Environmental monitoring means. Lesson “The concept of environmental monitoring. Types and methods of monitoring. Environmental monitoring
Decisions of state and municipal authorities aimed at normalizing environmental situation, ensuring environmental safety and environmental well-being of the population should be adequate to this situation. The validity and promptness of these decisions is determined by the availability of objective and timely information about the current and predicted environmental situation.
Under e environmental safety understand the state in which the protection of the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state from any threats created by anthropogenic or natural impact on the environment is ensured.
The monitoring system is the mechanism that ensures the discovery of real interrelations between the sources of environmental deformation, living conditions and the state of health of the population.
Environmental monitoring(environmental monitoring)- this is integrated system performed according to scientifically sound programs related work on regular monitoring for the state of the environment, assessment and forecast its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.
The main objective of environmental monitoring is to provide authorities with state power and local government, organizations and citizens of timely, regular and reliable information about the state of the environment and its impact on public health, as well as forecasts of changes in the environmental situation, for the development and implementation of measures to improve the natural environment and ensure environmental safety. Monitoring data is the basis of information support for decision-making, setting priorities in the field of environmental protection in order to develop an economic policy that adequately takes into account environmental factors.
Environmental monitoring system is a set of mutually coordinated legal acts, management structures, scientific organizations and enterprises, technical and information means.
Objects of environmental monitoring are:
- natural environment components - lands, subsoil, soils, surface and underground waters, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-earth space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;
- natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements;
- natural and anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the course of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective value;
- sources of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including potentially dangerous objects.
Since information about the state of the natural environment is primarily used to assess the impact of the environment on the health of the population, often monitoring objects also include population groups exposed to environmental factors.
Monitoring of natural environments and objects is carried out at various levels:
Global (according to international programs and projects);
Federal (for the territory of Russia as a whole);
Territorial (within the territory of the relevant subjects of the Russian Federation);
Local (within the natural-technogenic system, which is in use by the nature user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).
task global monitoring is to ensure observation, control and forecast of changes in the biosphere as a whole. Therefore, it is also called biospheric or background monitoring.
The development and coordination of the global environmental monitoring system (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP and the World Meteorological Organization within the framework of various international programs and projects. The main objectives of these programs are:
Assessment of the impact of global air pollution on climate;
Assessment of pollution of the World Ocean and the impact of pollution on marine ecosystems and the biosphere
Assessment of critical issues arising in connection with agricultural activities and land use;
Creation international system natural disaster warnings.
Stations for complex background monitoring of the Russian Federation are located in 6 biosphere reserves and are part of global international observational networks.
In the implementation of global monitoring programs, observation of the state of the environment from space occupies a special place. Earth space remote sensing (ERS) systems provide unique information about the functioning of various ecosystems in the regional and global levels, on the consequences of natural disasters and environmental disasters. An example of a global monitoring program is the Environmental Observation System (EOS) implemented in the United States. It is based on the processing of data received from three satellites equipped with video spectrometers, radiometers, lidars, radio altimeters and other equipment.
State environmental monitoring in the Russian Federation is carried out according to the state of atmospheric air, water bodies, wildlife, forests, geological environment, land, specially protected natural areas, as well as sources of anthropogenic impact. Observation, assessment and forecast of the state of individual components of the natural environment and sources of anthropogenic impact is carried out within the framework of the relevant functional subsystem of environmental monitoring. The organization of monitoring within the framework of the functional subsystem is assigned to the relevant federal departments specially authorized by the Government of the Russian Federation.
Functional subsystems for monitoring the state of atmospheric air, pollution of soils, surface waters of land and marine environment(as part of the monitoring of surface water bodies) are combined into State Service for Monitoring Environmental Pollution (GSN), operating in Russia for more than a quarter of a century. Its organizational basis is the monitoring system of the Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring (Roshydromet), which includes territorial bodies(management) and an observation network consisting of stationary and mobile posts, stations, laboratories and information processing centers.
The Roshydromet monitoring system provides the bulk of information on the state and pollution of the natural environment in the territory of the Russian Federation. Generalized data obtained by the State Observation Service are published in the annual State Report on the state of the environment and the impact of environmental factors on the health of the population of the Russian Federation.
Currently, the monitoring system of Roshydromet monitors:
For the state of air pollution in cities and industrial centers;
Behind the state of soil pollution with pesticides and heavy metals;
Behind the state of surface waters of land and seas;
Behind the transboundary transfer of pollutants in the atmosphere;
For chemical composition, acidity precipitation and snow cover for background air pollution;
For radioactive contamination of the natural environment.
The entire range of work in the GOS, starting with the planning of the location of the observation network and ending with the algorithms for processing information, is regulated by the relevant regulatory and methodological documents.
Should be described in more detail State system for monitoring air pollution . Observations of the level of air pollution in cities and industrial centers of Russia are carried out by territorial departments for hydrometeorology and environmental monitoring. Together with organizations of Roshydromet, observations are carried out by sanitary and epidemiological surveillance bodies and other departments licensed by Roshydromet.
Observations are made at stationary, route and mobile posts according to the full program 4 times a day or according to the reduced program - 3 times a day. The list of pollutants subject to control is established taking into account the volume and composition of emissions for each region as a result of a preliminary survey. The concentrations of both the main pollutants for all territories (suspended substances, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide) and substances specific to individual territories (ammonia, formaldehyde, phenol, hydrogen sulfide, carbon disulfide, hydrogen fluoride, acrolein, benzo(a) are determined. ) pyrene, heavy metals, aromatic hydrocarbons and etc.). Simultaneously with air sampling, meteorological parameters are determined: wind direction and speed, air temperature and humidity, weather conditions, as well as the level of gamma background. The collection and processing of the results of most analyzes is carried out within a day.
In the event of unfavorable weather conditions for the dispersion of pollutants, so-called “storm warnings” are transmitted to the largest enterprises in the region to take measures to temporarily reduce emissions.
E environmental monitoring at the territorial level includes the following types of observations:
- emissions monitoring - monitoring of a source (or type of activity) that has a negative impact on the environment (emission of pollutants, electromagnetic radiation, noise, etc.);
- impact monitoring - observations of the impact on the environment related to the control of a certain source or type of anthropogenic activity (in particular, monitoring of zones of direct impact);
- monitoring of the natural environment and ecosystems - monitoring the state of the components of the natural environment, natural resources, natural and technical systems, natural complexes, biological objects and ecosystems, as well as the anthropogenic impacts on them of the totality of existing sources and activities (monitoring of the anthropogenic background).
At the regional level, it is of particular importance pollution source monitoring environment and zones of their direct influence . This type of monitoring, unlike all others, is directly related to the management of pollution sources and ensuring the environmental safety of the population. The objects of monitoring are sources of pollution entering the environment belonging to industrial, agricultural, transport and other enterprises, as well as places of placement (storage, burial) of toxic waste.
Monitoring is carried out within the framework of the powers of environmental authorities to state environmental control and is carried out in the form of targeted inspections of individual enterprises, complex inspections (cities, enterprises). The number of such inspections is limited (1-2 per year).
Instrumental control is carried out by the technological inspection for the control of pollution sources with the analysis of samples in stationary conditions and in mobile laboratories.
