Japan in the second half of the twentieth century. Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the 20th century
International social movements
After the Second World War, to a new stage of development
mass social movements arose. Particularly wide
cue scale they received in the 70-80s. Some of them originated outside
framework of political parties, reflecting the crisis of political
parties as an institution of a democratic society.
Leading social movements spoke out in defense of peace,
democracy and social progress, against all manifestations
reaction and neo-fascism. Social movements of modern
they make a great contribution to the protection of the environment,
civil rights and freedoms, fight for the participation of workers
in the management of enterprises and the state. wide
social movements support fair
requirements of women, youth, national minorities.
The leading role in many movements belonged to the workers.
chim. However, in recent decades, the social composition of many
gih social movements has expanded significantly. In some
some of them include representatives of all social strata
contemporary Western societies.
Communists. An important role in the victory over fascism was played by
whether the communists. Heroic struggle on the fronts and behind enemy lines,
active participation in the resistance movement in the enslaved
political parties in the world. Their influence and numbers are
increased. If in 1939 there were 61 communist
party numbering about 4 million, then by the end of 1945 the communi-
political parties existed in 76 countries, which unite
hired 20 million people. In the early postwar years, the number
communists grew even more. In 1950, 81
party, and the number of communists grew to 75 million people.
In 1945-1947, the communists were part of the coalition
the governments of France, Italy, Austria, Belgium, Denmark,
Iceland, Norway and Finland. Their representatives were
elected to the parliaments of most states of Western Europe
ropy. In the period from 1944 to 1949, the Communist parties became the ruling
countries of Central and South of Eastern Europe and in several countries
Asia, later - in Cuba.
During the war years (1943) the Comintern was dissolved. However
the dependence of the communist parties on the CPSU remained. New tasks
demanded the strengthening of international ties of the communist
tov of the planet. In September 1947, a meeting was held in Poland
representatives of the Communist Parties of the USSR, Bulgaria, Hungary,
Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, France and
Italy. Informational reports were heard at the meeting
communication about the activities of the parties represented at the meeting.
The question of the international situation was also discussed. AT
of the adopted Declaration, the Communist Parties were given fundamental
tasks of the struggle for peace, democracy, national sovereignty
Tet, for the rallying of all anti-imperialist forces. For coor-
dynamism of the activities of the communist parties, the exchange of experience was
a decision was made to establish an Information Bureau and establish
publishing house. At meetings held in June
1948 in Romania and in November 1949 in Hungary, were adopted
documents on the defense of peace, the need to strengthen unity
working class and communists.
Serious disagreements between the CPSU and the Communist Party of the South
Slavia, Stalin's pressure on other communist parties led to the
exclusion from the Information Bureau of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia. After 1949
The information bureau did not meet. Subsequently, the connection between com-
parties began to be carried out in the form of bilateral and multi-
foreign meetings and international meetings on voluntary
basis.
In 1957 and 1966, international conferences were held in Moscow.
scheniya representatives of the communist parties. Most
actual problems of the communist movement, demo-
ratiy, peace and social progress are reflected in
documents adopted at the meetings. However, in subsequent
years, dangerous tendencies and discrepancies began to appear,
associated with the departure of the leadership of the Communist Party of China from the
sism-leninism and proletarian internationalism.
In the 1960s, there was a significant deterioration in relations
between the CPSU and the Communist Party of China, between the CCP and other
munist parties. The gap between the CPC and the CPSU is hard
affected the unity of the MKD. Some communist parties switched to
Maoist positions, in others Maoist groups emerged. Os-
The third crisis in the MKD arose in connection with the introduction of troops from states
members of the Warsaw Pact to Czechoslovakia. 24 compar-
tia, including Italian and French, condemned the military
intervention. After that, with difficulty, it was possible to convene a meeting
Communist and Workers' Parties in July 1969 Differences
continued to intensify. Five communist parties refused to sign
final document of the Meeting, four parties, including the Italian
Liana and Australian, agreed to sign only one
section, some signed the document with reservations.
In 1977, the General Secretaries of the influential Communist Parties
Western Europe - Italian (E. Berlinguer), French
(J. Marchais) and Spanish (S. Carrillo) adopted a declaration
against the orientation of the MKD towards Soviet model socialism. New
The trend was called "Eurocommunism". "Eurocommunis-
you" stood for the peaceful path of development of countries to socialism.
The USSR was criticized for the lack of democracy and violations
solution of human rights. The countries of "real socialism" are condemned
fought for the subordination of the state to the party. "Eurocommunists"
expressed the opinion that the Soviet Union had lost its revolutionary
luscious role.
The new trend was supported by many communist parties, including
le Great Britain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Japan. Not-
which parties - Australia, Greece, Spain, Finland,
Sweden - split. As a result, in these countries education
elk for two, and even three communist parties.
In recent decades, the divergence of ideas has increased
political orientation of communist parties with re-
al social development. This led to a crisis of
dov, politicians and organizations of communist parties. More
all he struck were those parties that were in power and
responsible for the development of their countries. Crash "re-
socialism” in the countries of Eastern Europe, leaving the stage
we of the CPSU have made obvious the need for a serious re-
review of traditional views, politics and organizations
communist parties, their development of a new ideological
political orientation corresponding to what is happening in
world of profound change.
Socialists and Social Democrats. Socialist in-
ternational. In 1951 at a congress in Frankfurt am Main
The Socialist International (SI) was founded, which
ry proclaimed himself the successor of the RSI, which had existed since
1923 to 1940 The leading role in the creation of the SI was played by the British
Labor Party, SPD, socialist parties of Belgium,
Italy, France. At first, it included 34 members
socialist and social democratic parties, numbering
about 10 million people.
In the program declaration “Goals and objectives of democratic
socialism” the goal was put forward: gradually, without class
struggle, revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat to achieve
transformation of capitalism into socialism. Peaceful evolution
ion process was opposed to the Marxist-Leninist
doctrine of class struggle. The declaration stated that
The main threat to peace is the policy of the USSR. Creation of SI
and his strategy in the first post-war decades strengthened
confrontation between two branches of the international labor movement
nia - social democratic and communist.
In the late 50s and especially in the 60s - early 70s, social
democracy has significantly expanded popular support for its
politicians. This was facilitated by objective circumstances,
which favored the implementation of the policy of social
foot maneuvering. The expansion of co-
becoming the Socialist International. Joining its socialist ranks
parties in Asia, Africa and Latin America led to
lara- tion “The World Today – a Socialist Perspective”
knew the need for peaceful coexistence of states
with different social order, contained a call for inter-
international detente and disarmament. Subsequently, SI all ak-
more actively advocated the strengthening of peace and universal security.
In the 70s, the SI continued to adhere to the ideology and
principles of "democratic socialism". More attention
began to be given to the problems of the socio-economic situation
zheniya workers. SI is more active and more constructive
stood up for peace and disarmament, supported the new "Eastern
policy” by W. Brandt, Soviet-American agreements on
issues of arms limitation and reduction, for strengthening
discharge, against " cold war».
In the 1980s, the Social Democrats faced certain
our difficulties. The number of some parties has been reduced. AT
leading Western countries (England, Germany), they were amazed
in the elections and ceded power to the neoconservatives. Difficulties
The 80s were generated by a number of factors. More sharply manifest
There were conflicting consequences of scientific and technological revolution and economic growth.
