What is the role of the UN in conflict resolution. The main factors of inefficiency of the UN mechanism in the settlement of international crises and prospects for the development of the UN
The most significant role in the system of international relations at the present stage is played by the United Nations (UN). It has become practically the first mechanism in history for the broad multifaceted interaction of various states in order to maintain peace and security and promote the economic and social progress of all peoples.
The most important tasks of the United Nations are to stop the proliferation of weapons, and to reduce and eventually eliminate all stockpiles of weapons of mass destruction. The United Nations serves as a permanent forum for disarmament negotiations, making recommendations and initiating research in this area. It supports multilateral negotiations within the framework of the Conference on Disarmament and other international bodies. As a result of these negotiations, international agreements such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (1968), the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (1996) and treaties on the establishment of nuclear-weapon-free zones were concluded.
The Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency, through a system of safeguards agreements, is responsible for ensuring that nuclear materials and equipment intended for peaceful use are not used for military purposes.
The foundations of the UN activities and its structure were developed during the Second World War by the leading members of the Anti-Hitler coalition.
The UN Charter was approved at the San Francisco Conference held from April to June 1945. According to it, "Admission to membership of the Organization is open to all peace-loving States which will accept the obligations contained in the Charter of the United Nations and which, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to fulfill these obligations." The admission of states to membership in the United Nations is carried out by a decision of the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council.
The UN General Assembly considers the principles of cooperation in the field of ensuring international peace and security; elects non-permanent members of the UN Security Council, members of the Economic and Social Council; on the recommendation of the Security Council, appoints the Secretary-General of the United Nations; jointly with the Security Council elects the members of the International Court of Justice; coordinates international cooperation in the economic, social, cultural and humanitarian spheres; exercise other powers provided for in the UN Charter. The General Assembly has a sessional order of work. It may hold regular, special and emergency special sessions. The annual regular session of the Assembly opens on the third Tuesday of September.
Special sessions of the UN General Assembly may be convened on any issue at the request of the Security Council or at the request of a majority of the UN members within 15 days from the date of receipt of such request by the UN Secretary General.
Extraordinary special sessions may be convened at the request of the UN Security Council or a majority of UN Member States within 24 hours of receipt of such request by the UN Secretary General.
The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations is established by the Charter of the United Nations as the main body responsible for coordinating the economic, social and other relevant activities of the UN, as well as specialized agencies and organizations. Consists of 5 Regional Commissions for Europe, Africa etc.
The seat of the International Court of Justice, established by the Charter of the United Nations as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations, is The Hague, the Netherlands. The International Court of Justice is a forum for the peaceful settlement of legal disputes between states. The Court also prepares advisory opinions for the UN and its specialized agencies.
The Security Council has the primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security; all members of the United Nations must obey its decisions.
The Security Council consists of 15 members: five members of the Council are permanent (Russia, the United States, Great Britain, France and China, with the right of veto), the remaining ten members (in the terminology of the Charter - "non-permanent") are elected to the Council in accordance with the procedure provided for Charter.
Each of the listed structural divisions of the UN has subsidiary bodies on various specialized issues (training and research institutes, agencies, committees, commissions, working groups, tribunals, specialized agencies).
Within the framework of the UN, a number of organizations have emerged that have organically entered the system of international relations both as UN structures and as independent organizations. These include:
WHO (World Health Organization);
ILO (International Labor Association);
IMF (International Monetary Fund);
UNESCO (Organization for Culture and Science);
IAEA (International Atomic Energy Organization);
UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development);
International Court.
UN reform. Since 2006 (after the 2005 World Summit) a number of reports on UN reform have been presented. The main problems of UN reform are:
1. Lack of representation for developing countries.
2. The privileged position of the permanent members of the UN Security Council.
3. The need to resolve the financial problems of the Organization with the only way out - granting rich economically developed countries the status of permanent or "semi-permanent" members of the Security Council.
The reform of the Security Council is one of the key and controversial areas of the UN reform. For a long time, negotiations on this item could not get off the ground, but with the advent of the G20, which is more and more successfully winning back the zone of influence from the G8, the supporters of diplomatic innovations got a second wind.
The question is also about the radicalness of reforming the Security Council. Most of the existing proposals for reforming the Security Council can be reduced to two groups.
First, various ideas for improving the efficiency of the Council.
Supporters of the radical reform of the Security Council believe that he usurped power in the UN, appropriated it to himself, a board of limited composition, controlled by its five permanent members with veto power. As a result, the so-called. "small countries" that do not have such a right cannot trust the Security Council.
One of the weighty arguments is the lack of application of the sanctions of the provisions of Article VII of the UN Charter to the US and the UK after the events in Iraq, Afghanistan, Yugoslavia. In this regard, supporters of a radical reform of the Security Council demand that the powers of the Security Council be transferred to the General Assembly, which will ensure a more democratic decision-making procedure: the application of the provisions of Chapter VII of the UN Charter should become the prerogative of the General Assembly, it should have the right to adopt binding resolutions, the Security Council should become an instrument for implementation of General Assembly resolutions. In this case, the UN General Assembly, which performs the functions of the world parliament, will remain the main “legislative body and the Security Council will not be able to dictate its terms, remaining one of the executive bodies.
Secondly, proposals to change the composition of the Security Council.
At the same time, the interests and influence of various countries and regions should be taken into account.
The countries of the "South": they do not have the material means to support the functioning of the UN and the ability to influence the Security Council, so developing countries rely on limiting the veto power of the permanent members of the Security Council. These countries are demanding greater participation in the UN decision-making process, expanding the number of permanent members to 11 countries based on the principle of equal geographical representation, the entire Security Council should consist of 26 countries.
Countries of regional importance such as Italy, Spain, Turkey, Malaysia and some Scandinavian and Latin American countries want to formalize their status by lifting the ban on membership in the Security Council.
Highly developed countries (Germany, Japan), as well as representatives of all three regional groups of the developing world (India, Pakistan, Indonesia in Asia; Egypt, Nigeria, South Africa in Africa; Brazil Argentina in Latin America) claim the title of permanent members of the Security Council.
Finally, the five current permanent members of the Council are united in their desire to maintain their current status, including the right of veto.
The US has always actively advocated reform of the UN to increase the number of its allies in the organization. Back in the 1970s, Washington put forward the idea of a "quickfix" - the inclusion of Germany and Japan in the Security Council as permanent members. This would increase the number of American allies in the Security Council and at the same time reduce the amount of US contributions to the UN budget, the non-payment of which has become the Organization's main financial problem. In the 1990s, under pressure from developing countries, Washington changed the "quickfix" to the "2 + 3" formula (Germany, Japan, plus one country from each region of the developing world). In 2000, the Bill Clinton administration agreed to expand the Security Council to over 23 members.
Russia's position is ambiguous. Initially, based on the commitments made to Japan and Germany by Yeltsin, only these two candidates were supported. Subsequently, Russia's position was that the Security Council should include both industrialized and developing countries. The number of members of the expanded Security Council, according to Russia, should not exceed 20-21.
In the future, the reform of the UN should concern:
1. freeing him from political conjuncture and bureaucratic fetters,
2. a sharp increase in the responsiveness to crises and conflicts,
3. transferring the main organizational work, primarily the Department of Peacekeeping Operations, from New York "to the field."
An example of a balanced decision within the framework of the UN reform is the fate of the Commission on Human Rights: having lost confidence, it was disbanded. The commission was too politicized and used by the states to selectively criticize each other, rather than to solve real problems. The commission has been replaced by the Human Rights Council, whose 47 members are elected by the UN General Assembly. The General Assembly is empowered by a two-thirds vote of its members to suspend the rights and privileges of a member of the Council if he persistently commits gross and systematic violations of human rights.
On September 8, 2000, the General Assembly adopted a landmark document - the UN Millennium Declaration. In it, states noted the values and principles that should be fundamental in the 21st century. In particular, the declaration set a vector for further transformation of the UN system and activities.
FGAOU VPO North-Eastern Federal University. M.K. Ammosova
Department of English Philology
Course work
on the topic: THE ROLE OF THE UN, THE UN SECURITY COUNCIL IN THE SETTLEMENT OF INTERNATIONAL CONFLICTS
Completed:
Stepanova Natalia
Yakutsk, 2013
Introduction
1 General information about the UN
2 UN structure
3 Role of the UN Security Council
2 International conflicts in the modern world
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
In the light of recent events in the world, such as the threat of nuclear war between North and South Korea, this work is extremely relevant. In view of a number of problems that the world community is experiencing in the 21st century, it is necessary to take a set of measures to strengthen collective security and resolve international conflicts.
The purpose of this course work is to designate the role of the United Nations in the settlement of international conflicts.
The objectives of this course work:
study the structure of the UN
define the role of the UN Security Council as the body with primary responsibility for maintaining peace and security
study the history of international conflicts and ways to resolve them
compare the conflicts of our time with earlier conflicts and explain what their fundamental difference is.
The object of study of this work is the United Nations and, in particular, the Security Council.
The subject of the study is international conflicts and the direct relation of the UN Security Council to them.
Review of sources and literature. In the course of the study, the works of the following authors were used: Maleev Yu.N., Fedorov V.N., Biryukov P.N., Urquhart B. and others. Materials and documents from various sites were used, among them the official site of the United Nations.
Chapter 1 United Nations
1General information about the UN
The United Nations is a unique international organization. It was founded after the Second World War by representatives of 51 countries who were supporters of the policy of maintaining peace and security throughout the world, developing friendly relations between countries and promoting social progress, improving living conditions and the state of affairs in the field of human rights.
Its unique character and mandated by the Charter enable the Organization to act on a wide range of issues, providing a forum for its 193 Member States to express their views through the General Assembly, the Security Council, the Economic and Social Council and other bodies and committees.
In accordance with Article 1 of the UN Charter, the purposes of the UN are:
Maintain international peace and security and, to this end, take effective collective measures to prevent and eliminate threats to the peace and suppress acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to pursue by peaceful means, in accordance with the principles of justice and international law, the settlement or settlement of international disputes or situations which may lead to a breach of the peace;
Develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and take other appropriate measures to strengthen world peace;
To carry out international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature and in promoting and developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion, and
To be the center for coordinating the actions of nations in the pursuit of these common goals.
Over 500 different multilateral international agreements were developed and concluded within the framework of the UN in the post-war period, many of which are of fundamental importance for the development of broad international cooperation (Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, international human rights pacts, Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty, etc.). ) .