The main volume of observations of sources is carried out within the framework of industrial environmental control . The scheme for organizing monitoring of pollution sources is shown in Fig. 10.1.
Environmental quality management consists in influencing nature users in such a way that the environmental quality characteristics approach the standard, characterized by the relevant standards. Control actions in this system can be of the following types:
Fig.10.1. Scheme of organization of monitoring of the impact source
Changes in the norms of payment for nature use, norms of MPE, MPD; forced change technological process;
Changing the geographic location of a man-made object (up to the removal of production from the city);
Changing links between objects.
The frequency of control actions lies in a wide range - from several years (with the planned establishment of MPE and MPD standards) to several hours (in the event of emergency situations or under adverse weather conditions).
Thus, the monitoring system is a tool for obtaining the necessary information. What will be its effectiveness depends on the legal support and the consistency of the executive authorities in its application.
Environmental control
In order to ensure compliance with environmental protection requirements, norms, rules and state standards in the field of environmental protection by subjects of economic and other activities that provide negative impact on the natural environment, a system of environmental control is being implemented.
Environmental control- this is a system of measures to prevent, detect and suppress violations of legislation in the field of environmental protection. The functioning of the environmental control system is the most important condition for ensuring environmental safety.
In the Russian Federation, state, industrial and public control in the field of environmental protection is carried out. Organization state environmental control assigned to a specially authorized federal executive body, as well as state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The legislation prohibits the combination of state control functions in the field of environmental protection and management functions in the field of economic use of natural resources. State environmental control is implemented through inspections of any organizations and enterprises, regardless of ownership, by state inspectors in the field of environmental protection. Full inspections cover the whole range of issues related to environmental activities. During targeted inspections, certain issues of environmental protection are monitored (the operation of gas and water treatment facilities, the state of landfills, sludge collectors, the implementation of the plan environmental protection measures, fulfillment of previously issued instructions). Target inspections also include supervision over the progress of construction and reconstruction of facilities, inspection of enterprises based on applications and appeals of citizens.
State inspectors in the field of environmental protection in the performance of their duties have broad rights and powers - from issuing orders to legal entities to eliminate environmental offenses to suspending the activities of enterprises in case of violation of environmental legislation.
Industrial environmental control carried out by economic entities that have or are able to have a negative impact on the state of the environment.
Production environmental control is limited to the scope of the technological production cycle and aims to confirm compliance by the enterprise - nature user with established environmental standards, norms and rules, as well as the implementation of measures to protect and improve the environment, rational use and restoration of natural resources. This goal is achieved by organizing effective continuous monitoring of the established indicators for each source of direct impact on the environment, which is associated with an environmental risk to the environment (as a result of a violation of the technological process, deviation from the design mode of equipment operation, man-made accidents and disasters).
Due to imperfection existing methods control of pollutants, assessment of their toxicity, distribution in the environment, the possibility of manifestation of negative changes in natural environments under the influence of this enterprise is not excluded. Taking this into account, the legislation provides for the obligation of an enterprise-user of natural resources to organize quality control of natural environments in the zone of its direct influence (local environmental monitoring).
Industrial environmental control solves the following tasks:
Control of emissions into the atmosphere, wastewater discharges, water consumption and water disposal directly at the boundaries of the technological process (sources of emissions, discharges) to assess compliance with MPE, MPD and the effectiveness of regulation of emissions into the atmosphere in especially adverse weather conditions (NMU);
Control of the operating mode of technological and auxiliary environmental equipment and facilities associated with the formation, release and capture of pollutants, the formation and storage of waste; assessment of environmental safety of products;
The main objects of industrial environmental control are:
Raw materials, materials, reagents, preparations used in production;
Sources of emissions of pollutants into the atmospheric air;
Sources of discharges of pollutants into water bodies, sewerage and water disposal systems;
Exhaust gas cleaning systems;
Waste water treatment systems;
Water recycling systems;
Storages and warehouses of raw materials and materials;
Waste disposal and disposal facilities;
Finished products.
In some cases, individual natural objects (control of thermal and chemical pollution of reservoirs and streams, groundwater) are included in the scope of industrial environmental control.
Control hazardous waste It is organized at all stages of their handling: during the formation of waste, their accumulation, transportation, processing and neutralization, burial, and also after burial by monitoring the burial sites.
Production environmental control is carried out by the environmental protection service. Laboratories that implement the functions of industrial environmental control at the enterprise must be accredited and have the appropriate licenses.
The sources of emissions of harmful substances into the atmosphere and the discharge of wastewater into water bodies subject to control are determined on the basis of the established standards for MPE and MPD, as well as statistical reporting data.
The number of sources of emissions and discharges, the list of pollutants subject to control, and the control schedule of enterprises and organizations that use natural resources are annually coordinated with the territorial divisions of the federal authorized bodies. The schedules indicate the points of sampling, the frequency of sampling and the list of controlled ingredients.
The list of the most dangerous atmospheric pollutants subject to control at sources consists of substances from three groups: the main ones (dust, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide and dioxide, sulfur dioxide); substances of the first hazard class; Substances for which, according to observational data, a concentration of more than 5 MPC has been registered in the controlled area.
Direct instrumental measurements should be the main method for monitoring atmospheric emissions and wastewater discharges. The optimal volume of instrumental control is established taking into account the characteristics of the technological regime. For large (main) sources of pollution, the organization of continuous automatic monitoring of emissions (discharges) should be provided.
Public environmental control is carried out with the aim of realizing the rights of every person to a favorable environment and preventing environmental offenses. Public environmental control involves public and other non-profit organizations in accordance with their charters, as well as citizens in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation. The results of public environmental control submitted to state authorities and local self-government are subject to mandatory consideration.
10.5.Control questions
1. What is meant by “presumption environmental hazard" economic activity? What statute establishes it?
2. In what cases is an EIA carried out?
3. What is the subject of state environmental expertise?
4. What is an environmental audit? What are environmental standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
5.What is an environmental audit? What are environmental standards? Give an example of an environmental quality standard.
6. What are the standards for permissible environmental impact?
7.What is environmental safety?
8. Formulate the content and subject of environmental monitoring.
9. Levels, directions and types of environmental monitoring.
10. What defines the "standard environment" in the environmental monitoring system?
11. How is the monitoring of sources of anthropogenic impact organized?
12. What are the tasks of industrial environmental control?
13. What is state environmental control? How is it carried out?
14. What is the difference between environmental control and environmental audit?
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The concept of environmental monitoring Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program Menn 1972. The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Clarifying the definition of environmental monitoring by Yu.
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Lecture #14
Environmental monitoring
- The concept of environmental monitoring
- Tasks of environmental monitoring
- Monitoring classification
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment (sanitary and hygienic monitoring, environmental)
- Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
1. The concept of environmental monitoring
Monitoring is a system of repeated observations of one or more elements of the natural environment in space and time with specific goals and in accordance with a pre-prepared program (Menn, 1972). The need for detailed information about the state of the biosphere has become even more obvious in recent decades due to the serious negative consequences caused by uncontrolled human exploitation of natural resources.
To detect changes in the state of the biosphere under the influence of human activity, an observation system is needed. Such a system is now commonly referred to as monitoring.
The word "monitoring" entered the scientific circulation from the English-language literature and comes from the English word " monitoring " comes from the word " monitor ”, which in English has the following meaning: monitor, device or device for monitoring and constant control over something.