Economic and other global problems have become aggravated. Not
managed to stop unemployment, and in a number of countries it took
menacing proportions. An active offensive was carried out by the neo-conservative
active forces. On many exciting issues, the SI has developed
new strategy and tactics, which are reflected in
program documents of the social democratic parties and in
Declaration of principles of the Socialist International, adopted in 1989.
The ultimate goal proclaimed by the Social Democrats is
consists in achieving social democracy, i.e. in providing
all social rights of workers (the right to work, education
care, recreation, treatment, housing, social security), in
elimination of all forms of oppression, discrimination, exploitation
man by man, in the guarantee of all conditions for free
development of each personality as a condition for free development
the whole society.
The goals of democratic socialism must be achieved,
emphasize the social democratic parties, peaceful, de-
by democratic means, by gradual evolution
society, through reforms, class cooperation. AT
post-war years, the Social Democrats were in power in
a number of countries (Austria, England, Germany, France, Spain, Sweden)
tion, Norway, Finland).
Despite the fact that they often made concessions to the bourgeois
zia and big capital, an objective assessment of activities
testifies that, first of all, they reflected and
protect the interests of workers. Significant contribution to the protection
democracy, formation and development of the state, welfare
yaniya, in improvement financial situation workers, in
promotion of their countries on the path of social progress, in
the creation of universal peace and international security, in improving
the solution of relations between the West and the East, in solving the complex
ny problems of the "third world".
In 1992, the 19th SI Congress took place. It took place in Berlin.
The French socialist Pierre Maurois was elected chairman. AT
in a number of countries, new socialist and social democratic
political parties, including those in the independent states of the CIS.
The parties of the Socialist International are represented by large
factions in the parliaments of many Western countries.
leafy international. The congress was attended by 1200
delegates representing 143 parties from 100 countries. O
the importance of the congress being held is also evidenced by the fact that among the delegates
the President of Argentina and eleven pre-
prime ministers. In a unanimously adopted declaration among
many important provisions reflecting modern problems
we are the world Special attention was given to the need for
give the processes of globalization social change”, “Improve
build representative democracy”, defend “the balance
between rights and obligations.
Despite the fact that in recent decades the leading
Western countries, the "neo-conservative wave" has intensified, the social
democracy has had and is having a significant impact on the political
civil and social life in the Western world. Private pre-
entrepreneurship remains regulated, democracy universal.
The social rights of workers are guaranteed by the state.
Trade unions. In the postwar years, the role
trade unions - the largest organization of employees of hired
leg labor. By the beginning of the 90s, only those united in international
The people's trade union organizations numbered over 315 million.
Human. Already in the 1950s and 1960s, millions of members of the WFTU, created
at the 1st World Trade Union Congress in Paris in September
1945, actively advocated the improvement of the material situation
zheniya workers. Much attention was paid to the fight against
Botica, the development of the social insurance system,
the rights of trade unions. Important place in activity
trade unions were occupied with issues related to the struggle of the people
masses for prohibition atomic weapons, cessation of wars and re-
regional conflicts, strengthening global security.
The national
but-liberation movement. Development of strategy and tactics
international trade union movement, restoration
unity of trade unions, the struggle for the vital rights of workers,
for peace and national independence of the working people were
sacred World Trade Union Congresses: in Vienna (1953),
in Leipzig (1957), in Moscow (1961), in Warsaw (1965), in
Budapest (1969). They played an important role in raising the
prestige and growing influence of the WFTU in the international trade union
nom movement.
At the World Congress in Budapest (1969) was approved
ren “Orientation document for trade union action”. This
document oriented workers to seek the elimination
economic and political domination of monopolies,
buildings of democratic institutions of power, ensuring ac-
active participation of the working class in the management of the economy. AT
the focus was also on the unity of the international
new trade union movement. In the 1970s and 1980s, the WFTU was
zhnemu gave priority to the problems of reduction
armaments and strengthening peace, ending the race
weapons, supported the peoples of Indochina, Af-
rica, latin america, which in different years in a separate
countries fought to strengthen their independence,
for democratic freedoms. Questions played an important role
unity of action. The WFTU called on other international
trade union centers to joint action in defense of
the interests of the working people, the fight against unemployment, to repulse
monopoly capital. All past during this period
peace congresses and trade union conferences showed all
the variety of forms of struggle of the WFTU in upholding indigenous in-
the interests of the workers.
An important role in the international trade union movement
played by the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
(ICSP). It includes trade unions of industrial and some
developing countries. For better coordination of activities
of the trade unions of the ICFTU has created regional organizations
nization: Asia-Pacific, Inter-American, African
Kanskaya. As part of the ICFTU, in 1973 the European
trade union confederation (ETUC). ICSP has become more energetic
but to come out in support of the socio-economic demands
of working people, for the strengthening of peace and disarmament, against
specific acts of aggression. She welcomed the democratic
sky revolutions in the countries of Eastern Europe, perestroika in
USSR, supported the efforts of the international community to
assistance to them, more actively began to advocate for
reduction of regional military conflicts.
In the postwar years, Western countries intensified their
activities of trade unions under the influence of the church. AT
1968 International Confederation of Christian Trade Unions
(MKHP) changed its name. XII Congress of the ICCP post-
decided to call the organization the World Confederation of Workers
yes (VKT). The CGT protects human rights and trade union freedoms.
Yes, he is fighting for the improvement of the situation of the population in the "third world",
calls for the activation of women in public life; at-
calls for a fight against all forms of exploitation and discrimination
tions. An important place is given to the global problems of modern
ness, especially environmental. CGT supported change
developments in Eastern Europe, welcomes the positive
changes in international relations.
Trade unions, being the most massive organizations
labor movement, contributed to its significant success
boor, social progress in general.
In the early 1990s, the world trade union movement
counted, according to various estimates, 500 - 600 million people, which
accounted for 40 - 50% of the army of hired labor. They don't cover
the entire mass of employees in the developed countries of the West,
including those predominantly employed in traditional industries
material production.
The crisis state of trade unions in modern conditions
due to the inadequacy of their activities, the profound changes
changes that have occurred in the nature of labor and the structure of work
employment in the leading Western countries, under the influence of engineering. Prof.
unions are trying to change their strategy and tactics, in a more
broadly to protect the interests of workers, more
the mania to pay attention to global problems, to strengthen cooperation
ties with other mass democratic movements.
Other mass social movements. In post-war
years, in almost all countries there has been an outflow from traditional political
political parties and trade unions. Disillusioned members of these
organizations sought to gain more freedom, did not want
put up with rigid ideological attitudes. Especially
it was typical for student youth. Appeared
a bunch of various groups who are on a voluntary basis
united in movements not associated with any strict discipline
noah, nor a common ideology.
In the context of crisis phenomena in the socio-economic
and political spheres in the 70s, new movements arose,
covering people of different social strata, different ages
Comrade and political views.
Mass social movements in the 70s - 80s had
or different directions. The most common and
which had a significant impact on the socio-political
life of the Western world were environmental and anti-war
nye movements.