One of the characteristic features of the UN Charter is that it does not reduce the provision of international security only to military-political aspects, but determines it by a complex of economic, legal, humanitarian and other factors.
The UN Charter embodies democratic ideals, in particular, affirms faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equality of men and women, enshrines the equality of large and small nations (preamble), creates conditions under which justice can be observed and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law (preamble), and aims peoples to be tolerant, live in peace with each other as good neighbors, and join forces to maintain international peace and security (preamble) .
2 UN structure
UN General Assembly.
The General Assembly is the main deliberative body of the United Nations. Decisions on certain important issues, such as recommendations on peace and security and the election of members of the Security Council, are taken by a two-thirds majority of Member States; decisions on other issues are taken by a simple majority of votes.
The Assembly consists of 193 members of the United Nations and serves as a forum for multilateral discussion of the full range of international issues reflected in the Charter. The Assembly meets in regular annual session from September to December and thereafter as needed.
Each Member State has one vote in the Assembly. Some of the Member States with outstanding contributions may, however, be permitted by the General Assembly to vote.
The General Assembly has established a number of councils, working groups, boards, etc. to perform certain functions.
The General Assembly has developed and approved its own Rules of Procedure, according to which it elects its own President for each new session.
United Nations Security Council.
The Security Council (SCS) is a permanent body of the United Nations, which, in accordance with Article 24 of the UN Charter, is entrusted with the main responsibility for maintaining international peace and security.
The Security Council consists of fifteen members of the Organization. Each member of the Security Council has one vote. The Members of the Organization agree, in accordance with this Charter, to abide by and carry out the decisions of the Security Council.
The Security Council plays a leading role in determining whether there is a threat to the peace or an act of aggression. It calls on the parties to the dispute to settle it amicably, and recommends methods of settlement or terms of settlement. In some cases, the Security Council may resort to sanctions or even authorize the use of force in order to maintain or restore international peace and security.
In addition, the Council makes recommendations to the General Assembly regarding the appointment of a new Secretary-General and the admission of new members to the UN. The General Assembly and the Security Council elect the judges of the International Court of Justice.
International Court.
The International Court of Justice is the main judicial organ of the United Nations. It was established by the Charter of the United Nations signed on June 26, 1945 in San Francisco, to achieve one of the main purposes of the UN: "to conduct by peaceful means, in accordance with the principles of justice and international law, the settlement or settlement of international disputes or situations that may lead to disruption of the peace. The Court functions in accordance with the Statute, which is part of the Charter, and its Rules. It began operating in 1946, replacing the Permanent Court of International Justice, which was established in 1920 under the auspices of the League of Nations. The seat of the Court is the Peace Palace in The Hague (Netherlands). The Court is the only one of the six principal organs of the UN located outside of New York City.
The International Court of Justice is composed of 15 independent judges, elected regardless of their nationality, from among persons of high moral character who meet the requirements of their countries for appointment to the highest judicial offices or who are jurists of recognized authority in the field of international law.
The International Court of Justice is called upon to become one of the key components in the strategy for the peaceful resolution of disputes and disagreements between states and the maintenance of law and order and the rule of law in the world.
The Court is served by the Registry, its administrative body.
Economic and Social Council.
The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations (ECOSOC) is one of the main bodies of the United Nations, which coordinates cooperation in the economic and social fields of the UN and its specialized agencies.
The competence of ECOSOC includes consideration of international economic and social problems, as well as issues in the field of the environment. The Council was established in 1946 by the Charter of the United Nations as the central forum for discussing such issues and making policy recommendations.
Under its broad mandate, ECOSOC is responsible for nearly 70 percent of the human and financial resources of the entire UN system, including the activities of 14 specialized agencies, 9 "functional" commissions and 5 regional commissions.
ECOSOC is made up of 54 states elected by the General Assembly for a term of three years. No restrictions on re-election: a retiring ECOSOC member can be re-elected immediately. Each member of ECOSOC has one vote. Decisions are taken by a majority vote of the ECOSOC members present and voting.
Guardian Council.
The United Nations Trusteeship Council is one of the main organs of the United Nations, which was created to oversee the administration of trust territories under the international trusteeship system.
The Trusteeship Council suspended its work on November 1, 1994, after all 11 trust territories gained independence, the last of them, Palau, on October 1, 1994.
After that, Kofi Annan (Ghanaian diplomat, 7th Secretary General of the United Nations (1997-2006)) proposed that this UN body become a forum for collective guardianship of the environment. The Trusteeship Council was established to provide international oversight of the 11 Trust Territories administered by the seven Member States, and to ensure that their governments make the necessary efforts to prepare these Territories for self-government or independence. By 1994, all of the Trust Territories had become self-governing or independent, either as independent states or by joining neighboring independent states.
Since the work of the Trusteeship Council has been completed, it currently consists of five permanent members of the Security Council. Appropriate amendments have been made to its rules of procedure to enable it to meet only when the circumstances so warrant.
11 territories were included in the trusteeship system:
1.Part of the territory of Cameroon and part of the territory of Togo (under French administration).
.Part of the territory of Cameroon and part of the territory of Togo (under British administration).
.Tanganyika (under British administration).
.Ruanda-Urundi (administered by Belgium).
.Somalia (under Italian rule).
.New Guinea (administered by Australia).
.Western Samoa (under US administration).
.Caroline Islands (under US administration).
.Mariana Islands (under US administration).
.Marshall Islands (under US administration).
.Nauru (administered by UK, Australia, New Zealand).
The UN Secretariat is an international staff working in institutions around the world and carrying out a variety of day-to-day work of the Organization. It also serves the other principal organs of the United Nations and implements the programs and policies adopted by them. The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary General, who is appointed by the General Assembly on the recommendation of the Security Council for a term of 5 years with the possibility of re-election for a new term.
The responsibilities of the Secretariat are as diverse as the issues handled by the United Nations, from leading peacekeeping operations to mediating international disputes, from reviewing economic and social trends and issues to preparing studies on human rights and sustainable development. In addition, Secretariat staff guide and inform the world's media about the work of the United Nations; organizes international conferences on problems of global importance; monitors the implementation of the decisions of the United Nations bodies and translates speeches and documents into the official languages of the Organization.
The United Nations is headquartered in New York, but the Organization maintains a significant presence in Geneva, Vienna and Nairobi. The United Nations Office at Geneva serves as a center for diplomatic meetings and a forum for discussion of disarmament and human rights issues. The United Nations Office at Vienna is the Organization's headquarters for international drug abuse control, crime prevention and criminal justice, the peaceful uses of outer space and international trade law. The UN Office at Nairobi serves as the hub for United Nations activities in the field of human settlements and the environment.
As of June 30, 2010, the staff of the Secretariat in total is about 44,000 employees.
3 Role of the UN Security Council. Powers and functions of the UN Security Council
The Security Council is one of the main organs of the UN and plays a major role in maintaining international peace and security.
The Security Council consists of 15 members: five permanent members (Russia, USA, Great Britain, France, China) and ten non-permanent members elected in accordance with the UN Charter. The list of permanent members is fixed in the UN Charter. Non-permanent members are elected by the UN General Assemblies for two years without the right to immediate re-election.
The Security Council is empowered to investigate any dispute or situation which may give rise to international friction or give rise to a dispute, to determine whether the continuation of this dispute or situation may threaten international peace and security. At any stage of such a dispute or situation, the Board may recommend an appropriate procedure or methods for settlement.
The parties to a dispute, the continuation of which may threaten international peace or security, have the right to independently decide on the submission of the dispute for resolution by the Security Council. However, if the Security Council considers that the continuation of the dispute may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security, it may recommend such terms for the settlement of the dispute as it thinks fit.
A State that is not a member of the UN may also draw attention to any dispute to which it is a party if, in respect of that dispute, it accepts the obligations stipulated in advance in the UN Charter for the peaceful settlement of disputes.
In addition, the Security Council determines the existence of any threat to the peace, any breach of the peace or act of aggression, and makes recommendations to the parties or decides what measures should be taken to restore international peace and security. The Council may require the parties to the dispute to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary. Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all UN members.
The Council is also empowered to decide what non-military measures should be taken to implement its decisions and to require the members of the organization to implement those measures. These measures may include a complete or partial interruption of economic relations, rail, sea, air, postal, telegraph, radio or other means of communication, as well as the severance of diplomatic relations.
If the Security Council considers that these measures prove or have proved insufficient, it may take such action by air, sea or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore peace and security. The Member States of the United Nations undertake to place at the disposal of the Council the armed forces necessary for the maintenance of peace.
At the same time, it must be taken into account that the UN Charter in no way affects the inalienable right of each state to individual or collective self-defense in the event of an armed attack on a UN member until the Security Council takes appropriate measures to maintain peace and security.
Each member state of the Security Council has one representative here. The Security Council shall establish its own rules of procedure, including the manner in which its President is elected.
Decisions in the Security Council on questions of procedure are considered adopted if they are voted by nine members of the Council. On other matters, decisions shall be considered adopted when they have been voted by nine members of the Council, including the concurring votes of all the permanent members of the Council, and the party to the dispute must abstain from voting. If, when voting on a non-procedural issue, one of the permanent members of the Council votes against, the decision is considered not adopted (right of veto).
The Security Council may establish subsidiary bodies as necessary for the performance of its functions. Thus, to assist the Security Council in the use of troops placed at its disposal and in the regulation of armaments, a Military Staff Committee was created, consisting of the chiefs of staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives.
Structure of the UN Security Council.
Article 29 of the Charter of the United Nations provides that the Security Council may establish such subsidiary bodies as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions. This is also reflected in rule 28 of the Council's Provisional Rules of Procedure.
All current committees and working groups are composed of 15 members of the Council. While the chair of the standing committees is the President of the Council, whose office is rotated monthly, the chairs or co-chairs of other committees and working groups are appointed members of the Council, whose names are presented annually in the note by the President of the Security Council.
The mandates of the subsidiary bodies, whether committees or working groups, range from procedural matters (eg documentation and procedures, meetings away from Headquarters) to substantive matters (eg sanctions regimes, counter-terrorism, peacekeeping operations) .
The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) are subsidiary bodies of the Security Council within the meaning of Article 29 of the Charter. As such, they are dependent on the United Nations for administrative and financial matters, but as judiciary they are independent of any state or group of states, including their founding body, the Security Council.
committees.