The concept of environmental monitoring was first introduced by R. Menn in 1972. at the UN Stockholm Conference.
In our country, one of the first to develop the theory of monitoring was Yu.A. Israel. While refining the definition of environmental monitoring, Yu.A.Izrael back in 1974 focused not only on observation, but also on forecasting, introducing the anthropogenic factor as the main cause of these changes into the definition of the term “environmental monitoring”. Monitoring environmenthe calls the system of observations, assessment and forecast of anthropogenic changes in the state of the natural environment. (Fig.1) . The Stockholm Conference (1972) on the environment marked the beginning of the creation of global systems for monitoring the state of the environment (GEMS / GEMS).
Monitoring includes the followingmain directions activities:
- Observations of factors affecting the natural environment and the state of the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;
- Forecast of the state of the natural environment. And an assessment of this state.
Thus, monitoring is a multi-purpose information system for observing, analyzing, diagnosing and predicting the state of the natural environment, which does not include environmental quality management, but provides the necessary information for such management (Fig. 2.) .
Information system / monitoring / management
Rice. 2. Block diagram of the monitoring system.
2. Tasks of environmental monitoring
- Scientific and technical support for observation, assessment of the forecast of the state of the environment;
- Monitoring the sources of pollutants and the level of environmental pollution;
- Identification of sources and factors of pollution and assessment of the degree of their impact on the environment;
- Assessment of the actual state of the environment;
- Forecast of changes in the state of the environment and ways to improve the situation. (Fig.3.) .
The essence and content of environmental monitoring consists of an ordered set of procedures organized in cycles: N 1 observation, O 1 estimate, P 1 forecast and U 1 management. Then the observations are supplemented with new data, on a new cycle, and then the cycles are repeated on a new time interval H 2, O 2, P 2, U 2, etc. (Fig. 4.) .
Thus, monitoring is a complexly built, cyclically functioning and developing in time spiral constantly operating system.
Rice. 4. Scheme of functioning of monitoring in time.
3. Classification of monitoring.
- By the scope of observation;
- By objects of observation;
- According to the level of contamination of objects of observation;
- According to factors and sources of pollution;
- Observation methods.
According to the scale of observation
|
Level name monitoring |
Monitoring Organizations |
|
Global |
Interstate monitoring system environment |
|
National |
State system for monitoring the environment of the territory of Russia |
|
Regional |
Territorial, regional environmental monitoring systems |
|
Local |
City, district environmental monitoring systems |
|
Detailed |
Environmental monitoring systems for enterprises, deposits, factories, etc. |
Detailed Monitoring
The lowest hierarchical level is the level of detailedenvironmental monitoring, implemented within the territories and on the scale of individual enterprises, factories, individual engineering structures, economic complexes, deposits, etc. Systems of detailed environmental monitoring are the most important link in the system of a higher rank. Their integration into a larger network forms a local level monitoring system.
Local monitoring (impact)
It is carried out in heavily polluted places (cities, settlements, water bodies, etc.) and is focused on the source of pollution. AT
Due to the proximity to sources of pollution, all the main substances that make up emissions into the atmosphere and discharge into water bodies are usually present in significant quantities. Local systems, in turn, are combined into even larger regional monitoring systems.
Regional monitoring
It is carried out within a certain region, taking into account the natural character, type and intensity of technogenic impact. Regional environmental monitoring systems are combined within one state into a single national monitoring network.
National monitoring
Monitoring system within one state. Such a system differs from global monitoring not only in scale, but also in that the main task of national monitoring is to obtain information and assess the state of the environment in the national interest. In Russia, it is carried out under the leadership of the Ministry of Natural Resources. Within the framework of the UN environmental program, the task was set to unite national monitoring systems into a single interstate network "Global Environmental Monitoring Network" (GEMS)
Global monitoring
The purpose of the GEMS is to monitor changes in the environment on Earth as a whole, on a global scale. Global monitoring is a system for monitoring the state and forecasting possible changes in global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impact on the biosphere as a whole. GEMS is engaged in global warming climate, ozone layer problems, forest conservation, droughts, etc. .
By objects of observation
- atmospheric air
- in settlements;
- different layers of the atmosphere;
- stationary and mobile sources of pollution.
- Ground and surface water bodies
- fresh and salt water;
- mixing zones;
- regulated water bodies;
- natural reservoirs and streams.
- Geological environment
- soil layer;
- soils.
- Biological monitoring
- plants;
- animals;
- ecosystems;
- human.
- Snow monitoring
- Background radiation monitoring.
The level of contamination of objects of observation
- Background (basic monitoring)
These are observations of environmental objects in relatively clean natural areas.
2. Impact
Oriented to the source of pollution or a particular polluting effect.
By factors and sources of pollution
1. Gradient monitoring
This is the physical impact on the environment. These are radiation, thermal effects, infrared, noise, vibration, etc.
2. Ingredient monitoring
This is the monitoring of a single pollutant.
By methods of observation
1. Contact methods
2. Remote methods.
4. Assessment of the actual state of the environment
Assessment of the actual state is a key direction in the framework of environmental monitoring. It allows you to determine trends in changes in the state of the environment; the degree of trouble and its causes; helps to make decisions on the normalization of the situation. Favorable situations that indicate the presence of ecological reserves of nature can also be identified.
The ecological reserve of a natural ecosystem is the difference between the maximum allowable and the actual state of the ecosystem.
The method for analyzing the results of observations and assessing the state of the ecosystem depend on the type of monitoring. Usually, the assessment is carried out according to a set of indicators or according to conditional indices developed for the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere. Unfortunately, there are no unified criteria even for identical elements of the natural environment. For example, consider only a few criteria.
In sanitary and hygienic monitoring, they usually use:
1) comprehensive assessments of the sanitary state of natural objects based on the totality of measured indicators (Table 1) or 2) pollution indices.
Table 1.
Comprehensive assessment of the sanitary state of water bodies based on a combination of physical, chemical and hydrobiological indicators
The general principle for calculating pollution indices is as follows: first, the degree of deviation of the concentration of each pollutant from its MAC is determined, and then the obtained values are combined into a total indicator that takes into account the impact of several substances.
Let us give examples of the calculation of pollution indices used to assess atmospheric air pollution (AP) and surface water quality (SWQ).
Calculation of the air pollution index (API).
AT practical work use a large number of different APIs. Some of them are based on indirect indicators of atmospheric pollution, for example, on the visibility of the atmosphere, on the transparency coefficient.
Various ISAs, which can be divided into 2 main groups:
1. Single indices of atmospheric pollution by one impurity.
2. Comprehensive indicators of atmospheric pollution by several substances.
To single indices relate:
The coefficient for expressing the impurity concentration in MPC units ( a ), i.e. the value of the maximum or average concentration, reduced to MPC:
a = Сί / MACί
This API is used as a criterion for atmospheric air quality by individual impurities.
Repeatability (g ) concentrations of impurities in the air above a given level by post or by K posts of the city for the year. This is the percentage (%) of cases when the specified level is exceeded by single values of the impurity concentration:
g = (m / n ) ּ100%
where n - the number of observations for the period under review, m - the number of cases of exceeding one-time concentrations at the post.