Representatives of the environmental movement in many countries
nah actively oppose super-industrialization, not-
rational exploitation natural resources. Special attention
mania is given to problems associated with danger
the development of an ecological crisis into an ecological catastrophe
stanza, which can lead to the death of human qi-
vilization. In this regard, the environmental movement
et for a ban on nuclear weapons tests, limiting
and the cessation of military activities, disarmament. Eco-
logical movement considers disarmament and related
with him, the conversion of military production as the most important
potential source of additional resources, material
al and intelligent, to solve environmental pro-
blem. Among mass social movements, environmental
currents are the most organized and developed in
theoretical and practical plans. They created many
some countries have their political parties "green" and international
native organizations (Greenpeace), a single faction in the Euro-
parliament. The Greens movement supports active
cooperation within the framework of the UN, many non-
organizations.
Among the mass movements in Western countries, an important
one hundred takes the anti-war movement. Back in the years of the Second World
howling war, it consolidated on the democratic anti-
fascist basis, which in the post-war period became the base
mass peace movement. At the II World Con-
Congress in Warsaw (1950) the World Peace Council is established
(SCM), which organizes the campaign for the signing of the Stock-
Holm Appeal, which qualified nuclear war as
crime against humanity. In the mid-1950s, in the country
nah West widely developed anti-nuclear pacifism.
In the second half of the 1950s, many Western countries created
there are mass anti-nuclear organizations or their coalitions. AT
In the early 1970s, the anti-war movement gained momentum.
in Vietnam. In the second half of the 70s - early 80s,
supporters of the anti-war movement actively opposed it.
throne bomb, deployment of American and Soviet missiles
medium range in Europe.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the women's movement intensified. In line with the youth
reliable rebellion, a neo-fiminist movement arose,
fallen from the positions of the latest concepts of "mixed", and not
"sexually divided" society, and "social consciousness"
gender”, overcoming “violence against women”. Represented
leaders of the women's movement in Western countries are actively
yut against the monopoly of men on power in society, for equal
representation of women in all spheres of activity and all
social institutions.
Civil activism has increased in recent decades
women. They are increasingly influencing politics
are elected to the parliaments of many countries, hold high
government posts. Women's interest in the global
ny problems of our time. Women actively participate
in the anti-war movement. All this speaks of the emerging
the trend of increasing the role of women in the life of their countries and
rotation of the women's movement into an influential force of modern
noah democracy.
At the turn of the 60s in the USA and other Western countries
a youth protest movement (hippies) emerged. This is a move-
ing arose as a reaction to the specific features of society
temporary bureaucracy and totalitarianism, the desire
put all spheres of an individual's life under bureaucratic
control, the contradiction between the democratic ideo-
logic and totalitarian practice, everything growing is depersonalized
bureaucratic structure. Hippie style and slogans
became quite popular in the 70's and 80's.
years, having had a strong influence on the value world of Western
Yes. Many ideals of the counterculture have become an integral part of
mass consciousness. Generation of hipsters put into circulation
passion for rock music, which has now become an essential element
element of traditional culture.
In a number of Western countries in the 60s - 80s, it was developed
extremism, which is traditionally divided into "left" and "right"
out." Left extremists usually appeal to the ideas of Mark-
sism-leninism and other left-wing views (anarchism, left
radicalism), declaring themselves the most consistent fighters
tsami "for the cause of the proletariat", "the working masses". They criticize
forged capitalism social inequality, suppression
personality, exploitation. Socialism is for bureaucratization,
oblivion of the principles of the "class struggle" ("The Fraction of the Red
Army" in Germany, "Red Brigades" in Italy). Rights
extremists denounce the vices of bourgeois society with extreme
conservative positions for the decline of morals, drug addiction, ego-
ism, consumerism and "mass culture", the absence of
row", the domination of the plutocracy. For both right and left
extremism is characterized by anti-communism (“Italian social
movement” in Italy, the Republican and National
but-democratic parties in Germany, various right-wing
wild and overtly fascist groups and parties in the US).
Part of the "left" extremist organizations are on the wrong
gallant position, conducts a guerrilla war, commits ter-
roristic acts.
In the 1960s and 1970s, the Western world developed and
movements such as the New Left and the New Right. Represented
members of the New Left (mainly student youth
dezh and some part of the intelligentsia) differed in different
criticism of all contemporary forms of socio-political
arrangement and organization of economic life from the positions
extreme radicalism (including terrorism) and anarchism. "But-
right” (mainly intelligentsia, technocrats and some
other privileged strata of the developed Western
countries) relied on the ideology of neoconservatism.
Modern mass social movements are
an essential part of the democratic process. A priority-
for them are the ideas of peace, democracy, social
progress, the salvation of human civilization. Public
movements are overwhelmingly supporter-
of non-violent action, believing that humane goals are not
can be achieved by inhumane means.
In the 90s of the XX century in the minds of the broad masses
developed a critical attitude towards modern
globalization processes. Later it developed into a powerful
resistance especially to economic globalization,
benefits from which the most developed countries receive
pada. Occupying a leading position in the global economy and
latest technologies, they protect their interests,
pursuing a policy of double standards. At the same time, save
economic, social and other costs of globalization are heavy
a heavy burden on the weak economies of developing
countries and the poorest social strata of the population, even in
developed countries.
Under these conditions, a new social movement directed
opposed to the politics of globalization, began to be called "anti-globalization
ballistic." Transnational in scope and character
theru, it includes representatives of various movements
protest, which are united by the rejection of the deepest social
economic inequality of the modern world.
CHAPTER 8. DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND CULTURE
After the Second World War, the most important issue was the post-war order of the world. To solve it, it was necessary to coordinate the positions of all countries participating in the anti-Hitler coalition. It was necessary to implement the measures recorded in the documents signed in Yalta and Potsdam. The preparatory work was entrusted to the Council of Foreign Ministers, established on Potsdam Conference. In July-October 1946, the Paris Peace Conference was held, which considered the draft peace treaties prepared by the Minister of Foreign Affairs with the former European allies of Nazi Germany - Bulgaria, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Finland. On February 10, 1947 they were signed. The treaties restored the pre-war borders with some modifications. The volume of reparations and the procedure for compensation for damage caused to the allied states were also determined. Political articles obligated to provide all citizens with human rights and fundamental freedoms, to prevent the revival of fascist organizations. Active participation the USSR took over in resolving all issues. In general, the peace treaties were fair and contributed to the independent, democratic development of the states with which they were concluded. Nevertheless, the differences that emerged made it impossible to settle the German problem peacefully on a mutually acceptable basis. And in 1949 the split of Germany became a historical fact. Alienation between the great powers increased. Ideological differences and various doctrines began to play a dominant role in international relations. Western countries were extremely negative about totalitarian socialism. The USSR, in turn, was also hostile to capitalism. The influence of the parties on international relations and on their weaker subjects increased more and more. The USA and the USSR considered themselves leaders placed by the course of history at the head of forces defending various social and economic systems.
The geopolitical situation changed dramatically. The revolution of the 1940s in Eastern Europe, the conclusion by the Soviet Union with the states of this region of treaties on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance formed a new system of international relations. This system was limited by the framework of states, the development of which proceeded under the conditions of the operation of the Stalinist model of socialism with all its integral features.
The aggravation of relations and the complication of the political situation in the world also occurred in connection with the Soviet Union's support for the just struggle of colonial and dependent countries for your release. The metropolises in every possible way hindered the national liberation movement. In 1949, the people's revolution in China won, leading to a radical change in the geopolitical situation in Asia, which increased the anxiety of the United States and other Western countries. All this strengthened the distrust of the two superpowers in each other, exacerbated all the existing contradictions.