Counter-Terrorism and Non-Proliferation Committees
Counter-Terrorism Committee established pursuant to resolution 1373 (2001)
Committee to Prevent the Proliferation of Nuclear, Chemical or Biological Weapons and Their Means of Delivery (1540 Committee) .
Military Staff Committee
The Military Staff Committee helps plan United Nations military arrangements and regulate armaments.
Sanctions committees (ad hoc)
The application of mandatory sanctions is intended to put pressure on a State or entity to adhere to the goals set by the Security Council without resorting to the use of force. Thus, for the Security Council, sanctions are one of the important tools to ensure compliance with its decisions. Because of its universal nature, the United Nations is a particularly suitable body to introduce and monitor such measures.
The Council has resorted to binding sanctions as one of the tools to enforce its decisions when peace is in danger and diplomatic efforts have proved fruitless. Sanctions include comprehensive economic and trade sanctions and/or targeted measures such as arms embargoes, travel bans, and financial or diplomatic restrictions.
Standing committees and special bodies
Standing committees are open-ended bodies and are usually established to deal with certain procedural matters, such as the admission of new members. Special committees are established for a limited period of time to deal with a particular issue.
Peacekeeping operations and political missions
A peacekeeping operation involves military, police and civilian personnel who work to provide security and political support, as well as in the early stages of peacebuilding. Peacekeeping is flexible and has been carried out in many configurations over the past two decades. The current multifaceted peacekeeping operations are designed not only to maintain peace and security, but also to promote political processes, protect civilians, assist in the disarmament, demobilization and reintegration of ex-combatants; to support the organization of elections, to protect and promote human rights, and to assist in the restoration of the rule of law.
Political missions are one element in a range of United Nations peace operations that operate at various stages of the conflict cycle. In some cases, after the signing of peace agreements, the political missions managed during the peace negotiation phase by the Department of Political Affairs are replaced by peacekeeping missions. In some cases, United Nations peacekeeping operations are being replaced by special political missions whose task is to monitor the implementation of longer-term peacebuilding activities.
International courts and tribunals.
The Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in 1993 following widespread violations of humanitarian law in the former Yugoslavia during hostilities. It was the first post-war court established by the United Nations to prosecute war crimes and the first war crimes tribunal since the Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals, which were established at the end of World War II. The Tribunal hears the cases of those individuals who are primarily responsible for such heinous acts as murder, torture, rape, enslavement and destruction of property, as well as other violent crimes. Its purpose is to ensure that justice is done for the thousands of victims and their families, and thus contribute to the establishment of lasting peace in the area. As of the end of 2011, the Tribunal had convicted 161 people.
The Security Council established the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in 1994 to prosecute those responsible for the genocide and other serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in Rwanda between 1 January and 31 December 1994. It may also prosecute Rwandan citizens who committed acts of genocide and other similar violations of international law in the territory of neighboring States during the same period. In 1998, the Tribunal for Rwanda became the first international court to pass judgment on a genocide case and the first ever to impose a sentence for such a crime.
Advisory Subsidiary Body.
The Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) is an intergovernmental advisory body that supports efforts to bring peace to countries emerging from conflict and is an important complementary tool for the international community in its work on the broad peace agenda.
The Peacebuilding Commission has a unique role to play in terms of:
ensuring coordinated interaction between all relevant actors, including international donors, international financial institutions, national governments and troop-contributing countries;
mobilization and distribution of resources;
The Peacebuilding Commission is an advisory subsidiary body of both the Security Council and the General Assembly.
4 Current activities of the Security Council
According to paragraph 1 of Art. 23 of the UN Charter, the Security Council consists of 5 permanent members and 10 non-permanent. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the United States of America are listed as permanent members. Despite the fact that the USSR ceased to exist, the amendment to Art. 23 of the UN Charter was not introduced. At present, the place of the USSR in the Security Council is occupied by the Russian Federation. The place of the Republic of China, under pressure from the PRC and the countries of the socialist bloc, was ceded to the People's Republic of China.
Clause 2 of this article states that
The non-permanent members of the Security Council are elected for a two-year term. At the first election of the non-permanent members, after the enlargement of the Security Council from eleven to fifteen, two of the four additional members shall be elected for a term of one year. An outgoing member of the Security Council is not eligible for immediate re-election.
The non-permanent members are elected on the principle of equal regional representation. The member states of the UN are divided into five groups, each of which has a certain number of seats on the Security Council:
African Group (54 states) - 3 seats
Asian group (53 states) - 2 seats (+ 1 permanent member seat - PRC)
Eastern European group (CEIT, 23 states) - 1 seat (+ 1 permanent member seat - Russia)
Group of Latin American and Caribbean States (GRULAC, 33 states) - 2 seats
Group of Western European and other states (WEOG, 28 states) - 2 seats (+ 3 seats of permanent members - USA, UK, France).
One seat in the group of states of Western Europe and other states must be given to a Western European state. The representative of the Arab States is alternately selected from the African and Asian groups.
Until 1966, there was another division into regional groups: Latin American group (2 seats), Western European group (1 seat), Eastern Europe and Asia group (1 seat), Middle East group (1 seat), Commonwealth group (1 seat).
Non-permanent members of the UN are elected by the UN General Assembly for a period of two years, each year by one five. One State cannot hold the seat of a non-permanent member for more than one consecutive term.
The following are the current non-permanent members of the UNSC (the year of expiration is indicated in brackets):
Australia (2014)
Azerbaijan (2013)
Argentina (2014)
Guatemala (2013)
Luxembourg (2014)
Morocco (2013)
Pakistan (2013)
Republic of Korea (2014)
Rwanda (2014)
Some of the member states that have been on the UNSC for a long time are members of the G4 group, whose members are seeking a permanent seat on the UNSC. These are Brazil and Japan (20 years each for the time of participation in the Security Council), India (14 years) and Germany (10 years).
Fight against terrorism.
Since the early 1990s, the Security Council has consistently dealt with issues of terrorism. During this period of his activity, a number of sanctions were adopted against states that were suspected of having links with terrorist organizations: Libya (1992), Sudan (1996) and Afghanistan (1999 - the Taliban movement, 2000 - the Al-Qaeda organization "). In resolution 1269 (1999), adopted in 1999, the Security Council called on countries to cooperate in order to prevent all terrorist acts. This resolution marked the beginning of the intensification of the counter - terrorism activities of the Council after 11 September 2001 .
Prior to the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks on the United States, the Security Council created an influential counter-terrorism body: the 1267 Committee. Its task was to oversee the implementation of sanctions against the Taliban (and, since 2000, Al-Qaeda). At the request of the Security Council, to support the work of the Committee, the Secretary-General established the Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team. The Panel included experts in counter-terrorism and related legal matters, arms embargoes, travel bans and terrorist financing.
Following the events of 11 September 2001, the Security Council, by resolution 1373 (2001), established a Counter-Terrorism Committee composed of all members of the Security Council. This resolution obliges Member States to take a series of measures to prevent terrorist activities and to outlaw various forms of terrorist activities, and to cooperate, especially within the framework of bilateral and multilateral mechanisms and agreements, in order to prevent and suppress terrorist attacks. Member States are required to report regularly to the Counter-Terrorism Committee on the measures they have taken to implement resolution 1373.
To assist the Counter-Terrorism Committee, the Security Council adopted resolution 1535 (2004) in 2004, establishing the Counter-Terrorism Committee Executive Directorate (CTED), whose task was to oversee the implementation of resolution 1373 and provide technical assistance to Member States.
By its resolution 1540 (2004), the Security Council established a new body dealing with counter-terrorism issues, the 1540 Committee, which also consists of all members of the Council. The Committee monitors the implementation by Member States of the provisions of Resolution 1540, which calls for the prevention of access to weapons of mass destruction by non-State persons (including terrorist groups).
In its subsequent resolutions, the Council urged Member States to take action against groups and organizations engaged in terrorist activities that do not fall within the scope of the review by the Committee established pursuant to resolution 1267 (1999). In 2004, the Council also adopted resolution 1566 (2004), which called on Member States to take action against groups and entities involved in terrorist activities that are not covered by the revised resolution 1267. Resolution 1566 established the Council's 1566 Working Group to develop recommendations on practical measures to be applied to individuals and groups, as well as to consider the establishment of a compensation fund for victims of terrorism.
On the sidelines of the 2005 World Summit, the Security Council held a high-level meeting and adopted resolution 1624 (2005), which condemned all terrorist acts, regardless of their motives and motives. She also called on Member States to legally prohibit acts of terrorism and incitement to commit them, and to deny safe haven to those responsible for such crimes.
By adopting a number of additional resolutions in recent years, the Council has strengthened the work of its counter-terrorism bodies.
Following the General Assembly's second review of the implementation of the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (A/RES/60/228) and the adoption of General Assembly resolution 64/297 in this regard, the Security Council held an open debate on 27 September 2010 on threats to international peace and security created by terrorist acts.
During this meeting, members of the Council stressed the need for a comprehensive and integrated approach and increased cooperation within the international community in order to effectively combat terrorism.
In a presidential statement following this meeting (S/PRST/2010/19), the Council noted with concern that the threat posed by terrorism has become more dispersed with the increase in the number of terrorist attacks in various regions of the world, including those committed as a result of intolerance or extremism, and reiterated its determination to fight this menace.
Recognizing that terrorism cannot be defeated by military force, law enforcement and intelligence operations alone, members of the Council stressed the need to address the conditions conducive to the spread of terrorism. In particular, they called for continuous international efforts to expand dialogue and deepen understanding among civilizations in order to prevent unjustified attacks on various religions and cultures, which can help combat the forces that breed polarization and extremism.
Chapter 2. Analysis of the actions of the UN Security Council in the settlement of international conflicts
1 Methods for resolving international conflicts of the UN Security Council
During its activity, the UN Security Council, as stated in the UN Charter, has confirmed its main purpose. It has the primary responsibility for maintaining peace and security. Numerous resolutions were signed within the framework of the UN, the most important of them are the Resolution on the principles governing the general regulation and reduction of armaments (1946), the Resolution on general and complete disarmament (1959), the Declaration on the strengthening of international security (1970), the Resolution on the non-use of force in international relations and the permanent prohibition of the use of nuclear weapons (1972), etc.
At the moment, there are about 40 completed peacekeeping missions - in Asia, America, Africa, the Middle East and Europe. Consider the methods of settling some of them.