ISA (I ) a separate impurity - quantitative characteristic the level of atmospheric pollution by a separate impurity, taking into account the hazard class of the substance through standardization for SO hazard 2 :
I \u003d (C g / MPCs) Ki
where I is an impurity, Ki - constant for various hazard classes to reduce to the degree of harmfulness of sulfur dioxide, C d is the average annual impurity concentration.
For substances of different hazard classes Ki is accepted:
|
Hazard Class |
||||
|
Ki value |
API calculation is based on the assumption that at the MPC level all harmful substances have the same effect on humans, and with a further increase in concentration, the degree of their harmfulness increases at a different rate, which depends on the hazard class of the substance.
This API is used to characterize the contribution of individual impurities to the overall level of atmospheric pollution over a given period of time in a given territory and to compare the degree of atmospheric pollution by various substances.
To complex indices relate:
The Comprehensive Urban Air Pollution Index (CIPA) is a quantitative measure of the level of air pollution generated by n substances present in the atmosphere of the city:
KIZA=
where II - unit index of air pollution by the i-th substance.
The complex index of air pollution by priority substances - a quantitative characteristic of the level of air pollution by priority substances that determine air pollution in cities, is calculated similarly to the KIZA.
Pollution index calculations natural waters(WPI)can also be done in several ways.
Let us give as an example the calculation method recommended normative document, which is an integral part of the Rules for the Protection of Surface Waters (1991) - SanPiN 4630-88.
First, the measured concentrations of pollutants are grouped according to the limiting signs of harmfulness - LPV (organoleptic, toxicological and general sanitary). Then, for the first and second (organoleptic and toxicological LPV) groups, the degree of deviation (A i ) actual concentrations of substances ( C i ) from their MPC i , the same as for atmospheric air ( A i = C i / MPC i ). Next, find the sum of the indicators A i , for the first and second groups of substances:
where S is the sum of A i for substances regulated by organoleptic ( S org ) and toxicological ( S tox ) LPV; n - number of summarized indicators of water quality.
In addition, to determine the WPI, the value of oxygen dissolved in water and BOD are used. 20 (general sanitary LPV), bacteriological indicator - the number of lactose-positive Escherichia coli (LPKP) in 1 liter of water, smell and taste. The water pollution index is determined in accordance with the hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (Table 2).
Comparing the corresponding indicators ( S org , S tox , BOD 20 etc.) with evaluation ones (see Table 2), determine the pollution index, the degree of pollution of the water body and the water quality class. The pollution index is determined by the most stringent value of the estimated indicator. So, if according to all indicators the water belongs to the I quality class, but the oxygen content in it is less than 4.0 mg/l (but more than 3.0 mg/l), then the WPI of such water should be taken as 1 and attributed to the II class quality (moderate degree of pollution).
Types of water use depend on the degree of water pollution in a water body (Table 3).
Table 2.
Hygienic classification of water bodies according to the degree of pollution (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
Table 3
Possible types of water use depending on the degree of pollution of the water body (according to SanPiN 4630-88)
|
Degree of pollution |
Possible use of a single object |
|
Permissible |
Suitable for all types of water use of the population with virtually no restrictions |
|
Moderate |
Indicates the danger of using a water body for cultural and domestic chains. Use as a source of domestic and drinking water supply without lowering the level: chemical pollution at water treatment facilities can lead to initial symptoms of intoxication in a part of the population, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes |
|
high |
Unconditional danger of cultural and domestic water use at a water body. It is unacceptable to use it as a source of domestic and drinking water supply due to the difficulty of removing toxic substances in the process of water treatment. Drinking water can lead to the appearance of symptoms of intoxication and the development of separated effects, especially in the presence of substances of the 1st and 2nd hazard classes. |
|
Extremely high |
Absolute unsuitability for all types of water use. Even short-term use of water in a water body is dangerous for public health |
In the services of the Ministry of Natural Resources of the Russian Federation, to assess water quality, they use the method of calculating WPI only by chemical indicators, but taking into account more stringent fishery MPCs. At the same time, not 4, but 7 quality classes are distinguished:
I - very pure water(WPI = 0.3);
II - pure (WPI = 0.3 - 1.0);
III - moderately polluted (WPI = 1.0 - 2.5);
IV - polluted (WPI = 2.5 - 4.0);
V - dirty (WPI = 4.0 - 6.0);
VI - very dirty (WPI = 6.0 - 10.0);
VII - extremely dirty (WPI over 10.0).
Assessment of the level of chemical contamination of the soilis carried out according to the indicators developed in geochemical and geohygienic studies. These indicators are:
- concentration factor chemical(TO i ),
K i \u003d C i / C fi
where C i actual content of analyte in soil, mg/kg;
C fi regional background content of the substance in the soil, mg/kg.
In the presence of MPC i for the soil type under consideration, K i determined by the multiplicity of exceeding the hygienic standard, i.e. according to the formula
K i = С i / MPC i
- total pollution index Z c , which is determined by the sum of the chemical concentration coefficients:
Zc = ∑ K i (n -1)
Where n number of pollutants in the soil, K i - concentration factor.
An approximate rating scale for the danger of soil pollution in terms of the total indicator is presented in Table. 3.
Table 3
|
Danger |
Change in health |
|
|
admissible |
16 |
low morbidity in children, minimum functional deviations |
|
moderately dangerous |
16-32 |
increase general level incidence |
|
dangerous |
32-128 |
an increase in the overall incidence rate; an increase in the number of sick children, children with chronic diseases, disorders of cardio-vascular system |
|
extremely dangerous |
128 |
an increase in the overall incidence rate; increase in the number of sick children, impaired reproductive function |
Environmental monitoring is of particular importance in the global systemmonitoring of the environment and, first of all, in the monitoring of renewable resources of the biosphere. It includes observations of the ecological state of terrestrial, aquatic and marine ecosystems.
As criteria characterizing changes in the state of natural systems, the following can be used: the balance of production and destruction; the value of primary production, the structure of the biocenosis; the rate of circulation of nutrients, etc. All these criteria are numerically expressed by various chemical and biological indicators. Thus, changes in the vegetation cover of the Earth are determined by changes in the area of forests.
The main result of environmental monitoring should be an assessment of the responses of ecosystems as a whole to anthropogenic disturbances.
The response or reaction of an ecosystem is a change in its ecological state in response to external influences. It is best to evaluate the reaction of the system by the integral indicators of its state, which can be used as various indices and other functional characteristics. Let's consider some of them:
1. One of the most common responses of aquatic ecosystems to anthropogenic impacts is eutrophication. Therefore, monitoring the change in indicators that integrally reflect the degree of eutrophication of a reservoir, for example, pH 100% , - the most important element of environmental monitoring.
2. The response to "acid rain" and other anthropogenic impacts may be a change in the structure of biocenoses of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. To assess such a response, various indices of species diversity are widely used, reflecting the fact that under any adverse conditions, the diversity of species in the biocenosis decreases, and the number of resistant species increases.
Dozens of such indices have been proposed by various authors. Indices based on information theory have found the greatest use, for example, the Shannon index:
where N - total number of individuals; S - number of species; N i - the number of individuals of the i -th species.
