects during a nuclear explosion is caused by fission fragments of the charge substance (Pu-239, U-235) and the unreacted part of the charge falling out of the explosion cloud, as well as radioactive isotopes formed in the soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons - induced activity. Over time, the activity of fission fragments decreases rapidly, especially in the first hours after the explosion. So, for example, the total activity of fission fragments in the explosion of a 20 kT nuclear weapon will be several thousand times less in one day than in one minute after the explosion.