The United Nations, as an international organization, acts as a third party in conflict resolution, whether between countries or within a country. Ever since its foundation, the UN has set itself the lofty goal of maintaining international peace and security. The UN considers potential threats to peace, acts of aggression, disputes and conflicts between states. The Security Council relies on military force and the unanimity of its five permanent members. He either brings about a peaceful settlement of disputes, or eliminates, suppresses threats to peace and opposes them with force.
We have identified several stages in the settlement of international conflicts:
)Conflict prevention in advance, i.e. revealing the very first signs of an emerging international conflict at the regional level. This happens through monitoring the situation at the regional level and is implemented with the help of the UN representatives in the country, friendly regional organizations, non-governmental organizations and civil society. In addition, according to paragraph 2 of Art. 35 of the Charter of the United Nations, a State which is not a Member of the United Nations may bring to the attention of the Security Council or the General Assembly any dispute to which it is a party, if it accepts in advance, in respect of that dispute, the obligations of peaceful settlement of disputes provided for in this Charter. .
Thus, the Council pioneered preventive deployment, using the United Nations Protection Force (UNPROFOR) in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in 1992 to monitor developments in the border areas that could undermine confidence and stability in that republic and threaten it. territory. After the termination of UNPROFOR's mandate on February 1, 1996, the United Nations Preventive Deployment Force (UNPREDEP) began to operate as an independent mission, marking the beginning of the use of this kind of innovation in the future. The Security Council also actively used the creation of demilitarized zones. Thus, in accordance with its Resolution 687 of April 3, 1991, the Council established a demilitarized zone on both sides of the border between Iraq and Kuwait, and in April 1991 established the United Nations Iraqi-Kuwait Observation Mission (UNIKOM) to monitor the demilitarized zone. On many occasions the Council also assisted in the adoption of preventive humanitarian actions (in the former Yugoslavia, on the African continent, etc.).
However, according to other authors, the UN rather only reports on the need for preventive measures, but does not take any action. The actions taken by the UN were in response to criticism from the media and the public, which does not fit into the overall UN concept of conflict prevention. Therefore, if there were no measures or they turned out to be weak, then a transition to the second stage is carried out.
)Operations to maintain and establish peace. It can be both diplomatic negotiations and peacekeeping forces. The UN armed forces are used in the event of an armed conflict.
There are several types of peacekeeping operations, scientists number about 10 of them. The main criterion for classification is the use / non-use of weapons. The first type of operations are operations whose purpose is to support peacekeeping efforts in such a way that the belligerents can come to negotiations. The second type includes all peaceful ways to resolve the conflict or observer missions (unarmed). The task of unarmed military observers is to monitor the implementation of the truce, identify the facts of its violation and submit reports to the UN Security Council.
So called traditional peacekeeping operations (they include the provision of humanitarian assistance to the victims, disarmament, demining, administration, etc.), as the experience of past years shows, are considered the most successful operations carried out by the Security Council. Conversely, operations that involve taking all necessary measures fail. They apparently contradict the very definition of peacekeeping. Another example of a paradox is the awarding of the Nobel Peace Prize to the Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs, L. Pearsen, for the idea of using the UN armed forces in settling the Suez crisis in 1956. Obviously, new measures are needed to ensure collective security. The creation of such approaches, as well as the creation of a universal system for early warning of conflicts, are currently the priority tasks of the UN research centers.
The state in which the conflict is taking place may also refuse to send troops, considering this a gross interference in the internal politics of the country. But even if peacekeeping troops are brought in, this does not mean that the conflict can be considered settled at the political level. The act of introducing UN troops (or as they are called - blue helmets ), can only be regarded as temporary - for the duration of the search for a peaceful solution.
There is a very important difference between keeping peace and making peace. Peacekeeping operations require the consent of the sovereign state of the territory (which it may not give, as mentioned above) in which it is carried out. Although, it must be admitted, the government is completely devoid of power and authority, as was the case in Somalia in the 1990s.
By the end of the 20th century, the term "Second Generation Peacekeeping Operations" came into international use, which refers to the practice of peace enforcement. Such operations may be authorized without the consent of the parties, but only in the event of a threat to international peace posed by interstate conflicts or events within states.
)Peacebuilding, i.e. a set of special measures to prevent conflicts in this territory again.
Special measures, according to the official website of the UN, include:
provision of humanitarian assistance to children, women, accidental victims of conflicts (this includes the provision of medical care, provisions, water, etc.)
monitoring of the ceasefire
demobilization and reintegration of combatants
assistance in the return of refugees and displaced persons
assistance in organizing elections and monitoring the elections of the new government
support for reforms in the judicial system and in the field of security
strengthening human rights mechanisms and promoting reconciliation after atrocities
Oddly enough, the UN Charter does not mention peacebuilding or post-conflict settlement.
Peacebuilding is a relatively new term, the concept of which was put forward by the 6th UN Secretary General Boutros B. Ghali in his report "An Agenda for Peace" in June 1992 and developed in the Supplement to it in January 1995.
The fundamental position is that post-conflict peacebuilding should be carried out in accordance with the principles of the UN Charter, including the principles of political independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of all states.
The issue of peacebuilding has taken an important place at the Millennium Summit.
The Security Council Statement on “Peacebuilding: Towards a Comprehensive Approach” points out that peacemaking, peacekeeping and peacebuilding are often closely linked, emphasizing that this relationship requires a comprehensive approach in order to preserve the gains made and prevent the recurrence of conflicts. The statement also states that peacebuilding is aimed at preventing the outbreak, resumption or continuation of armed conflicts and therefore encompasses a wide range of programs and mechanisms in the fields of politics, development, humanitarian affairs and human rights.
Peacebuilding should be seen as a comprehensive strategy, including political, social, humanitarian and developmental measures. The actions taken should be multidisciplinary in the broadest sense of the term and can cover five key areas of peacebuilding: the conclusion and implementation of peace agreements; security stabilization; good governance, democratization and human rights; justice and reconciliation, and emergency humanitarian assistance and sustainable development.
The Economic and Social Council of the United Nations plays an important role in the problem of peacebuilding. It plays a leading role in creating a mechanism for resolving the various problems faced by countries emerging from conflict.
Given the organic role of socio-economic issues in post-conflict peacebuilding, ECOSOC has demonstrated its expertise in this area. The ECOSOC Ad Hoc Advisory Groups on African Countries Emerging from Conflict and on Haiti stressed the need to mobilize donor assistance, while at the same time calling on national authorities to create an environment conducive to increased support.
ECOSOC works closely with the Peacebuilding Commission (PBC) within the framework of the UN Security Council. This advisory subsidiary body currently includes tasks to resolve problems in such states as Burundi, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the Central African Republic.
Consider the issue of peacebuilding on the example of a state such as Sierra Leone.
Based on the Seventh Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Sierra Leone, the country's peacebuilding priorities are:
issues related to youth employment and empowerment
reforms of security and justice systems, good governance
energy development and capacity building .
The Peacebuilding Fund in Sierra Leone supports projects with non-state actors, victims of war, and gender. These are the strengthening of the system of advisory services for victims of sexual and gender-based violence and the improvement of the legislative framework for the recognition of the rights of women and girls.
The UN has adopted a four-pronged approach to addressing gender, namely:
a) Increasing women's and girls' access to health care
b) providing opportunities for participation in the political life of the country
c) ensuring access to the justice system
d) taking measures to combat gender-based violence
Also, among the problems solved by the CCM, there are problems of effective management, problems of combating drug trafficking and the problem of high youth unemployment. The 2012 Commission Delegation reaffirmed its appreciation for the progress made in the democratization of Sierra Leone's society.
UN sanctions.
There are also coercive and restrictive methods that are on a level below the introduction of UN troops, but on a level above preventive diplomacy or peace negotiations. We are talking about sanctions.
Sanctions can be imposed by states on their own initiative or by decision of international organizations. According to the UN Charter, in the event of a threat to the peace, a breach of the peace, or an act of aggression, various sanctions may be imposed.
There are different types of sanctions.
Trade sanctions
They are expressed in the prohibition or restriction of import and export of goods, products and technologies. Particular attention is paid to those of them that are of a military nature.
Financial sanctions
Expressed in a ban or restriction on the provision of loans and credits to the country.
Political sanctions
They are expressed in the suspension or exclusion of a country from international organizations, the severance of diplomatic relations with it.
Movement sanctions
Expressed in the ban on the movement of certain persons abroad, as well as any means of communication.
Sports and cultural sanctions
They are expressed in a ban on participation in international sports competitions of those persons or groups representing the country.
Articles 41-42 of the UN Charter authorize the Security Council to take the following measures: complete or partial interruption of economic relations, rail, sea, air, postal, telegraph, radio or other means of communication, as well as the severance of diplomatic relations. It may also include actions such as demonstrations, blockades and other operations by air, sea or land forces of Members.
But, of course, it is worth remembering that sanctions alone do not solve the problem of a political settlement of the conflict. Intended to encourage the participants to end the conflict, the sanctions lead to the isolation of these countries from the outside world. As a result, the possibility of influencing the conflict from the outside in order to seek its resolution by peaceful means is limited.
2.2 International conflicts in the modern world
The entire history of international conflicts resolved by the UN can be conditionally divided into two periods. From the moment of its foundation until the 1990s, the UN dealt mainly with interstate conflicts. The very first UN peacekeeping mission was to monitor the truce reached in the Arab-Israeli conflict in 1948. The Cold War was an important international conflict.
Undoubtedly, the nature of international conflicts has changed.
Over the 55 years of its existence, the UN has accumulated a lot of experience in resolving armed conflicts. However, in the 1990s, the nature of armed conflicts changed. The vast majority of clashes are currently internal. The settlement of an intrastate conflict collides with the sovereignty of individual states, which often do not want outside interference in their national politics. Therefore, already in the mid-1990s, based on the experience of conflict resolution, the development of a strategy for the prevention of armed conflicts began.
A number of conclusions should be drawn that characterize the conflicts of the modern world order:
the increase in the level of conflict in the modern world system occurred due to the erasing of the boundaries of foreign and domestic policy, the strengthening of the interdependence of states, the spread of regional and local conflicts;
the bulk of conflicts today are substantiated, legitimized with the help of the principle of national self-determination.
such a phenomenon as national extremism, that is, adherence to extreme views, ideas and measures aimed at achieving their goals to radically oriented social institutions, as well as small groups, has acquired particular importance;
in the world conflictology there is such a new term as ethnic (or national) terrorism;
due to the fact that the conflicts of the new generation are based on irreconcilable contradictions, as a rule, of a religious nature, these are conflicts of the type fight where consensus is not possible. There must be one winner. That is why the theory of conflict resolution does not always justify itself, real institutions and legislation no longer fully meet the challenges of our time;
world conflictology does not have a sufficient number of methods for predicting conflicts and effective ways to prevent them.