A global rivalry between the USSR and the USA emerged. Both Churchill's speech in Fulton on March 5, 1946, and the Truman Doctrine put forward in March 1947 were perceived in the USSR as an open proclamation of a "cold war" that lasted more than 40 years. During all this time, the rivalry between the two great powers did not develop into a hot war, which gave reason to call this period the "cold war". It has drawn the whole planet into itself, split the world into two parts, two military-political and economic groups, two socio-economic systems. The world has become bipolar. A peculiar political logic of this global rivalry has arisen – “whoever is not with us is against us”. In everything and everywhere, each side saw the insidious hand of the enemy.
The Cold War brought militarism in politics and thinking to unprecedented proportions. Everything in world politics began to be evaluated in terms of the ratio military force, balance of arms. Western countries have adopted a bloc strategy that long years maintained confrontation in international relations. Most of the states that adopted the Marshall Plan signed the North Atlantic Treaty (NATO) in April 1949. A unified armed force was created under the command of American military leaders. The creation of a closed military-political grouping of an ideological character, directed essentially against the USSR and its allies, had a negative impact on the development of international relations.
The US policy "from a position of strength" met with a harsh response from the USSR and caused an aggravation of international tension. In 1949, the US nuclear monopoly was abolished. After the creation of thermonuclear weapons in the 50s, and after that the means of delivering them to the target (intercontinental ballistic missiles) The USSR made every effort to achieve military-strategic parity with the United States, which was realized at the turn of the 60-70s. The number of military blocs grew. In 1951 the military-political group ANZUS emerged. A "security treaty" was concluded between the US and Japan. In 1954, the SEATO bloc was created. In 1955, another closed group was formed - the Baghdad Pact. After Iraq left it, this bloc became known as CENTO. Fearing for their security, the USSR and the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe, in response to the agreement of Western countries on the remilitarization of the FRG and its admission to NATO, concluded in May 1955 in Warsaw a multilateral Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance. The signatory states provided for the provision of immediate assistance by all means in the event of an armed attack in Europe against one or more of the Warsaw Treaty member states.
A huge danger to peace on Earth was fraught with international conflicts in various regions, threatening to escalate into war. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out and lasted three years. For eight years after the war, France waged war in Indochina. In the autumn of 1956 Great Britain, France and Israel committed aggression against Egypt. In 1958, the United States undertook an armed intervention in Lebanon, and Great Britain - in Jordan. The most dangerous international crisis arose in the autumn of 1962 in connection with the situation around Cuba, which brought mankind to the brink of nuclear war. The Caribbean crisis was resolved thanks to a compromise between the USSR and the USA. The US aggression in Indochina has become protracted. It was the most brutal war of the second half of the 20th century. Vietnam has become a testing ground for the most sophisticated means of warfare, created by highly developed US industrial technologies. The US attempt to involve its allies in the war and give it the character of an international action failed. However, some countries participated in the war on the side of the United States. The enormous assistance rendered to Vietnam by the USSR, the support of the heroic Vietnamese people by all peace-loving forces forced the United States to conclude an agreement on ending the war and restoring peace in Vietnam. The Middle East remained a dangerous hotbed of conflict. The complex contradictions and intransigence of the parties led to several Arab-Israeli wars and for a long time ruled out the possibility of a peaceful settlement in this region.
However, in these difficult decades, humanity has become increasingly aware that the new World War it is not inevitable that the efforts of progressive forces can stop humanity's slide into a nuclear catastrophe.
The 1950s and 1960s were marked by an arms race on an unprecedented scale. Huge material, intellectual and other resources were wasted on the development and production of ever new means of warfare. At the same time, there was an extremely acute shortage of them to solve socio-economic problems in most countries of the world. In 1960, the USSR proposed to the Session of the UN General Assembly to consider the main provisions of the treaty on the general and complete disarmament of states under strict international control. Western countries rejected this initiative, however, the first step towards warming international relations was taken. In August 1963 Great Britain, the USSR and the USA signed in Moscow the Treaty Banning Nuclear Tests in the Atmosphere, Outer Space and Under Water.
The ever-increasing arms race, especially nuclear arms, was bringing humanity to a fatal point, and huge efforts were needed to stop this negative process. The active position of the USSR and its allies aimed at improving the international situation, the efforts of the non-aligned movement, the political realism of the leaders of a number of Western countries have brought positive results. From the beginning of the 1970s, international relations entered a phase of detente. In March 1970, the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons came into force. By the beginning of the 1990s, more than 135 states had signed it. For the European region, the Treaty between the USSR and the FRG, concluded in August 1970, was of great importance.
In 1972–1974, intensive negotiations were held at the highest level between the USSR and the USA, which led to the signing of a number of important political documents. "Fundamentals of Relations between the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United States of America" contained a platform for transferring bilateral relations to a qualitatively new level of their radical improvement.
In the same period, an agreement was concluded between the USSR and the USA on the limitation of systems missile defense(ABM), an Interim Agreement on Certain Measures in the Field of Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (OCB-1) was signed.
The improvement of relations between the two superpowers created the prerequisites for strengthening security and developing interstate cooperation on the European continent. The initiatives of the USSR and other socialist countries played a big role in this. Of no small importance was the change in the position of the FRG on questions of European policy. The coalition government of the Social Democrats, headed by Chancellor Willy Brandt, proposed a "new eastern policy", the core of which was the recognition of the post-war realities that had developed in Europe and the normalization of relations with the USSR and the countries of Eastern Europe. This gave impetus to the development of the process of strengthening pan-European security. In 1973, Helsinki hosted multilateral consultations of 33 European states, the United States and Canada on the preparation of a pan-European Conference. On July 30 - August 4, 1975, the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE) was held in Helsinki. The leaders of 35 states signed final act, which fixes the agreed principles of relations between the countries participating in the Conference, determines the content and forms of cooperation between them, and measures to reduce the risk of armed conflicts. Growing interest in developing the process started in Helsinki was shown by subsequent meetings of the CSCE participating states in Belgrade (1977-1978), Madrid (1980-1983), Stockholm (1984-1987), Vienna (1986-1989). d.), Paris (1990), Helsinki (1992).
The 1970s and 1980s were marked by an unprecedented growth in industrial, scientific and technical ties between Western countries and the USSR and other socialist countries. France, Great Britain, Austria, Italy, Belgium, Norway, Sweden, Greece, the Federal Republic of Germany and a number of other states concluded promising programs and agreements with the USSR. However, it should be noted that in the late 1970s and early 1980s the international situation escalated. The political course of the United States towards the USSR sharply tightened with the coming to power in January 1981. administration of R. Reagan. In March 1983, he launched the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). Tensions culminated in the autumn of 1983 as a result of
The territory of the USSR shot down a South Korean airliner with passengers on board.
The growth of international tension was also associated with the foreign policy of the United States and other Western countries. Almost all regions of the planet have been declared a sphere of vital US interests. Many have experienced political, economic, and often military pressure from the United States. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, Iran, Lebanon, Libya, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Grenada and other countries became objects of intervention. Tensions also increased in connection with the introduction of a limited contingent of Soviet troops into Afghanistan.
The changes that took place in the USSR with the coming to power in 1985 of new leaders made it possible to substantiate state level the foundations of new political thinking and begin their practical implementation. This led to a radical renewal of the foreign policy of the USSR. The central ideas of the new political thinking were: the idea of the priority of universal human interests over class, national, social; the idea of the interdependence of humanity in the face of the threat of rapidly advancing global problems; the idea of freedom of choice of social structure; the idea of democratization and de-ideologization of the entire system of international relations.