In practice, one does not deal with the abundance of a species in the entire population (in a sample), but with the abundance of a species in a sample; replacing N i /N by n i / n , we get:
The maximum diversity is observed when the numbers of all species are equal, and the minimum - when all species, except for one, are represented by one specimen. Diversity indices ( d ) reflect the structure of the community, weakly depend on the sample size, and are dimensionless.
Yu. L. Wilm (1970) calculated the Shannon diversity indices ( d ) in 22 uncontaminated and 21 polluted sections of different US rivers. In uncontaminated areas, the index ranged from 2.6 to 4.6, and in contaminated areas - from 0.4 to 1.6.
Assessment of the state of ecosystems by species diversity applicable to any kind of impacts and any ecosystems.
3. The reaction of the system can manifest itself in a decrease in its resistance to anthropogenic stresses. As a universal integral criterion for assessing the sustainability of ecosystems, V. D. Fedorov (1975) proposed a function called a measure of homeostasis and equal to the ratio of functional indicators (for example, pH 100% or rate of photosynthesis) to structural (diversity indices).
A feature of ecological monitoring is that the effects of impacts, hardly noticeable when studying an individual organism or species, are revealed when considering the system as a whole.
5. Forecast and assessment of the predicted state
The forecast and assessment of the predicted state of ecosystems and the biosphere are based on the results of environmental monitoring in the past and present, the study of information series of observations and the analysis of trends in changes.
At the initial stage, it is necessary to predict changes in the intensity of sources of impacts and pollution, to predict the degree of their influence: to predict, for example, the amount of pollutants in various media, their distribution in space, changes in their properties and concentrations over time. To make such forecasts, data on human activity plans are needed.
The next stage is a forecast of possible changes in the biosphere under the influence of existing pollution and other factors, since changes that have already occurred (especially genetic ones) can act for many more years. An analysis of the predicted state allows choosing priority environmental measures and making adjustments to economic activities at the regional level.
Forecasting the state of ecosystems is a necessary ringing in the management of the quality of the natural environment.
In assessing the ecological state of the biosphere on a global scale by integral features (averaged over space and time), remote observation methods play an exceptional role. Leading among them are methods based on the use of space facilities. For these purposes, special satellite systems are being created (Meteor in Russia, Landsat in the USA, etc.). Synchronous three-level observations with the help of satellite systems, aircraft and ground services are especially effective. They make it possible to obtain information about the state of forests, agricultural land, sea phytoplankton, soil erosion, urban areas, redistribution of water resources, atmospheric pollution, etc. There is, for example, a correlation between the spectral brightness of the planet's surface and the humus content in soils and their salinity.
Space photography provides ample opportunities for geobotanical zoning; makes it possible to judge the growth of the population by the areas of settlements; energy consumption by the brightness of night lights; clearly identify dust layers and temperature anomalies associated with radioactive decay; fix increased concentrations of chlorophyll in water bodies; detect forest fires and much more.
in Russia since the late 1960s. there is a unified nationwide system for monitoring and control of environmental pollution. It is based on the principle of the complexity of observations of natural environments in terms of hydrometeorological, physicochemical, biochemical and biological parameters. Observations are built on a hierarchical principle.
The first stage is local observation points serving the city, region and consisting of control and measuring stations and a computer center for collecting and processing information (CSI). Then the data goes to the second level - regional (territorial), from where the information is transferred to local interested organizations. The third level is the Main Data Center, which collects and summarizes information on a national scale. For this, PCs are now widely used and digital raster maps are created.
Currently, the Unified State Environmental Monitoring System (EGSEM) is being created, the purpose of which is to issue objective comprehensive information about the state of the environment. USSEM includes monitoring: sources of anthropogenic impact on the environment; pollution of the abiotic component of the natural environment; biotic component of the natural environment.
EGSEM provides for the creation of environmental information services. Monitoring leads public service observations (GOS).
Atmospheric air observations in 1996 were carried out in 284 cities at 664 posts. As of January 1, 1996, the monitoring network for pollution of surface waters of the Russian Federation consisted of 1928 points, 2617 alignments, 2958 verticals, 3407 horizons located on 1363 water bodies (1979 - 1200 water bodies); of these - 1204 watercourses and 159 reservoirs. Within the framework of the State Monitoring of the Geological Environment (GMGS), the observation network amounted to 15,000 observation points for groundwater, 700 observation sites for dangerous exogenous processes, 5 polygons and 30 wells for studying earthquake precursors.
Among all the blocks of the USSEM, the most complex and least developed not only in Russia, but also in the world is the monitoring of the biotic component. There is no single methodology for the use of living objects either for assessing or for regulating the quality of the environment. Therefore, the primary task is to determine biotic indicators for each of the monitoring blocks at the federal and territorial levels in a differentiated way for terrestrial, water and soil ecosystems.
To manage the quality of the natural environment, it is important not only to have information about its state, but also to determine the damage from anthropogenic impacts, economic efficiency, environmental protection measures, and own economic mechanisms for protecting the natural environment.
actual condition
environment
The state of the environment
environments
Behind the state
environment
And the factors on
affecting her
Forecast
mark
Observations
Monitoring
observations
Status forecast
Assessment of the actual state
Estimation of the predicted state
Environmental quality regulation
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
A TASK
GOAL
OBSERVATION
GRADE
FORECAST
DECISION-MAKING
STRATEGY DEVELOPMENT
DETECTION
behind the change in the state of the environment
proposed environmental changes
observed changes and identification of the effect of human activity
causes of environmental change associated with human activities
to prevent
negative consequences of human activities
optimal relationship between society and the environment
Fig.3. Main tasks and purpose of monitoring
H 1
About 2
H 2
P 1
About 1
Monitoring as an information system. Ecological monitoring of the human environment: goals, objectives, objects. The structure of the monitoring system. Classification. Directions of state environmental monitoring and authorized state services. Environmental control.
In the last decade, human impact on the environment has increased dramatically around the world, which has led to a high rate of ecosystem change. Changes in the biosphere are different in their magnitude, nature of direction, and unevenly distributed in space and time. In the current situation, objective advanced information about the state of the natural environment, its changes and the determination of trends in changes is important. Control is necessary both for natural changes in the natural environment and for anthropogenic impacts that are superimposed on natural changes, reinforcing them. In this regard, there was a need to organize special systems for monitoring and analyzing the state of the natural environment, primarily pollution and the effects they cause in the biosphere.
Monitoring - a multi-purpose information system for monitoring, analyzing and predicting the state of an object or process.
Most often, the concept of monitoring is associated with the environment. Environmental monitoring (environmental monitoring) is a complex system of interconnected works carried out according to scientifically based programs for regular monitoring of the state of the environment, assessment and forecast of its changes under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors. Environmental monitoring provides warning information about emerging critical situations that are harmful to the health of people and other living organisms. Based on environmental monitoring data, recommendations are developed for further management decisions and corrective actions aimed at ensuring rational nature management and maintaining environmental quality.
For the first time the term "monitoring" (from lat. monitor - cautionary) appeared in 1972 before the Stockholm UN Conference on the Environment in addition to the term "control". It should be taken into account that the monitoring system itself only monitors and obtains information, not including environmental quality management activities, but is a source of information necessary for making environmentally significant decisions. Control also implies controls.
Environmental monitoring includes the following main activities :
Observation of factors affecting the natural environment, and the state of the environment, which changes as a result of this impact.
Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment.
Forecast of the state of the environment and assessment of this state. Forecasts are short-term and long-term.
Subject of environmental monitoring :
environment;
Natural resources;
sources of anthropogenic impacts on the natural environment.
Goals :
environmental Safety;
ecological well-being;
rational environmental management.
Under environmental safety understand the state in which the protection of the interests of the individual, society, nature and the state from potential threats created by anthropogenic or natural impact on the environment is ensured.
Main task The environmental monitoring system is information support and support for decision-making procedures in the field of managing the state of the environment (OPS) and environmental safety.
On fig. 4 shows the structure of the monitoring system.
Information System Management
(monitoring)
Observation estimate actual
status Regulation
environmental quality
state forecast assessment of the predicted
(future) states
Rice. 4. Block diagram of the monitoring system for
Blocks “observation” and “state forecast” are closely related. Forecasting is possible only if there is information about the actual state (feed-forward). The direction of the forecast should largely determine the structure and composition of the observational network (feedback).
The data obtained as a result of observation or prediction should be evaluated using specially selected criteria. Assessment, on the one hand, implies the determination of damage from the impact, on the other hand, the choice of optimal conditions for human activity. Information about the state of the natural environment and trends in its change should form the basis for the development of measures for nature protection.
The results of assessing the current and predicted state of the biosphere make it possible to clarify the requirements for the observation subsystem (this is the scientific justification for monitoring, the substantiation of the composition and structure of the network and observation methods).
Objects of environmental monitoring :
sources and factors of anthropogenic impact on the natural environment, including sources of pollution, radiation, including potentially dangerous objects;
biosphere elements, including
Components of the natural environment - lands, bowels, soils, surface and ground waters, atmospheric air, levels of radiation and energy pollution, as well as the ozone layer of the atmosphere and near-Earth outer space, which together provide favorable conditions for the existence of life on Earth;
Natural objects - natural ecological systems, natural landscapes and their constituent elements. Observations are also carried out over the responses of living organisms to the impact, over changes in their structural and functional indicators;
- natural-anthropogenic objects - natural objects transformed in the course of economic activity or objects created by man and having recreational and protective value;
- population groups affected by environmental factors.
This approach covers the monitoring of the entire cycle of anthropogenic impacts - from the sources of impacts to the influence and reactions of individual natural environments and complex ecological systems. The classification of monitoring and all its possible directions is a complex and cumbersome task. Let's take a closer look at priority systems.
Monitoring of natural environments and objects carried out at different levels:
global(biospheric or background - within the framework of international programs and projects);
federal(for the territory of Russia as a whole);
territorial(within the territory of the corresponding subject of the Russian Federation);
local (within the natural-technogenic system, which is in use by the nature user who has received a license for a particular type of activity).
Global monitoring - reduction of global processes and phenomena, including anthropogenic impacts on the biosphere and warning of emerging extreme situations. For example, the weakening of the ozone screen, the impact of global atmospheric pollution on climate, the assessment of pollution of the World Ocean, the creation of an international disaster warning system. The development and coordination of the global environmental monitoring system (GEMS) is carried out by UNEP ( United Environment program- UN Environment Program) and the World Meteorological Organization in the framework of various international programs and projects.
Changes in the environment can occur under the influence of natural causes and under the influence of human activities. In order to assess the changes introduced by human activity, it is necessary to know the background state of the biosphere. It is studied on the basis of reserves that exist in a number of countries within the framework of background monitoring environment. In Russia, background monitoring stations are located in six biosphere reserves.
In the implementation of global monitoring systems of space remote sensing of the Earth are used. They allow obtaining unique information about the functioning of ecosystems, the consequences of natural disasters and environmental disasters.
Environmental monitoring on territorial level tracking processes within the region. There are places (regions) where there are deviations from the average, characteristic and natural character on anthropogenic impacts, for the entire biosphere.
Monitoring at the territorial level includes:
monitoring of sources and impact factors . First of all, toxic substances, the most persistent and mobile, having toxic daughter products, are subject to monitoring. Among the sources, first of all, factory pipes, fields with introduced chemicals, cities, etc. are singled out.
environmental monitoring – observations of changes in the atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil, cryosphere and biota.
impact monitoring – observations of anthropogenic impacts in particular hazardous areas and points, study of discharges of a particular enterprise (in particular, monitoring of zones of direct impact). The measurement is made against the background of natural processes.
On fig. 5 shows the classification of successive stages of monitoring.
Rice. 5. Classification of successive stages of monitoring.
Geophysical monitoring – determines the response of the abiotic component, both on the micro and macro scales. Up to the reaction and determination of the state of large systems: weather and climate.
Biological monitoring – tracking of biological objects (presence of species, their condition, appearance of accidental introducers, etc.)
Biological monitoring includes observations:
for human health, the impact of the environment on humans;
behind the most important populations, both in terms of the existence of the ecosystem, and in terms of great economic value (valuable fish varieties);
for populations - indicators;
genetic monitoring.
Animals or plants (bioindicators) are used as indicators of environmental pollution. Bioindicators are used at the earliest stage of pollution. If pollution has gone as far as, for example, in Los Angeles, where alleys of rubber trees have been created - living trees can no longer grow there - then at this stage it makes no sense to resort to the help of bioindicators. The main bioindicators are lichens, as they do not tolerate air pollution very well. In places with strong air pollution, a “lichen desert” is observed. They only live in areas with clean air. Some of their species are found only at a distance of 50-60 km from industrial cities.
Coniferous plants are very sensitive to sulfur dioxide. If emissions into the atmosphere are high, the spruce forest is completely destroyed. Bioindication can be a change in plant growth, color (qualitative changes).
Animals and birds can serve as bioindicators. The reduction of natural bird populations is a signal warning about the danger to humans. Poisons accumulate in the body and eggs of birds. Heavy metals accumulate in the body of lizards. According to their analysis, one can judge the pollution of the environment. Sea urchin eggs are highly sensitive and easily used bioindicators of toxic impurities in seawater.
Very often, physicochemical methods for analyzing environmental objects require a lot of time and money. Bioindicators allow you to quickly and cost-effectively detect harmful substances. For example, in the study of food products for mycotoxins secreted by mold fungi, the Artemia crustacean is used, which is fed to aquarium fish. The extract from the suspicious plant material is treated with crustacean larvae and the percentage of larval mortality is used to judge the contamination with mycotoxins. Various types of algae are selectively used in the analysis of water for the content of insecticides and herbicides.
Analytical chemistry has now achieved fairly high results in terms of the sensitivity of the methods used: if in the 1950s the limit of poison detection was 1 mg/kg, today its detection in the amount of 10 -6 mg/kg has become realistic. Three molecules of any compound are enough among the three billion molecules of the material under study. However, bioindicators are even more sensitive. Biological tests detect 10 -9 mg/kg. The sample is introduced into mammalian cells and the reaction of these cells to the poison is measured. The accuracy of this method is undeniable.
Genetic monitoring – observation of possible changes in hereditary traits in various populations, including humans. In order to determine the reality of the threat to the health of future generations, research is carried out in three areas:
testing of toxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic activity of physical factors, chemicals and biological agents that are widely distributed in nature;
tracking the level and spectrum of morbidity in various population groups living in conditions of varying degrees of environmental pollution;
determination of the magnitude of the genetic load in human populations with an attempt to assess the level and dynamics of the frequency of newly emerging mutations.