In addition to common characteristics, each conflict has its own distinctive features, its own conflict potential for regional and international security. And at the same time, their nature and course are not new, they have analogies in world practice, and, therefore, there is the possibility of generalizing them into a theory.
The conflicts of modernity also have one distinctive feature. During the period cold war , sanctions were applied by the UN only twice - against Southern Rhodesia in 1966 and South Africa in 1977. But in the period of the 1990s alone, sanctions were imposed by the Security Council seven times more often than in the previous 45 years. Especially often, sanctions began to be resorted to at the end of the 20th - at the beginning of the 21st century, after the end of the Cold War. It is no coincidence that the 1990s were called the “Decade of Sanctions”.
During the 1990s alone, sanctions were imposed by the Security Council against Iraq (1990), the former Yugoslavia (1991, 1992 and 1998), Libya (1992), Liberia (1992), Somalia (1992). .), Cambodia (1992), Haiti (1993), Angola (1993, 1997 and 1998), Rwanda (1994), Sudan (1996), Sierra Leone (1997) and Afghanistan (1999).
Conclusion
In this course work, the main provisions of the work of the United Nations were considered. We have defined its role in the system of international security. At the moment, the UN is one of the most influential and respected organizations in the world.
In the modern world, a large number of international conflicts cannot be resolved using the classical methods of international strategy (military suppression, balance of power, etc.)
Each conflict is unique and requires the same unique approach to it in the settlement. However, in this work, we have identified common approaches to conflict resolution and their systematization.
The features of modern conflicts were revealed. Thus, the UN must reconsider its attitude towards collective international security.
security international nation conflict
Bibliography
1. Fedorov V.N. The United Nations, other international organizations and their role in the XXI century. - M.: Logos, 2007. - 944 p.
Biryukov P.N. International law. Tutorial. M.: Jurist. 1998.
Yu.N. Maleev. The UN Security Council and issues of international governance.//Mezhdunarodnoe pravo.2006. - No. 1(25). - S. 24-47.
Urquhart B. // World economy and international relations. - 1996.-N1. - P.4-10.
Full text of the UN Charter in Russian
Seventh report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Integrated Peacebuilding Office in Sierra Leone.
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480 rub. | 150 UAH | $7.5 ", MOUSEOFF, FGCOLOR, "#FFFFCC",BGCOLOR, "#393939");" onMouseOut="return nd();"> Thesis - 480 rubles, shipping 10 minutes 24 hours a day, seven days a week and holidays
Gegraeva Leyla Khamzatovna. The role of the UN in the settlement of international conflicts: 23.00.04 Gegraeva, Leyla Khamzatovna The role of the UN in the settlement of international conflicts (On the example of the Arab-Israeli, Rwandan and Iraqi conflicts): Dis. ... cand. polit. Sciences: 23.00.04 Moscow, 2005 166 p. RSL OD, 61:05-23/220
Introduction
Chapter 1. Participation of the UN in the development of the world political process 13
1. The role of the UN in ensuring the system of collective security 13
2. Modern conflicts and ways to resolve them in accordance with UN methods 28
Chapter 2 The UN and the settlement of international crises and conflicts in the modern world 44
1. Arab-Israeli conflict 44
2. Humanitarian tragedy in Rwanda 57
3. Iraq Crisis 69
Chapter 3 Problems and ways of reforming the structure of the UN in the face of growing threats of international terrorism 78
1. New challenges and threats at the beginning of the XXI century. The UN Security Council and its role in the fight against international terrorism 78
2. Reforming the Security Council in accordance with new challenges and threats 95
3. The main factors of inefficiency of the UN mechanism in the settlement of international crises and prospects for the development of the UN 108
Conclusion 118
List of sources and literature 127
Documentary applications 141
Introduction to work
The object of the dissertation research is the place and role of the United Nations in the system of modern international political institutions and in the global political process.
The subject of the dissertation research is the activities of the UN as a guarantor of international peace and security, as well as the system of interaction between states as subjects of international law, cooperating within the framework of the UN. The author also examines the mechanisms of the UN used to resolve conflict situations and the totality of factors influencing the effectiveness of the UN.
Relevance of the topic. In the 20th century, more people died in armed conflicts than in the entire previous history of mankind. It became the most destructive and bloody. Conflicts have become one of the leading factors of instability on earth. Modern conflicts pose a threat not only to the participants in the conflict, but to the entire world community. And despite the end of the Cold War, the world still faces the threat of nuclear war from major nuclear powers. At the same time, in today's dynamic, rapidly developing world, interstate conflicts have been replaced by civil wars. The collapse of the bipolar world led to the creation of new states, new types of threats to international peace and security emerged, which predetermined the need to intensify the activities of the universal international organization - the UN. The political processes taking place at this stage of the development of society reveal the need to study conflicts, analyze their causes and consequences.
The choice of the topic of the dissertation to analyze the role of the UN in resolving international crises and conflicts at the present stage is due to the fact that it is the UN that has the main responsibility for maintaining international peace and security. It is also important to analyze the activities of the UN in settling international conflicts and to identify the factors that have a negative impact on the effectiveness of the UN's actions. It should be noted that the UN was created to unite all states in order to counter threats to international peace and stability. Consequently, international peace and security largely depend on the results of the activities of the UN, or, in other words, on the consolidation of the efforts of the world community in the fight against new threats to international peace and stability.
Goals and objectives. The purpose of the study is to analyze the multidimensional role of the UN in resolving international conflicts at the present stage, as well as to determine its contribution to the process of resolving international crises and conflicts. In accordance with this goal, the following tasks were set in the study:
1. To trace the process of the emergence of the need for a universal organization, which is the guarantor of international peace and stability, to analyze the evolution of its formation.
2. To study and summarize the positions of domestic and foreign scientists on the problem under consideration.
3. Explore the methods and tools used by the UN to resolve conflict situations.
4. Analyze the activities of the UN in the settlement of international conflicts on the example of the Arab-Israeli, Rwandan, Iraqi conflicts.
5. On the basis of the conflict situations considered in the Security Council, assess the activities of the UN Security Council and the relationship between the permanent members of this Council.
6. Determine the role of the UN in maintaining the balance of power in the international political arena.
7. Justify the need to reform the UN, and in particular the UN Security Council, in accordance with the changing international situation.
8. Analyze the main factors that reduce the effectiveness of the UN.
Methodological basis. The dissertation is devoted to the role of the UN in the settlement of international conflicts at the present stage. The subject of the dissertation research involves the use of certain scientific methods that allow for an objective and comprehensive analysis. To achieve these goals and solve the tasks set, the following methods were used:
1. The method of political analysis - when tracing the process of formation, formation and development of the UN as a guarantor of international peace and security.
2. System analysis - in determining the role of the UN in the system of international relations, during which the subject of research is considered as a complex process.
3. Normative method - analysis of the provisions of international legal and regulatory documents, as well as UN Security Council resolutions, documents and recommendations of the UN General Assembly.
In the dissertation, the author, in addition to applying the above methods of analysis, also used the method of event analysis (invent analysis). Taken together, this makes it possible to assess ongoing international conflicts by analyzing the dynamics, identify general trends in their development and determine the role of the UN in their settlement.
The degree of development of the topic. In the process of working on the dissertation, numerous works of Russian and foreign political scientists and historians were used. It should be noted the almost complete absence of comprehensive studies on this topic in Western and Russian science. Partially, this topic is touched upon in the works of Russian and foreign scientists: N.V. Aleksandrov "Ways and methods of resolving ethno-political conflicts in the modern world", M.V. Andreeva "Modern international legal aspects of reforming the UN Security Council", SV. Shatunovsky-Byurno "Improving the effectiveness of the UN, international legal aspects", D.V. Polikanova "Conflicts in Africa and the activities of international organizations to resolve them", Getacheu Jigi Delixsa "Ethno-political conflicts in Africa", Khairy Naji Abdel Fatah Al - Oridi " The Middle East Peace Process: The Palestinian Track.
It should be noted that the majority of foreign and Russian scientists believe that the United Nations should play a leading role in preventing and resolving conflicts. An attempt to circumvent or formally "cover" the UN not only does not contribute to the process of conflict management, but also leads to its further escalation. The political processes taking place in the modern world have set the task for scientists to find the causes of the ongoing changes, identify common trends, and determine the significance of the UN in maintaining the balance of power in the political arena.
Sources and literature. In the study, the author relied on documentary sources, Russian and foreign works and publications.
The main sources were UN documents, and one of the main ones is the UN Charter, which contains the principles of international relations, namely: national self-determination, the sovereign equality of states, the prohibition on the use of force in international relations, the assertion of fundamental human rights, etc. The resolutions of the UN Security Council and the official reports of the Secretary General on their implementation, documents of the General Assembly, statements by the Chairman of the UN Security Council, as well as agreements between various parties on a ceasefire, on cooperation, etc. were also studied and analyzed.
Another important source was the materials of the relevant Internet sites: www.un.org, www.un.org/russian , www.un.org/russian/document/centre .
During the work, the dissertation relied on the works of Russian scientists, among which it is necessary to highlight the following authors: L.N. Abaev, E.P. Bazhanov, E.G. Baranovsky, A.V. Bursov, S. Gorov, L.E. Grishaeva , K.M. Dolgov, V.E. Dontsov, S.A. Egorov, A.G. Zadokhin, T.A. Zakaurtseva, G.G. .Kulmatov, M.M.Lebedeva, V.F.Li, A.V.Mitrofanova, G.S.Nikitina, E.M.Primakov, G.A.Rudov, S.V.Tyushkevich, E.V.Frolova , O.O.Khokhlysheva, P.A.Tsygankov, S.A.Shlyakov, etc.
Among the works devoted to the problem of the Middle East settlement, one should note the book by E.M. Primakov "The World after September 11", where the author considers possible approaches to resolving international conflicts, in particular the Middle East, which creates fertile ground for international terrorism, substantiates the importance of strengthening the role of the UN in connection with the events of September 11, 2001, which changed public opinion on the problems of international security and stability.