The new philosophy of the world made its way through concrete steps. Real confirmation of this was the development and deepening of the political dialogue between the USSR and the USA on all key issues of world politics and bilateral relations.
The Soviet-American talks at the highest level in Geneva (1985), Reykjavik (1986), Washington (1987) and Moscow (1988) led to an important result. In December 1987, the ROSMD Agreement was signed, and in June 1988, the ROSMD Agreement came into effect. This is the first agreement in history to provide for the elimination of two classes of nuclear weapons under strict international control. The result was a significant improvement in Soviet-American relations. Their further qualitative development occurred as a result of negotiations at the highest level in Washington (May-June 1990) and Moscow (July 1991). Of exceptional importance was the signing of a bilateral treaty on the limitation and reduction of strategic offensive arms. The balance of the treaty was in the interests of strengthening strategic stability and reducing the likelihood of a nuclear conflict. However, in this direction there are huge opportunities for moving forward and a more significant reduction in strategic offensive arms.
The settlement of Germany's relations and the signing of the relevant agreement on September 10, 1990 played an important role in eliminating tension in international affairs both on the planet as a whole and in Europe. In practice, this treaty drew the final line under the results of the Second World War.
Subsequently, new acute problems arose in international affairs. The collapse of the Yugoslav Federation, and then the USSR, led to the emergence of new regional conflicts that have not been resolved to date. The geopolitical situation in the world has changed, the system of international relations between the socialist states has ceased to exist. The countries of Eastern Europe reoriented towards the West. In July 1997, at the NATO summit in Madrid, it was decided to expand the alliance to include three states of the former Warsaw Pact - the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary. Approximation military structure NATO to most of the CIS states can change the geopolitical situation, can undermine the system of arms limitation treaties. Such a development of events may complicate the creation of a new European structure and destabilize the entire system of international relations. The war in the Balkans, other conflicts in the European region, the difficulties of the transition period in the countries of Eastern Europe and in the post-Soviet space pose a threat to security in Europe. This threat is complemented by aggressive nationalism, religious and ethnic intolerance, terrorism, organized crime, and uncontrolled migration. In recent years, the struggle for control over decision-making on a global scale has intensified. The greatest attention "centers of power" focus on activities that allow you to control the main financial, intellectual and information flows. The importance of control over economic processes and the development of the entire social sphere is rapidly growing. All this requires huge new efforts to preserve and strengthen peace and international security.
Entering the 21st century, humanity is faced not only with new global challenges, but also with a changed geopolitical situation. Remaining the only superpower in the world, the United States presents its leading role as a necessity, dictated not only by American national interests, but also by the desire of the world community.
The use of force in Iraq and Yugoslavia, the expansion of the North Atlantic Alliance, the use of force in other regions of the planet demonstrate the desire to establish absolute US hegemony in the world. China, Russia, India and many independent states who have and will continue to resist hegemonism. In the current situation, the true security of mankind is not connected with the deepening of confrontation between countries and peoples, but with the search for new ways and directions of comprehensive and mutually beneficial cooperation that can ensure the preservation and flourishing of human civilization.
I . Testing.
1. The split of Germany into 2 states occurred:
A) in 1945; B) in 1946; B) in 1948;D) in 1949
2. The American program of post-war assistance to European countries was called:
A) the Truman Doctrine B) the Monroe Doctrine;B) the Marshall plan D) the New Deal.
3. 1950-1953 are the years:
A) the Vietnam WarB) wars in Korea; C) wars in Afghanistan; D) the years of the Cold War.
4. The United Nations was created in:
A) April 25 - June 26, 1945; B) January 17 - March 23, 1946;
C) May 12 - June 23, 1947; D) February 1 - March 29, 1949;
5. What policy did M. Thatcher pursue as head of parliament?
A) severe restrictions on government spending; B) granting benefits to small business entrepreneurs;
C) offered a "third way" of development; D) the construction of cheap housing
6.What views did President Viscari d'Estaing hold?
A) liberal B) right-wing conservatives; B) socialist D) nationalist.
7. A feature of the Italian party-political system is:
A) frequent change of political parties;
B) the dominant position of the CDA;
C) a strong coalition of the CDA and the Socialist Party;
D) the dominant position of the Socialist Party;
8. What power did the Labor governments in Great Britain enjoy?
A) small and medium-sized entrepreneurs;
B) the active part of the labor force and trade unions;
C) the big industrial bourgeoisie;
D) the peasantry and agricultural workers.
9. Which of the following tasks becomes the main one for the state in the context of globalization?
A) pursuing a policy of protectionism in the interests of the national economy;
B) ensuring the international competitiveness of the country;
C) reducing spending on the social network;
D) carrying out nationalization industrial production;
10. Mass actions of the French in May 1968 testify to:
A) the maturing of situations leading to revolution;
B) decay traditional system values;
C) on the intensification of the activities of terrorist groups;
D) deterioration of the economic situation of the country.
11. The Italian "economic miracle" is called:
A) a dynamic leap in the development of the Italian economy;
B) stabilization of the Italian economy
C) the development of Italy according to plan;
D) a way out of the crisis at the expense of Italian entrepreneurs.
12. The confrontation between the "Western" and "Eastern" blocks, which lasted from the mid-1940s. until the mid-1980s, was called:
A) "undeclared war"; B) "policy of containment";
C) "nuclear dialogue";D) cold war.
13. Referendum on the issue of state. Italy's device (monarchy or republic) took place in:
A) 1943; B) 1945; B) 1946; D) 1954
14. The reason for the Italian economic miracle of the 50-60s. 20th century is an:
A) the presence of rich mineral deposits;
B) powerful industry in the South of the country;
B) cheap work force and introduction of advanced technologies into production ;
D) the growth of military orders from the state.
15. Operation Clean Hands 1992 in Italy revealed:
A) massive violations in the food industry;
B) the connection of the mafia with the state. apparatus on an alarming scale;
C) unfair competition in the textile industry;
D) contractual football matches.
16. Victory in the 1994 elections. won in Italy:
A) the Italian Communist Party; B) Socialist Party Italy;
C) "Forward, Italy!" (movement of S. Berlusconi); D) Christian Democratic Party of Italy.
17. "New Eastern Policy" is associated with the name:
A) W. Brandt; B) K. Adenauer; C) G. Kolya; D) G. Schroeder.
18. The main rivals in politics in Germany are the following parties:
A) the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and the Greens;
B) the CDU and the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD);
B) SPD and NSDAP;
D) CDU and communists.
19. The most influential political force in Ulster:
A) Sinn Fein ; B) IRA; B) Unionists D) Republicans.
20. New coil arms race in the late 70s is associated with:
A) With the introduction of troops into Afghanistan ;
B) With the military support of Vietnam in the fight against the United States;
C) With the introduction of troops into Czechoslovakia;
D) With the military support of India in the struggle against England.
II . Name a name, term, concept.
1. Complete the sentence: “The military, economic, political and ideological confrontation between the two systems, most clearly expressed in the creation of military-political blocs, the arms race, mutual threats, the struggle for spheres of influence in various regions of the world, crises that repeatedly put humanity on the brink of a new World War is called...