All researchers on these problems joined their efforts within the framework of the Society for Environmental Mutagens. A common disadvantage of genetic monitoring is the limitation of the study of mutations by viable individuals, that is, the underestimation of lethal mutations. In part, these data are supplemented by data obtained from the analysis of the material of spontaneously aborted fetuses, stillbirths, and infertility in men and women. It has been established that 50% of spontaneous abortions and at least 25% of congenital malformations are caused by mutations.
Ecological monitoring (environment monitoring) is a complex system for observing the state of the environment, assessing and forecasting changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors
Types and subsystems of environmental monitoring
three stages (types, directions) of monitoring: bioecological (sanitary and hygienic), geosystemic (natural and economic) and biospheric (global).
There are such subsystems of environmental monitoring as: geophysical monitoring (analysis of data on pollution, atmospheric turbidity, explores meteorological and hydrological data of the environment, and also studies elements of the inanimate component of the biosphere, including objects created by man); climate monitoring (a service for monitoring and predicting fluctuations in the climate system. It covers that part of the biosphere that affects climate formation: the atmosphere, ocean, ice cover, etc. Climate monitoring is closely connected with hydrometeorological observations.); biological monitoring (based on observation of the reaction of living organisms to environmental pollution); public health monitoring (a system of measures for monitoring, analyzing, evaluating and predicting the state of physical health population), etc.
AT general view the process of environmental monitoring can be represented as a diagram: the environment (or a specific environmental object) -> measurement of parameters by various monitoring subsystems -> collection and transmission of information -> data processing and presentation (formation of generalized estimates), forecasting. In the management system, three subsystems can also be distinguished: decision-making (a specially authorized state body), decision-making management (for example, the administration of enterprises), decision-making using various technical or other means. Ecological monitoring methods: Remote methods
As you know, the first automatic tracking systems for parameters external environment were created in the military and space programs. In the 1950s The US air defense system already used seven layers of automatic buoys floating in the Pacific Ocean, but the most impressive automatic environmental quality control system was undoubtedly implemented in Lunokhod. One of the main sources of data for environmental monitoring is remote sensing (RS) data. They combine all types of data received from media:
Space (manned orbital stations, reusable spacecraft, autonomous satellite imaging systems, etc.);
Air-based (airplanes, helicopters and micro-aircraft radio-controlled vehicles
To non-contact (remote) survey methods, in addition to aerospace (Aerospace (remote) methods of environmental monitoring include an observation system using aircraft, balloons, satellites and satellite systems, as well as a remote sensing data processing system.
Physical and chemical methods
-Qualitative Methods. Allows you to determine which substance is in the test sample. For example based on chromatography.- Quantitative Methods. -gravimetric method. The essence of the method is to determine the mass and percentage of any element, ion or chemical compound present in the test sample. - Titrimetric(bulk) method. In this type of analysis, weighing is replaced by measuring the volumes of both the analyte and the reagent used in this determination. Titrimetric analysis methods are divided into 4 groups: a) acid-base titration methods; b) methods of deposition; c) redox methods; d) methods of complexation.
-Colorimetric methods. Colorimetry is one of the simplest methods of absorption analysis. It is based on the change in the color shades of the test solution depending on the concentration. Colorimetric methods can be divided into visual colorimetry and photocolorimetry.
-Express Methods. Express methods include instrumental methods that allow to determine pollution in a short period of time. These methods are widely used to determine the radiation background, in the system of monitoring the air and water environment. - Potentiometric methods are based on changing the electrode potential depending on the physicochemical processes occurring in the solution. They are divided into: a) direct potentiometry (ionometry); b) potentiometric titration.
Biological monitoring methods
Bioindication is a method that allows you to judge the state of the environment by the fact of the meeting, absence, developmental features of bioindicator organisms. Bioindicators - organisms, the presence, quantity or developmental features of which serve as indicators of natural processes, conditions or anthropogenic changes in the habitat. Conditions determined using bioindicators are called bioindication objects.
Biotesting is a method that allows assessing the quality of environmental objects in laboratory conditions using living organisms.
Assessment of biodiversity components - is a set of methods comparative analysis components of biodiversity
Methods of statistical and mathematical data processing
For the processing of environmental monitoring data, methods of computational and mathematical biology (including mathematical modeling), as well as a wide range of information technologies are used.
Geographic Information Systems
GIS is a reflection of the general trend of linking environmental data to spatial objects. According to some experts, further integration of GIS and environmental monitoring will lead to the creation of powerful EIS (environmental information systems) with dense spatial reference.
Ticket 13
1. The main reasons for the extinction of species are direct destruction (fishing), climate change, changes in biotopes, the introduction of competing species, chemical pollution, etc.
Man, having mastered fire and weapons, even in the early periods of his history began to exterminate animals. However, now the rate of extinction of species has increased dramatically, and more and more new species are being drawn into the orbit of the endangered, as a result of which the rate of spontaneous emergence of species is tens and even hundreds of times lower than the rate of species extinction. Therefore, there are simplifications of both individual ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole.
The main causes of biodiversity loss, reduction in the number and extinction of animals are violation of their habitat, excessive harvesting or fishing in prohibited areas, introduction (acclimatization) of alien species, direct destruction in order to protect products, accidental or unintentional destruction and pollution of the environment.
Habitat disturbance due to deforestation, plowing of steppes, drainage of swamps, flow regulation, creation of reservoirs and other anthropogenic impacts radically changes the conditions for the reproduction of wild animals, their migration routes, which has a very negative impact on their numbers and survival.
Harvesting refers to any removal of animals from the natural environment for various purposes. Excessive booty serves main reason reduction, for example, in the number of large mammals (elephants, rhinos, etc.) in the countries of Africa and Asia: the high cost of ivory on the world market leads to the annual death of about 60 thousand elephants. Hundreds of thousands of small songbirds are sold annually in the bird markets of large Russian cities. Volume international trade wild birds exceeds seven million specimens, most of which die either on the road or shortly after arrival.
The introduction (acclimatization) of alien species also leads to a reduction in the number and extinction of animal species. Often native species because of the invasion of "alien" are on the verge of extinction. There are known examples of the negative impact of the American mink on the European mink, the Canadian beaver on the European, the muskrat on the desman.
Others reasons for the decline and extinction of animals are:
Their direct destruction to protect agricultural products and commercial facilities (death birds of prey, ground squirrels, pinnipeds, coyotes, etc.).
- (unintentional) destruction on roads, during military operations, when mowing grass, on power lines, when regulating water flow, etc.
Pollution of the environment with pesticides, oil and oil products, atmospheric pollutants, lead and other toxicants.
2.The concept of "thermal pollution". Ways to reduce thermal pollution.
Thermal pollution is a type of physical (usually anthropogenic) pollution of the environment, characterized by an increase in temperature above natural level. The main sources of thermal pollution are emissions of heated exhaust gases and air into the atmosphere, and the discharge of heated wastewater into water bodies.
The main way to reduce thermal pollution is to phase out fossil fuels and switch to renewable energy using solar energy sources: light, wind and hydro resources. An auxiliary measure may be the transition from the economy of a consumer society to a resource economy.