MM. Lebedeva in the monograph "Political Settlement of Conflicts" calls modern conflicts one of the leading factors of instability on the globe. Being difficult to resolve, they tend to grow and involve an increasing number of participants, which poses a serious threat not only to the participants, but to the entire world community. This threat increases significantly if we take into account that the largest environmental disasters are possible even in the event of small local conflicts. The 1991 Persian Gulf War clearly demonstrated the danger to the planet's ecology that arson of oil wells could pose. It took the efforts of many countries to extinguish fires at wells, as well as to clean the surface of the earth from oil pollution.
S.A. Tyushkevich in his book "A New Redistribution of the World" analyzes the problems of strategic and military security in the context of the process of globalization at the beginning of the 21st century, referring to aggressive wars in Yugoslavia and Iraq and the behavior of the United States. He believes that military force as an instrument of politics retains its importance, and the world continues to live according to the laws, when the preferential right to influence the state of international relations is assigned to those who have greater military power. This was confirmed by the US aggression against Iraq in March-April 2003.
Among the works devoted to the classification of conflicts and methods of their settlement, one should single out the work of E.G. Baranovsky "Peace Insurance", where the author assesses the role of the UN. E.G. Baranovsky evaluates the role of this international organization in the creation and improvement of mechanisms for the protection of international peace and collective security, analyzes the concept of peacekeeping and the features of PKO (peacekeeping operations) of the first, second and third generation, as well as problems associated with the implementation of PKO in practice and ways their decisions.
O.O. Khokhlysheva in the book "International Legal Problems of Forced UN Peacekeeping and Possible Solutions", examines the international legal problems of forceful UN peacekeeping and the mechanism of international legal regulation of peacekeeping operations. According to the author, legal regulation is the most priority way of influencing international relations. At the same time, the main condition for ensuring the international legal order is the need to comply with international legal norms in accordance with national legislation and international norms.
In the monograph by V.N. Fedorov "The UN - an instrument for maintaining international peace and security" provides a detailed analysis of the conceptual and practical aspects of the UN activities, describes specific historical precedents in its activities, and suggests possible options for improving peacekeeping instruments.
Deep analysis is inherent in the works of AI Nikitin, which deal in detail with the distribution of powers in the field of peacekeeping between the UN Security Council, the General Assembly and the UN Secretariat. In his book “Peacekeeping Operations: Concepts and Practice”, the author pays special attention to issues related to the use of armed forces against states that threaten international peace and security, the practical activities of the UN to intervene in conflicts, and the legal justification for peacekeeping operations using armed forces.
The dissertator also referred to the works of such foreign authors as E.J. Carvalho, B. Fassbinder, P. Calvocoressi, R. Dahrendorf, L. Koser, M. Amstutz, B. Butros-Ghali, Khairy Naji Fatah al-Oridi, G .Kissinger, S.Huntington, Nazim Mejid ad-Deirawi, etc.
Of particular interest is the book by Abulmagda A.K., Arispe L., Ashravi X. et al. “Overcoming Barriers”, which characterizes the last decade of the 20th century, marked by the disasters of people affected by conflicts, and their participants justified their actions, referring to ethnic, religious, tribal, cultural, gender or other differences. But, according to the authors, the main cause of the ongoing conflicts is a person, whether it be a leader or a member of a group. The dialogue among civilizations is an attempt to find a new opportunity to look at other peoples, their cultures and civilizations from a global, local and even individual point of view, as well as to understand the role and significance of the UN in this dialogue.
It should also be noted the book by B. Boutros - Ghali "An Agenda for Peace", where the author tried to determine the most effective measures in relation to the process of maintaining peace on the planet. As the main peacekeeping tools he proposed: preventive diplomacy, peacekeeping, peacekeeping, disarmament, post-conflict world order. At the same time, special attention is paid to preventive diplomacy, which is defined by the author as the most effective tool, representing actions aimed at preventing the emergence of a dispute between the conflicting parties, preventing the escalation of existing disputes into conflicts and limiting the spread of the latter, if they have already occurred.
To understand the general context of international relations that determined the tasks of the UN, the books of American scientists Z. Brzezinski and S. Huntington were useful.
Book 3. Brzezinski's "Grand Chessboard", dedicated to US strategy, goals and objectives of American policy, highlights as the ultimate goal the creation of a truly cooperative world community in accordance with long-term trends and the fundamental interests of mankind. At the same time, it is emphasized that it is important that there is no rival in the political arena that is capable of dominating Eurasia and, therefore, challenging America.
S. Huntington in his book "The Clash of Civilizations" singles out the conflict between groups of different civilizations as the central and most dangerous aspect of the emerging global politics. Defining Western civilization as a civilization that has a rather strong influence on global development, he does not exclude the viability of other civilizations at the same time. In the modern era, he sees in the clashes of civilizations the greatest threat to world peace, and only an international order based on their coexistence is the most reliable measure to prevent a new world war.
Of great interest is also the book of I. G. Martins “A look at the modern world”. The author holds the view that it was in its main role - the role of the guardian of peace - that the UN suffered a complete failure, and the original idea of unanimity of the 5 great powers, based on the use of the right of veto, turned into an instrument for international blackmail and for limiting the role of the UN.
Among the works of foreign and Russian works of scientists studied by the author of the dissertation, devoted to the Arab-Israeli conflict, it is impossible not to single out the dissertation work of Khairy Naji Abdel Fattah al-Oridi "The Middle East Peace Process: The Palestinian Direction", in which the author tried to find the real cause of this conflict and propose possible ways to resolve it.
The scientific novelty of the dissertation lies in the fact that it comprehensively explores the role of the UN in the settlement of international conflicts. Taking into account the new political trends that have emerged both in global development and in peacekeeping, the activities of the UN in this direction are characterized, and the main factors of the inefficiency of the UN mechanism in resolving international crises and conflicts are identified. Possible directions for reforming the UN Security Council are considered.
Practical significance. The results of the dissertation can be used in various departments of the Russian Foreign Ministry, in teaching activities, in the preparation and reading of training courses on the role of the UN in the development of international relations and the formation of a collective security system. The work may be useful for researchers, teachers and students, political scientists and specialists in international relations. The results of the study can be used in the further development of the UN peacekeeping strategy.
Dissertation structure. The work consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion, a list of sources and references, applications.
Modern conflicts and ways to resolve them in accordance with the methods of the UN
The 20th century turned out to be the most destructive and bloody. About 140-150 million people died in wars and armed conflicts over the course of a century. Some researchers are of the opinion that on the threshold of the 21st century and the third millennium, two trends have clearly emerged in matters of war and peace, expressing both optimism and anxiety. On the one hand, the positive shifts of the 1990s in relations between states give rise to the expectation of a "peaceful era" and expand the opportunity to overcome such evil as war. On the other hand, the great powers, instead of seizing the opportunity and moving towards drastic demilitarization, are maintaining the traditional approaches to military construction characteristic of the Cold War.10
According to some political scientists, modern conflicts have become one of the leading factors of instability on the globe. Being poorly managed, they tend to involve an increasing number of participants, which creates a serious threat not only to their participants, but to everyone living on earth. This threat increases significantly if we take into account that the largest environmental disasters are possible even in the event of small local conflicts. The war in the Persian Gulf in 1991, in connection with the occupation of Kuwait by Iraq, clearly demonstrated the danger to the ecology of the planet that the burning of oil wells could pose.
It took the efforts of many countries to extinguish fires at wells, as well as to clean the surface of the earth from oil pollution.
On the other hand, aggressiveness on the part of the United States and other Western countries has increased. The wars that were unleashed by the aggressors led to the death of many thousands of soldiers and civilians and damaged the economy of a number of countries, such as the war in Yugoslavia. According to Yugoslav sources, the damage from the fighting is 130 billion. dollars. For military needs, according to estimates of authoritative Western financial and political institutions, NATO has spent 8-10 billion. dollars, of which 75% were allocated by the United States.
But neither America nor other countries have realized that, in the end, there are no winners in these wars and conflicts, only losers. The trend of world political processes in the modern world testifies to the aggravation of ethnic conflicts. Wars, armed conflicts lead to the disintegration of states, to the formation of new ones, to the change of political regimes. Processes of change are natural if they are carried out in a civilized way, but changes that occur as a result of death and destruction, bloody wars and acts of violence cannot be called civilized. One of the most striking examples of this kind, characterizing the uncivilized ways of fighting for political power, is, of course, the Rwandan conflict, in which the number of victims reached 1 million people, more than 2 million people became refugees. Thus, the processes taking place in the modern world reflect the need to improve methods for preventing and resolving conflicts, which is associated with identifying their essence, causes, and consequences. An analysis of the nature of conflicts and wars has been undertaken by both thinkers of past centuries and modern scientists.
A. Smith believes that the source of conflict in society is the division of society into classes and rivalry between classes.13
According to Marx, conflict is a temporary state of society, in connection with which it is possible to achieve such a level in the development of society when conflicts disappear.
But there is another, opposite point of view, whose supporters are of the opinion that society cannot exist without conflicts, that conflict is an integral part of being. In accordance with this point of view, conflict is not a pathology, but is a norm of relations between people, a necessary element of social life, giving way to social tension, generating social changes in society. The followers of this theory are G. Simmel, L. Koser, R. Dahrendorf
According to R. Dahrendorf, society is in a state of constant conflict. The level of social tension depends on their desire and ability to change their position in society. Relations of domination and subordination, inequality in the distribution of power are the basis of the conflict.14 And since inequality in the distribution of power cannot be eliminated from the life of society, social society cannot reach a level of development at which conflicts will disappear and cease to be an integral part of being.
G. Simmel is of the opinion that the conflict consists in the emergence of certain disagreements and at the same time is a socializing force that unites the warring parties and contributes to the stabilization of society, despite the fact that it is one of the forms of disagreement.
In accordance with the theory of L. Kozer, conflicts are generated by the very essence of man and society and have a functionally positive impact on the historical process. Thus, he viewed conflict as a process contributing to the reintegration of society in the course of social change.15
But not all researchers of this problem consider conflict as a phenomenon expressed in the existence of social tension in society, the confrontation of different classes, which can lead to violence, or as a struggle for values and claims for a certain status, power, resources, a struggle in which the goal opponents is to neutralize or destroy the opponent.
M. Amstutz sees a positive meaning in most conflicts, as they have a positive impact on human life, since the conflict situation gives society dynamism. He believes that without tensions and disputes, it would be uncreative and unproductive.1 But does the end justify the means? Isn't the price for developing the creative potential of society too high? Given that modern conflicts are armed and violent, and violent conflict resolution is generally the most commonly used method of conflict resolution, all this contributes to the aggravation of chaos and instability and leads to severe economic and political crises.