2. This term was first used by former British Prime Minister W. Churchill during a trip to the United States, in a speech on March 5, 1946 in Fulton. Describing the situation in Europe, Churchill said that “this is not the Europe for which we fought during the war years. Dropped down over her…. This term was often used in Western journalism to show one's attitude to one or another country of socialism or to all social. the camp as a whole. What is the term?
3. Who are we talking about?
During her premiership, she actively fought against the influence, which, in her opinion, had a negative impact on parliamentary democracy and economic results due to regular strikes. Her first term as prime minister was marked by a series of strikes organized by part of the trade unions in response to new legislation that limited their powers. in in
4. Determine the name of the organization (one answer):
1) a military-political union created on the initiative of the United States;
2) headquarters, located in Brussels;
3) established in 1949;
4) has a contingent of peacekeeping forces.
Answer: NATO
5. Define a term (one term):
1) scientific or philosophical theory;
2) political system;
3) a set of principles;
4) a guiding principle, either theoretical or political.
Answer: doctrine
III . Choose multiple correct answers.
1. Which 3 of the following organizations are associated with the process of European economic integration?
A) Free Trade Agreement in North America;
B) European Economic Community (EEC);
B) the International Monetary Fund;
D) European Coal and Steel Community;
E) European Free Trade Association;
E) Council for Mutual Economic Assistance
Answer: 1) ABV 2) BVD 3) GD 4) AGE
2. The political regime of the Fifth Republic in France is characterized by:
A) strengthening the power of the president;
C) strengthening the power of parliament;
D) parliamentary presidential elections.
Answer. 1) AB 2) BV 3) VG 4) AG.
§ 102. Countries of Eastern Europe in the second half of the twentieth century.
The beginning of the construction of socialism.
During the Second World War, the authority of the left forces, primarily the communists, increased significantly in the countries of Eastern Europe. In a number of states they led anti-fascist uprisings (Bulgaria, Romania), in others they led the partisan struggle. In 1945 - 1946 New constitutions were adopted in all countries, monarchies were liquidated, power passed to people's governments, large enterprises were nationalized and agrarian reforms were carried out. In the elections, the communists took a strong position in the parliaments. They called for even more radical changes, which were opposed by the bourgeois democratic parties. At the same time, a process of merging of communists and social democrats under the dominance of the former unfolded everywhere.
The communists were strongly supported by the presence of Soviet troops in the countries of Eastern Europe. In the context of the beginning of the Cold War, a bet was made on accelerating the transformations. This largely corresponded to the mood of the majority of the population, among whom the authority of the Soviet Union was great, and in the construction of socialism, many saw a way to quickly overcome post-war difficulties and further create a just society. The USSR provided these states with huge material assistance.
In the 1947 elections, the Communists won the majority of seats in the Sejm of Poland. The Seimas elected a Communist president B. Take. In Czechoslovakia in February 1948, the Communists, in the course of many days of mass meetings of workers, achieved the creation of a new government, in which they played a leading role. Soon the President E. BeNash resigned, and the leader of the Communist Party was elected as the new president K. Gottwald.
By 1949, in all countries of the region, power was in the hands of the communist parties. In October 1949, the GDR was formed. In some countries, a multi-party system has been preserved, but it has largely become a formality.
CMEA and ATS.
With the formation of the countries of "people's democracy" the process of formation of the world socialist system began. Economic relations between the USSR and the countries of people's democracy were carried out at the first stage in the form of a bilateral foreign trade agreement. At the same time, the USSR tightly controlled the activities of the governments of these countries.
Since 1947, this control was exercised by the heir to the Comintern Cominform. Great importance in expanding and strengthening economic ties began to play Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA), established in 1949. Its members were Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland, Romania, the USSR and Czechoslovakia, later Albania joined. The creation of the CMEA was a definite response to the creation of NATO. The objectives of the CMEA were to unite and coordinate efforts in the development of the economy of the member countries of the Commonwealth.
In the political field, the creation in 1955 of the Warsaw Pact Organization (OVD) was of great importance. Its creation was a response to the admission of Germany to NATO. In accordance with the terms of the treaty, its participants undertook, in the event of an armed attack on any of them, to provide immediate assistance to the attacked states by all means, including the use of armed force. A unified military command was created, joint military exercises were held, armaments and organization of troops were unified.
The development of the countries of "people's democracy" in the 50s - 80s of the XX century.
By the mid 50s. xx c. As a result of accelerated industrialization, significant economic potential has been created in the countries of Central and South-Eastern Europe. But the course towards the predominant development of heavy industry with insignificant investments in agriculture and the production of consumer goods led to a decrease in the standard of living.
Stalin's death (March 1953) raised hopes for political change. The leadership of the GDR in June 1953 proclaimed a "new course", which provided for the strengthening of the rule of law, an increase in the production of consumer goods. But the simultaneous increase in the output standards of workers served as an impetus for the events of June 17, 1953, when demonstrations began in Berlin and other large cities, during which economic and political demands were put forward, including the holding of free elections. With the help of Soviet troops, the GDR police suppressed these demonstrations, which the country's leadership assessed as an attempt at a "fascist putsch." Nevertheless, after these events, a wider production of consumer goods began, and prices fell.
The decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU on the need to take into account the national characteristics of each country were formally approved by the leadership of all communist parties, but the new course was not implemented everywhere. In Poland and Hungary, the dogmatic policy of the leadership led to a sharp aggravation of socio-economic contradictions, which led to a crisis in the autumn of 1956.
The actions of the population in Poland led to the rejection of forced collectivization and some democratization of the political system. In Hungary, a reformist wing emerged within the Communist Party. On October 23, 1956, demonstrations began in support of the reformist forces. Their leader I. Nagy led the government. Rallies also took place all over the country, reprisals against the communists began. On November 4, Soviet troops began to restore order in Budapest. 2,700 Hungarians and 663 Soviet soldiers died in street fighting. After the "purge" carried out by the Soviet secret services, power was transferred to I. Kadaru. In the 60-70s. 20th century Kadar pursued a policy aimed at raising the standard of living of the population while preventing political change.
In the mid 60s. the situation in Czechoslovakia worsened. Economic difficulties coincided with the calls of the intelligentsia to improve socialism, to give it a "human face". The party approved in 1968 a program of economic reforms and the democratization of society. The country was headed A.Ducek., supporter of change. The leadership of the CPSU and the Eastern Communist Party European countries These changes were strongly opposed.
Five members of the leadership of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia secretly sent a letter to Moscow with a request to intervene in the course of events and prevent the "threat of counter-revolution." On the night of August 21, 1968, the troops of Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany, Poland and the USSR entered Czechoslovakia. Relying on the presence of Soviet troops, the opponents of the reforms went on the offensive.
At the turn of the 70-80s. xx c. Crisis phenomena were identified in Poland, which developed quite successfully in the previous period. The deteriorating situation of the population caused strikes. In their course, the Solidarity trade union committee, independent of the authorities, emerged, headed by L. Walesoy. In 1981, the President of Poland, General V. Jaruzelsky introduced martial law, the leaders of "Solidarity" were subjected to house arrest. However, Solidarity structures began to operate underground.
Yugoslavia's special path.
In Yugoslavia, the Communists, who led the anti-fascist struggle in 1945, took power. Their Croatian leader became the President of the country And Broz Tito. Tito's desire for independence led in 1948 to a break in relations between Yugoslavia and the USSR. Tens of thousands of Moscow supporters were repressed. Stalin launched anti-Yugoslav propaganda, but did not go for military intervention.
Soviet-Yugoslav relations were normalized after Stalin's death, but Yugoslavia continued on its own path. At the enterprises, management functions were carried out by labor collectives through elected councils of workers. Planning from the Center was transferred to the field. Orientation to market relations has led to an increase in the production of consumer goods. AT agriculture almost half of the farms were individual peasants.
The situation in Yugoslavia was complicated by its multinational composition and the uneven development of the republics that were part of it. The overall leadership was carried out by the Union of Communists of Yugoslavia (SKYU). Since 1952 Tito has been the chairman of the SKJ. He also served as president (for life) and chairman of the Federation Council.
Change in Eastern Europe At the endxxin.
The policy of perestroika in the USSR caused similar processes in the countries of Eastern Europe. At the same time, the Soviet leadership by the end of the 80s of the twentieth century. abandoned the policy of preserving the existing regimes in these countries, on the contrary, called them to "democratization". Leadership has changed in most of the ruling parties there. But the attempts of this leadership to carry out reforms like perestroika, as in the Soviet Union, were not crowned with success. The economic situation worsened. The flight of the population to the West acquired a massive character. Movements opposed to the authorities were formed. There were demonstrations and strikes everywhere. As a result of demonstrations in October - November 1989 in the GDR, the government resigned, on November 8 the destruction of the Berlin Wall began. In 1990, the GDR and the FRG unified.
In most countries, the communists were removed from power during public demonstrations. The ruling parties dissolved themselves or transformed into social democratic ones. Elections were soon held, in which the former oppositionists won. These events are called "velvet revolutions". Only in Romania are opponents of the head of state N. Ceausescu organized an uprising in December 1989, during which many people died. Ceausescu and his wife were killed. In 1991, the regime in Albania changed.
Dramatic events took place in Yugoslavia, where the elections in all the republics except Serbia and Montenegro were won by parties opposed to the communists. Slovenia and Croatia declared independence in 1991. In Croatia, war immediately broke out between Serbs and Croats, as the Serbs feared the persecution that took place during World War II by the Croatian Ustaše fascists. Later, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina declared their independence. After that, Serbia and Montenegro formed the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In Bosnia and Herzegovina, a conflict broke out between Serbs, Croats and Muslims. It continued until 1997.
In a different way, the collapse of Czechoslovakia took place. After a referendum, it was peacefully divided in 1993 into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
After political changes in all Eastern European countries, transformations began in the economy and other spheres of society. Everywhere they abandoned the planned economy and the command-administrative system of management, the restoration of market relations began. Privatization was carried out, foreign capital received strong positions in the economy. The first transformations are called "shock therapy" because they were associated with a crisis in production, mass unemployment, inflation, etc. Particularly radical changes in this regard took place in Poland. Social stratification has intensified everywhere, crime and corruption have increased. The situation was especially difficult in Albania, where in 1997 there was a popular uprising against the government.
However, by the end of the 90s. 20th century the situation in most countries has stabilized. Inflation was overcome, then economic growth began. The Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland achieved the greatest success. Foreign investment played a big role in this. Gradually, traditional mutually beneficial ties with Russia and other post-Soviet states were also restored. In foreign policy, all Eastern European countries are guided by the West, they have set a course for joining NATO and the EU. The internal political situation in these countries is characterized by a change in power between right and left parties. However, their policies both within the country and in the international arena largely coincide.
§ 96. Leading capitalist countries in the second half of the twentieth century.
The rise of the United States to the world's leading power. The war led to dramatic shifts in the balance of power in the world. The United States not only suffered little in the war, but also received significant profits. Coal and oil production, electricity generation, and steel smelting have increased in the country. The basis of this economic recovery was the large military orders of the government. The United States has taken a leading position in the world economy. A factor in ensuring the economic and scientific and technological hegemony of the United States was the import of ideas and specialists from other countries. Already on the eve and during the war years, many scientists emigrated to the United States. After the war, a large number of German specialists and scientific and technical documentation were taken out of Germany. The military conjuncture contributed to the development of agriculture. There was a great demand for food and raw materials in the world, which created a favorable situation in the agricultural market after 1945. Explosions became a terrible demonstration of the increased power of the United States. atomic bombs in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1945, President Harry Truman openly said that the burden of responsibility for the further leadership of the world fell on America. In the conditions of the beginning of the Cold War, the United States came up with the concepts of "containment" and "rejection" of communism, aimed against the USSR. US military bases cover a large part of the world. The advent of peacetime did not stop state intervention in the economy. Despite praise for free enterprise, economic development after Roosevelt's New Deal was no longer conceivable without the regulatory role of the state. Under the control of the state, the transition of industry to peaceful rails was carried out. A program was implemented for the construction of roads, power plants, etc. The Council of Economic Advisers under the President made recommendations to the authorities. The social programs of Roosevelt's New Deal era were preserved. The new policy was called "fair course". Along with this, measures were taken to limit the rights of trade unions (the Taft-Hartley law). At the same time, at the initiative of the senator J. McCarthy persecution of people accused of "anti-American activities" (McCarthyism) unfolded. Many people became victims of the "witch hunt", including such famous people as Ch. Chaplin. Within the framework of such a policy, the buildup of armaments, including nuclear ones, continued. The formation of the military-industrial complex (MIC) is being completed, in which the interests of officials, the tops of the army and the military industry were combined.
50-60s 20th century were generally favorable for the development of the economy, its fast growth associated primarily with the introduction of the achievements of the scientific and technological revolution. During these years, the struggle of the Negro (African American) population for their rights achieved great success in the country. Protests led by M.L King, led to the prohibition of racial segregation. By 1968, laws were passed to ensure the equality of blacks. However, achieving real equality turned out to be much more difficult than legal, influential forces resisted this, which found expression in the murder of Qing.
Other changes in the social sphere were also carried out.
Became president in 1961 J. Kennedy pursued a policy of "new frontiers" aimed at creating a society of "general welfare" (the elimination of inequality, poverty, crime, the prevention of nuclear war). More important social laws were passed, facilitating the access of the poor to education, health care, and so on.
In the late 60s - early 70s. xx c. The US is getting worse.
This was due to the escalation of the Vietnam War, which ended in the biggest defeat in US history, as well as to the global economic crisis in the early 1970s. These events were one of the factors that led to the policy of détente: under President R. Nixon The first arms control treaties were signed between the US and the USSR.
In the early 80s of the XX century. a new economic crisis began.
Under these conditions, the president R. Reagan proclaimed a policy called the "conservative revolution". Social spending on education, medicine, and pensions was reduced, but taxes were also reduced. The United States has taken a course towards the development of free enterprise, reducing the role of the state in the economy. This course caused many protests, but helped to improve the situation in the economy. Reagan advocated an increase in the arms race, but in the late 80s of the twentieth century. at the suggestion of the leader of the USSR M. S. Gorbachev, the process of a new reduction in armaments began. It accelerated in an atmosphere of unilateral concessions from the USSR.
The collapse of the USSR and the entire socialist camp contributed to the longest period of economic recovery in the United States in the 90s. 20th century under the President at Clinton. The United States has become the only center of power in the world, began to claim world leadership. However, at the end of the XX-beginning of the XXI century. the economic situation in the country worsened. Terrorist attacks have become a serious test for the United States 11 September 2001 Terrorist attacks in New York and Washington cost the lives of over 3,000 people.