Humanitarian tragedy in Rwanda
At the beginning of the 1990s, the UN faced a wave of new generation conflicts, intra-state conflicts with ethnic and religious roots. As an example, consider the tragedy in Rwanda, and the actions of the UN in resolving this conflict.
More than 10 years have passed since those tragic events in Rwanda. The civil war in Rwanda can be described as a "war of annihilation" between the ethnic Hutu majority and the Tutsi minority. Speaking of the Rwandan conflict, it should be noted that it took place on ethnic grounds. The two Tutsi tribes and the Hutus occupied different social levels, the Tutsis being higher, and the Hutu had a subordinate position, despite the fact that they represented the ethnic majority. Between these tribes throughout history there were clashes on interethnic grounds. Subsequently, these clashes escalated into a brutal massacre, which took on terrifying proportions. The most severe conflict lasted more than 3 months. During this period, about 1 million people died. Human.
For the first time, an extremist orientation appeared in 1962, when Rwanda gained independence. The first president of Rwanda was G. Kayibanda, from the Hutu tribe. Political power was concentrated in the hands of the president and the Republican Democratic Movement party. It was with the advent of this party that extremism arose in Rwanda, as it advocated the liberation of the Hutu people, through the physical elimination and expulsion of Tutsis from the country. In response to the ideology of the ruling party with an extremist orientation, the Tutsi people created a military-patriotic movement - the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF). Subsequently, the detachments of this movement in 1990. entered Rwanda to protect the Tutsi people from Hutu hegemony. The problem was that the defense was carried out using armed struggle. Despite the fact that August 4, 1993. the Arusha Agreement was signed, which provided for the end of the civil war, the situation in the country did not improve. The events that took place on April 6, 1994 led to the escalation of the conflict, namely the fact that, on that day, a plane with President J. Habyarimana was shot down in Kigali. Whether the death of J. Habyarimana was the cause or cause is unknown, but there is no doubt that it was the death of the president that became the impetus that led to the mass extermination of civilians in Rwanda, which lasted 3 months. The events taking place in Rwanda testified to the fact that systematic, large-scale and egregious violations of international law are being committed in Rwanda. What was the main reason for these events? Undoubtedly, the main reason is the ethnic factor, which is the most difficult problem on the African continent. Also, as a factor contributing to armed actions, one can single out the contradictions that arise in the establishment and regulation of relations at various levels of government, since the conflict in Rwanda is expressed in the struggle of various ethnic groups for dominance in the authorities, disposal of the country's resources. Studying the causes of the Rwandan conflict, one should note the socio-economic factor. The socio-economic factor is the low level of economic development of African countries. (At that time, the human development index in 1993 was 0.379. The total GDP of the countries of tropical Africa did not exceed 250 billion dollars in 1993, and its growth amounted to 1.5% in 1980-1993. GNP per capita in 1993 amounted to 555 dollars, and the growth rate of this indicator in the period from 1980-1993 turned out to be negative - 0.6%). 43 The interweaving of the socio-economic factor with the ethnic one creates the basis for a conflict that is difficult to settle and resolve. From the foregoing, we can conclude that with a low level of socio-economic development, access to power is the only way to enrich a certain group and uncontrolled disposal of national wealth. Some Russian political scientists adhere to a similar point of view, believing that the escalation of ordinary inter-ethnic tension into a call for political independence occurs only when political independence becomes economically profitable.44 This happened in Rwanda as well. In 1994, after the victory in the civil war, power passed to the Tutsi tribe. What has changed in this country? The changes affected only the fact that the Tutsis from the persecuted turned into persecutors. It is possible that only when there is a realization that for one tribe there is a threat of complete annihilation (Tutsi), and for another the threat of retribution (Hutu), the hatred and mutual hostility of the two tribes will disappear, and there will be a desire to resolve the conflict peacefully. But this is impossible without strengthening democratic institutions built on the principles of respect for human rights.
New challenges and threats at the beginning of the XXI century. The UN Security Council and its role in the fight against international terrorism
At the beginning of the 21st century, the world community failed to cope with all global challenges: war, terrorism, poverty and the threat to human rights, regional, interethnic conflicts, environmental threats, the threat of the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction. But, of course, the most acute is terrorism.
The terrorist attacks that have taken place in recent years have shown that international terrorism has acquired a global character and has no geographical boundaries. They are carried out with a large number of victims, "cultivation of suicide bombers", with the processing of new technologies for taking hostages, instilling an atmosphere of fear, disorganization of society. According to V. Putin, the main weapon of terrorists is not bullets, grenades, bombs, but blackmail of the civilian population and the state. The success of a terrorist operation requires careful reconnaissance of the object of attack, surprise, maneuverability of the group and decisiveness of action.62
After the September 11 attacks in New York, the world realized the need to unite in the fight against terrorism. The Security Council has done a great deal of work; an antiterrorist coalition operating under the auspices of the UN has been formed on the basis of resolutions and conventions adopted by the UN Security Council. The antiterrorist activity of the UN is reflected in 12 international conventions and 46 resolutions of the UN Security Council. Resolution 1373 occupies a special place among them.
To build up multilateral cooperation in the fight against terrorism, on September 28, 2001, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1373. It was adopted in response to one of the most dangerous challenges of our time. It provides for measures for the comprehensive crossing of the external support of international terrorism. The measures provided for in this resolution are binding on all States. Sanctions are provided for states that do not comply with the requirements of this resolution. Of course, all states must adhere to these requirements, because "the Security Council has qualified acts of international terrorism as a threat to international peace and security." It has an important political significance, as it strengthens the political and legal basis for the formation of a broad international anti-terrorist coalition, designed to resolutely counter this acute global challenge based on the UN Charter and universally recognized norms of international law”63.
In accordance with this resolution, each state is obliged to refrain from organizing, inciting, assisting or participating in terrorist acts in other states. It is very important in the fight against terrorism, as it obliges states to take the following actions: preventing and suppressing the financing of terrorist acts; criminalizing the willful provision or collection of funds, by any means, directly or indirectly, by their citizens or in their territories; in case of identification of persons committing or attempting to commit terrorist acts, to block funds, other financial assets, economic resources; to prohibit its citizens or any persons and organizations in its territory from providing any funds, financial assets or economic resources, directly or indirectly, for use in the interests of persons who commit or attempt to commit acts of terrorism; take the necessary measures to prevent the commission of terrorist acts, by early warning of other states, through the exchange of information; deny safe haven to those who finance, plan, support or commit terrorist acts; take all measures to ensure that those who finance, plan, assist or commit terrorist acts do not use their territory for these purposes against other states; bring to justice those involved in the financing, planning, preparation or commission of terrorist acts. Qualify acts of terrorism as serious criminal offences; interact with each other in the course of a criminal investigation or prosecution relating to the financing or support of terrorist acts; prevent the movement of terrorists or terrorist groups through effective border controls.64 But it should be noted that for the effective application of all these measures in practice, it is necessary to intensify and accelerate the exchange of operational information, in accordance with international law and domestic legislation; cooperate within the framework of bilateral and multilateral mechanisms and agreements; ensure that perpetrators and organizers of terrorist acts and their accomplices do not abuse refugee status, in accordance with international law, and that references to political motives are not recognized as grounds for rejecting requests for the extradition of suspects.
Thus, Resolution 1373 contributes to the unification of the efforts of all countries in the fight against international terrorism; it covers not only political issues related to this problem, but also financial and legal ones. Creates a legal foundation that countries can rely on to counter this threat. Financing and supporting persons who commit or attempt to commit acts of terrorism are criminalized. The measures envisaged by this resolution are aimed at strengthening the mechanism for monitoring the implementation of this sanctions regime, increasing the level of cooperation in the implementation of the requirements of Security Council resolutions.
Resolution 1373 is based on the articles of the seventh chapter of the UN Charter, and defines terrorism as a threat to global peace and security, but does not give a clear definition of the concept of "terrorist", this allows each state to maneuver and act at its own discretion.
The Counter-Terrorism Committee (CTC) has been established to monitor the fulfillment by all states of their obligations in anti-terrorist activities. On February 20, 2003, an open meeting of the UN Security Council was held on the problem of combating international terrorism. Those present expressed their opinion on the need for further comprehensive support of the Counter-Terrorism Committee of the UN Security Council, and the main areas of the CTC's activities were identified:
1. establishing cooperation between the Committee and regional structures;
2. providing technical assistance to states in building up anti-terrorist potentials, preventing a possible link between "terrorists and weapons of mass destruction."
The main factors of inefficiency of the UN mechanism in the settlement of international crises and prospects for the development of the UN
Increasingly in recent years one can hear criticism of the UN regarding the ineffectiveness of the ongoing operations, the tools and methods used to resolve a particular conflict. But if we objectively consider the current situation, we can note that along with fatal mistakes, there were also successful peacekeeping operations. Miscalculations and mistakes are due to the fact that in today's dynamic, rapidly developing world, it found itself in an unusual situation where interstate conflicts gave way to civil wars, the collapse of the bipolar world led to the creation of new states, and new types of threats to international peace and security emerged. There is a reduction in the role of the UN and the Security Council. Increasingly, there is a violation of the principles of the UN, ignoring the resolutions of the UN Security Council, the application of sanctions against some countries contrary to the decisions of the Council members. But is it possible in this situation to say that the decrease in the role of the UN, the violation of its principles, the use of forceful methods, is due to the inefficiency in the activities of the UN, its inability to timely and adequately respond to the current situation? Of course not. In our opinion, this happens for one reason, which is that the United States, Great Britain and other countries neglect the norms of international law. One of the main arguments for criticism of the activities of the UN is the inability of the UN to quickly respond and make decisions that contribute to the prevention of conflict. In our opinion, this argument is not sufficiently substantiated, since the UN Standby Arrangement System is functioning successfully. The states that have joined this system maintain contingents and equipment in a state of high readiness to provide, if necessary, for peacekeeping operations under the auspices of the UN, and the intensity of the process of deepening UN cooperation with regional organizations leads to a coalition of states in order to quickly respond to a crisis situation. In our opinion, one of the main factors that reduces the role of the UN in settling international conflicts is that it has failed to remove the presence of WMD and nuclear weapons from the control of sovereign states. After the Cold War, there was hope that the arms race would stop, but a reverse wave followed - even non-rich countries are trying to acquire nuclear weapons, because having nuclear weapons is the only way to protect themselves from the threat from the major nuclear powers.