Leading countries of Western Europe.
The Second World War undermined the economy of all European countries. Enormous forces had to be spent on its restoration. Painful phenomena in these countries were caused by the collapse of the colonial system, the loss of colonies. So, for Great Britain, the results of the war, according to W. Churchill, became a "triumph and tragedy." England finally turned into a "junior partner" of the United States. By the beginning of the 60s of the twentieth century. England has lost almost all of its colonies. A serious problem since the 70s. 20th century became an armed struggle in Northern Ireland. The economy of Great Britain could not revive for a long time after the war, until the beginning of the 50s. 20th century the card system was preserved. The Laborites, who came to power after the war, nationalized a number of industries and expanded social programs. Gradually the situation in the economy improved. In the 5060s. 20th century there was strong economic growth. However, the crises of 1974-1975 and 1980-1982 inflicted heavy damage on the country. The Conservative government that came to power in 1979, headed by M. Thatcher defended the "true values of British society". In practice, this was reflected in the privatization of the public sector, the reduction of state regulation and the promotion of private enterprise, the reduction of taxes and social spending. In France after the Second World War, under the influence of the communists, who sharply increased their authority during the years of the struggle against fascism, a number of large industries were nationalized, and the property of German accomplices was confiscated. The social rights and guarantees of the people have been expanded. In 1946, a new constitution was adopted, establishing the regime of the Fourth Republic. However, foreign policy events (wars in Vietnam, Algeria) made the situation in the country extremely unstable.
On a wave of discontent in 1958, General C. de Gaulle. He held a referendum that adopted a new constitution that dramatically expanded the rights of the president. The period of the Fifth Republic began. Charles de Gaulle managed to solve a number of acute problems: the French withdrew from Indochina, and all the colonies in Africa received freedom. Initially, de Gaulle tried to use military force to keep Algeria, which was the homeland for a million Frenchmen, for France. However, the escalation of hostilities, the intensification of repressions against the participants in the national liberation war only led to an increase in the resistance of the Algerians. In 1962, Algeria gained independence, and most of the French fled from there to France. An attempted military coup by forces opposed to leaving Algeria was suppressed in the country. From the mid-60s of the XX century. France's foreign policy became more independent, it withdrew from the NATO military organization, and an agreement was concluded with the USSR.
At the same time, the situation in the economy improved. However, contradictions persisted in the country, which led to mass demonstrations by students and workers in 1968. Under the influence of these performances, de Gaulle resigned in 1969. his successor J Pompidou retained the old political course. In the 70s. 20th century the economy became less stable. In the 1981 presidential elections, the leader of the socialist party was elected F. Mitterrand. After the victory of the socialists in the parliamentary elections, they formed their own government (with the participation of the communists). A number of reforms were carried out in the interests of the general population (reduction of the working day, increase in holidays), the rights of trade unions were expanded, and a number of industries were nationalized. However, the resulting economic problems forced the government to follow the path of austerity. The role of right-wing parties, with the governments of which Mitterrand was supposed to cooperate, increased, the reforms were suspended. A serious problem was the strengthening of nationalist sentiments in France due to the massive influx of emigrants into the country. The mood of the SUPPORTERS of the slogan "France for the French" is expressed by the National Front, headed by F - M. Le Lenom, which at times receives a significant number of votes. The influence of the left forces has declined. In the 1995 elections, the right-wing politician Gollist became president J Chirac.
After the emergence of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949, its government was headed by the leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) Adenauer, who remained in power until 1960. He pursued a policy of creating a socially oriented market economy with a significant role of state regulation. After the completion of the period of economic recovery, the development of the German economy proceeded at a very rapid pace, which was facilitated by US assistance. Germany has become an economically powerful power. In political life there was a struggle between the CDU and the Social Democrats. At the end of the 60s. 20th century A Social Democrat-dominated government came to power, led by W. Brandt. Many transformations were carried out in the interests of the general population. In foreign policy, Brandt normalized relations with the USSR, Poland, and the GDR. However, the economic crises of the 70s. xx c. led to a deterioration in the situation of the country. In 1982, the leader of the CDU came to power G. Kohl. His government reduced state regulation of the economy, carried out privatization. Favorable conjuncture contributed to an increase in the pace of development. There was a unification of the FRG and the GDR. by the end of the 90s. xx c. new financial and economic problems arose. In 1998, the elections were won by the Social Democrats, led by G. Schroeder.
In the mid 70s. 20th century the last authoritarian regimes have disappeared in Europe. In 1974, the military carried out a coup in Portugal, overthrowing the dictatorial regime A. Salazar. Democratic reforms were carried out, a number of leading industries were nationalized, and independence was granted to the colonies. In Spain after the death of the dictator F. Franco in 1975 the restoration of democracy began. The democratization of society was supported by King Juan Carlos 1. Over time, significant success was achieved in the economy, and the standard of living of the population increased. After the end of World War II, a civil war broke out in Greece (1946-1949) between pro-communist and pro-Western forces, supported by England and the United States. It ended with the defeat of the communists. In 1967, a military coup took place in the country and the regime of "black colonels" was established. By limiting democracy, the "black colonels" at the same time expanded the social support of the population. The regime's attempt to annex Cyprus led to its fall in 1974.
European integration. In the second half of the twentieth century. there are trends towards integration of countries in many regions, especially in Europe. Back in 1949, the Council of Europe came into being. In 1957, 6 countries, led by France and the Federal Republic of Germany, signed the Treaty of Rome on the establishment of the European Economic Community (EEC) - the Common Market, which removes customs barriers. In the 70s - 80s. xx c. the number of EEC members increased to 12. In 1979, the first elections to the European Parliament were held by direct voting. In 1991, as a result of long negotiations and decades of rapprochement between the EEC countries, documents on monetary, economic and political unions were signed in the Dutch city of Maastricht. In 1995, the EEC, which already included 15 states, was transformed into the European Union (EU). Since 2002, a single currency, the euro, has been finally introduced in 12 EU countries, which strengthened the economic positions of these countries in the fight against the USA and Japan. The treaties provide for the expansion of the supranational powers of the EU. The main policy directions will be determined by the European Council. Decisions require the consent of 8 out of 12 countries. In the future, the creation of a single European government is not ruled out.
Japan. The Second World War had the most severe consequences for Japan - the destruction of the economy, the loss of colonies, the occupation. Under US pressure, the Japanese emperor agreed to limit his power. In 1947, the Constitution was adopted, which expanded democratic rights and secured the country's peaceful status (military spending, according to the Constitution, cannot exceed 1% of all budget expenditures). The right-wing Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) is almost always in power in Japan. Japan very quickly managed to restore its economy. From the 50s. 20th century begins its sharp rise, called the Japanese "economic miracle". This "miracle" was, in addition to a favorable environment, based on the peculiarities of the organization of the economy and the mentality of the Japanese, as well as a small share of military spending. Diligence, unpretentiousness, corporate and communal traditions of the population allowed the Japanese economy to compete successfully. A course was set for the development of knowledge-intensive industries that made Japan a leader in the production of electronics. However, at the turn of the XX and XXI centuries. Japan faced significant problems. Increasingly, corruption-related scandals broke out around the LDP. The pace of economic growth slowed down, competition from the "new industrial countries" (South Korea, Singapore, Thailand, Malaysia), as well as China, intensified. China also poses a military threat to Japan.