Another factor of the mechanism's inefficiency was revealed in the process of analyzing the experience of the UN in conflict resolution, for example, Yugoslavia or Abkhazia, it only manages to stop hostilities or transfer the conflict to the post-war period. But it is not possible to eliminate the cause of the conflict, which returns the situation to its original position. The cessation of hostilities does not eliminate the cause of the conflict, but only delays the solution of the problem, postponing its solution for an indefinite period.
But there is another point of view. According to many analysts, the failure of the UN in fulfilling its statutory task is due to the fact that disputes and threatening situations should be put on the agenda of the Security Council only by directly affected parties. But this is contrary to the provision of Article 36 of the Charter, according to which "any member of the UN may refer to the Security Council or the General Assembly any dispute or any situation that may give rise to international friction or dispute." But in our opinion, in this case, a situation arises in which, if the disputing parties, for some reason, are not concerned that the issue be submitted for consideration (For example, as was the case with the USA and the USSR during the Vietnam War or with Iran and Iraq in 1980), the issue will not be discussed at all, which means that the main mechanism that the founders of the UN hoped for - third party pressure on the parties directly involved in the conflict to reach a settlement will not be used. But at the same time, the armed intervention of third countries in conflicts related to the struggle for secession could only take place with the sanction of the Security Council and for the international community not to recognize the secession and formation of a new state if it happened against the will of the “mother” state.94
The Secretary General has a direct influence on the efficiency of the UN activities. Since, given the fluctuations in the Security Council, one could hope that it was the Secretary General who was responsible for ensuring that the situation that could lead to war was considered by the Council at an early stage in accordance with Article 99 “... The Secretary General has the right to bring to the attention of the Council Security Council on any matter which, in its opinion, may threaten the maintenance of international peace and security." The lack of completeness of information also reduces the efficiency of the General Secretary, preventing timely decisions to be made to resolve disputes. But not only the lack of completeness of information hinders the activities of the UN Secretary General. Thus, according to Boutros Ghali Boutros, who was the UN Secretary General from 1991-1996, he should have independence and autonomy in decision-making, as provided for by the UN Charter.95
As the next factor, I would like to note the so-called "timeliness factor", which consists in the fact that the Council does nothing until the conflict reaches the stage of open war, and the pace of decision-making on peacekeeping operations in "hot spots" and the rules that were followed when determining the parameters of such operations are not acceptable and are largely outdated. In turn, this is contrary to the UN Charter, namely, in accordance with Article 34 of the UN Charter, “The UN Security Council is authorized to investigate any dispute or any situation that may lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether the continuation of this dispute or situation threaten the maintenance of international peace and security”, it follows from this article that the Council should examine situations that have not reached the stage of open conflict and determine whether this situation can become a hotbed of conflict. Chapter VI of the UN Charter highlights a whole range of procedures that the UN Security Council must carry out to prevent disagreements that could lead to friction. These include: investigations (Art. 34), consideration of Art. 35 “Any member of the organization may report any dispute or situation of the nature specified in Art. 34, to the attention of the UN Security Council or the General Assembly”, a State which is not a Member of the UN may also bring to the attention of the UN Security Council or the General Assembly any dispute to which it is a party if it assumes obligations in advance in respect of that dispute. peaceful settlement of disputes provided for in this Charter, and in accordance with Art. 36, the UN Security Council is authorized at any stage of a dispute, the continuation of which could threaten the maintenance of international peace and security, to recommend appropriate procedures or methods of settlement. In Art. 33 states that the parties to the conflict should first of all try to resolve the dispute by negotiation, inquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitration, litigation, recourse to regional bodies or agreements, or other peaceful means of their choice. All these methods are aimed at preventing the situation from reaching an armed conflict. Unfortunately, today the UN Security Council does not adhere to these articles of the Charter and is inactive until the situation reaches the stage threatening international peace and security. Sometimes the intervention occurs at a time when it is very difficult to resolve the conflict, and sometimes it is not even possible.
Comparison of the lofty and noble aspirations proclaimed in the UN Charter with those implemented in practice, with real methods and methods of their implementation, as well as the results and consequences of many UN actions, cannot but cause mixed feelings. The generalized indicator of the effectiveness of the UN for 55 years is as follows: at the end of the twentieth century. more than 1.5 billion people lived on less than $1 a day. More than 1 billion adults, mostly women, could not read or write; 830 million people suffered from malnutrition; 750 million people did not have access to adequate housing or health care.
The United Nations has certainly played a prominent role in history and will leave a stronger mark on it than its predecessor, the League of Nations. Figuratively speaking, the UN played the role of a kind of international constitutional assembly to coordinate the rules of law, which have become common not only for individuals, but also for entire states. And in this capacity, a lot has been done.
The undoubted achievement is the very unification of all peoples and states of the planet under the common banner of ensuring international peace and security. An unconditional achievement is also the recognition of the principle of the sovereign equality of all states and the universal obligation not to interfere in each other's internal affairs. Thanks to the world organization, the share and role of secret diplomacy have significantly decreased, the world has become more open, and humanity has become more informed about what is happening in it. The annual sessions of the General Assembly, which bring together the leading figures of almost all states of the world, give each state the opportunity to address the international community with its problems and concerns, and the inhabitants of the planet to find out in a timely manner what worries humanity as a whole in the first place.
With the active participation of the UN, important international legal acts were developed and adopted, which, in a certain sense, determined the course of world politics in the second half of the 20th century. Suffice it to say that already the first resolution, adopted by the General Assembly on January 24, 1946, dealt with the problems of the peaceful use of atomic energy and the elimination of atomic and other types of weapons of mass destruction.
Continuing the traditions of the League of Nations, the UN organized the work of its permanent body - the international Conferences on Disarmament in Geneva. It discussed the main ideas of the treaties on the prohibition of nuclear weapons tests: first in the atmosphere, underground and under water (signed in 1963), and then over the seas and oceans (1971). It also discussed the main ideas of the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, according to which the nuclear powers pledged not to provide nuclear weapons to other countries, and states that did not yet possess such weapons - not to develop or produce them. The Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty was adopted by the UN General Assembly on September 10 and has been open for signature since September 24, 1996, that is, more than half a century after the adoption of the first UN General Assembly resolution on the elimination of atomic and other weapons of mass destruction. In 1972, an agreement was signed banning the development, production, and storage of bacteriological weapons, and 20 years later (in 1992), a similar document was signed with regard to chemical weapons. In 1990, it was possible to achieve the conclusion of an agreement on the reduction of conventional armed forces in Europe.
Mankind has long enjoyed the riches of the seas and oceans, but so far only a small fraction of what they can give people. Land, rivers and lakes have already been divided among peoples and states, belonging to those who live in the respective territories. Huge wealth is at the bottom of the seas and oceans, which are international. How to use them and on the basis of what right?
In 1958, the UN member states signed the Convention on the Continental Shelf, according to which the shelf of the internationally agreed width is divided among all coastal states. In 1982, an international convention on the law of the sea was concluded. In connection with the beginning of space exploration, the question arose about the ownership of space objects and their natural resources. After lengthy discussions, in 1979 an agreement was signed on the activities of states on the Moon and other celestial bodies. These agreements and the Convention on the Continental Shelf proclaimed space, the deep seabed and its mineral resources common heritage of mankind.
According to these international agreements, it was established that:
1) the sphere of the common heritage of mankind is not subject to any appropriation by states, individuals and legal entities;
2) when using the resources of the common heritage of mankind, the interests of the entire international community should be taken into account;
3) states are obliged to ensure that the activities of their organizations and individuals in areas of the common heritage of mankind are carried out in strict accordance with international rules;
4) when developing resources in these areas, the necessary measures to protect the environment should be taken.
Another important field of activity of the UN is its assistance to the process of eliminating colonial dependence and gaining state independence by the peoples of Africa, Asia and the Pacific and Atlantic basins. An exceptionally important role in this process was played by the UN General Assembly in 1960. Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples". In accordance with it, more than 60 former colonies received state independence and became members of the UN. By the day of the 50th anniversary of the UN (in 1995), there were still 17 self-governing territories in the world. The jubilee session of the General Assembly declared the year 2000 the year of the end of colonialism. The UN also made a certain positive contribution to the process of settling political and ethnic conflicts in individual countries.
The role of the UN in the development of an international code of human rights is especially significant. The inalienability and inalienability of human rights is already mentioned in the UN Charter itself. It also says about the mission of the UN, which consists in the need "... to carry out international cooperation in solving international problems of an economic, social, cultural and humanitarian nature and in promoting and developing respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all, without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion”. Of lasting importance are Universal Declaration of Human Rights and adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1966 and entered into force in 1976. Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights” and " Covenant on Civil and Political Rights". The states that signed them pledged to create all the necessary conditions for the realization of the human rights and freedoms proclaimed here. Many dozens of declarations and conventions on the rights and freedoms of various strata and groups of the population have been adopted in the development of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the international covenants on human rights. The achievements of the UN include the above-mentioned activities of the UN specialized agencies (UNESCO, WHO, ILO, etc.)
The UN achieved the greatest success in those areas of activity where the rivalry of the leading powers of the world was weaker. Although it cannot be denied that it was the leading powers of the world that made the most significant contribution to this success. Oddly enough, it was the rivalry between the USA and the USSR and the systems of social relations they personified that played a good service to mankind, and significantly advanced it along the path of progress. Thus, over the 85 years of the 20th century, despite two devastating world wars, the world production of goods and services increased by more than 50 times. 80% of this colossal growth occurred during the period of the most acute confrontation between the two systems - from 1950 to 1985. During this period, the economic growth rate in the world was the highest in the history of mankind - about 5% annually. Of course, such development became possible due to many factors, including the scientific and technological revolution. In conditions of intense rivalry among themselves, the states sought to use them to the maximum advantage for themselves. All this taken together made it possible to achieve the highest rates of economic growth and the longest cycle of crisis-free development in the world. The merits of the UN and its specialized agencies in these successes are significant. In the 1990s, after the collapse of the USSR, "the ideological conflicts and divisions of the bipolar world have been replaced by ethnic and religious intolerance, political ambitions and greed, and are often exacerbated by the illegal trade in weapons, jewelry and drugs." The rate of economic growth also dropped significantly.