3.Laws of the Russian Federation on environmental protection.
Legislation in the field of environmental protection
1. Legislation in the field of environmental protection is based on the Constitution of the Russian Federation and consists of this Federal Law, other federal laws, as well as other regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation adopted in accordance with them, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
2. Real the federal law valid throughout the Russian Federation.
3. This Federal Law is in force on the continental shelf and in the exclusive economic zone of the Russian Federation in accordance with the norms of international law and federal laws and is aimed at ensuring the preservation of the marine environment.
4. Relations arising in the field of environmental protection as the basis for the life and activities of peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation, in order to ensure their rights to a favorable environment, are regulated by international treaties of the Russian Federation, this Federal Law, other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts. acts of the Russian Federation, laws and other regulatory legal acts of the subjects of the Russian Federation.
5. Relations arising in the field of protection and rational use natural resources, their conservation and restoration, are regulated by international treaties of the Russian Federation, land, water, forestry legislation, subsoil legislation, wildlife, other legislation in the field of environmental protection and nature management.
6. Relations arising in the field of environmental protection, to the extent necessary to ensure the sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population, are regulated by legislation on the sanitary and epidemiological welfare of the population and legislation on health protection, otherwise aimed at ensuring a favorable environment for humans legislation.
7. Relations in the field of environmental protection arising from the establishment of mandatory requirements for products, including buildings and structures (hereinafter referred to as products), or for products and design processes related to product requirements (including surveys), production, construction, installation , adjustment, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal are regulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation on technical regulation.
Ticket 14
1.Ecology - (from the Greek oikos - house, dwelling, residence and ... ology), the science of the relationship of living organisms and the communities they form with each other and with the environment. The term "ecology" was proposed in 1866 by E. Haeckel. The objects of ecology can be populations of organisms, species, communities, ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. From Ser. 20th century In connection with the increased human impact on nature, ecology has acquired special significance as the scientific basis for rational environmental management and the protection of living organisms, and the term "ecology" itself has a broader meaning. From the 70s. 20th century human ecology is formed, or social ecology studying the patterns of interaction between society and the environment, as well as practical problems of its protection; includes various philosophical, sociological, economic, geographical and other aspects (eg, urban ecology, technical ecology, environmental ethics, etc.). In this sense, one speaks of the "greening" of modern science. Environmental problems generated by modern social development have caused a number of socio-political movements (the "Greens" and others) that oppose environmental pollution and other negative consequences of scientific and technological progress.
2. The problem of the degradation of the ozone layer of the Earth. Environmental consequences.
The maximum concentration of ozone is concentrated in the troposphere at altitudes of 15–30 km, where the ozone layer exists. At normal ground pressure, all atmospheric ozone would form a layer only 3mm thick.
The ozone layer is thinner in the equatorial regions and thicker in the polar regions. It is characterized by significant variability in time and territory (up to 20%) due to fluctuations in solar radiation and atmospheric circulation, which masks anthropogenic impacts.
Even with such a low power, the ozone layer in the stratosphere plays a very important role, protecting the living organisms of the Earth from the harmful effects of ultraviolet radiation from the Sun. Ozone absorbs its hard part with wavelengths of 100–280 nm and most radiation with wavelengths of 280–315 nm. In addition, ozone absorption ultraviolet radiation leads to heating of the stratosphere and largely determines its thermal regime and dynamic processes occurring in it. Exposure to hard ultraviolet radiation has been associated with incurable forms of skin cancer, eye disease, immune system people, adverse impacts on the vital activity of plankton in the ocean, reduced grain yields and other geo-environmental consequences.
It is assumed that life on Earth arose after the formation of the ozone layer in the Earth's atmosphere, when its reliable protection was formed. Particularly great interest in ozone arose in the 1970s, when anthropogenic changes in the ozone content were discovered as a result of emissions of nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere as a result of atomic explosions in the atmosphere, aircraft flights in the stratosphere, the use of mineral fertilizers, and fuel combustion. However, the most powerful anthropogenic factor that destroys ozone are fluorine and chlorine derivatives of methane, ethane and cyclobutane.
These compounds are given the name freons. They are widely used in the production of refrigerators and air conditioners, aerosol packaging. Bromine-containing compounds, which are also a product of human activity, destroy ozone even more effectively. They are emitted into the atmosphere as a result of agricultural production, during the combustion of biomass, the operation of internal combustion engines, etc.
Due to human activity since the late 1960s. until 1995 The ozone layer has lost about 5% of its mass. It is expected that the maximum loss of stratospheric ozone will be reached by the beginning of the 21st century. followed by a gradual recovery during the first half of it in accordance with the Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer.
In connection with the exceptional importance of the ozone layer for the preservation of life on Earth in 1985. The Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer was signed in Vienna. In 1987 The Montreal Protocol was signed to ban emissions of ozone-depleting substances into the atmosphere. UN General Assembly in December 1994 decided to declare September 16 as International Day for the Preservation of the Earth's Ozone Layer.
At present, growth inhibition and a decrease in plant yields are observed in those regions where the thinning of the ozone layer is most pronounced, sunburn of foliage, the death of seedlings of tomatoes, sweet peppers, diseases of cucumbers.
The abundance of phytoplankton, which forms the basis of the food pyramid of the World Ocean, is decreasing. In Chile, cases of loss of vision in fish, sheep and rabbits have been recorded, there has been a death of growth buds in trees, the synthesis of an unknown red pigment by algae that causes poisoning of marine animals and humans, as well as "devil's bullets" - molecules that, at low concentrations in water, have a mutagenic effect on the genome, and at higher values, an effect similar to radiation injury. They do not undergo biodegradation, neutralization, are not destroyed by boiling - in a word, there is no protection against them.
In the surface layers of the soil, there is an acceleration of variability, a change in the composition and ratio between the communities of microorganisms living there.
Immunity is suppressed in a person, the number of cases of allergic diseases is growing, accelerated aging of tissues, especially the eyes, is observed, cataracts are formed more often, the incidence of skin cancer increases, and pigmented formations on the skin become malignant. It has been noticed that staying on a sunny day on the beach for several hours often leads to these negative phenomena.
3.MPC of pollutants in the atmospheric air: types, units of measurement. Which government agency sets these standards?
A feature of atmospheric air quality regulation is the dependence of the impact of pollutants present in the air on the health of the population not only on the value of their concentrations, but also on the duration of the time interval during which a person breathes this air.
Therefore, in the Russian Federation, as well as throughout the world, for pollutants, as a rule, 2 standards are established:
1) a standard designed for a short period of exposure to pollutants. This standard is called "maximum allowable maximum one-time concentrations."
1) a standard designed for a longer period of exposure (8 hours, a day, for some substances a year). In the Russian Federation, this standard is set for 24 hours and is called "maximum allowable average daily concentrations."
MPC - the maximum permissible concentration of a pollutant in the atmospheric air - a concentration that does not have a direct or indirect adverse effect on the present or future generation throughout life, does not reduce a person's working capacity, does not worsen his well-being and sanitary living conditions. MPC values are given in mg/m3. (GN 2.1.6.695-98)
MPC MR - the maximum permissible single concentration of a chemical in the air of populated areas, mg/m3. This concentration when inhaled for 20-30 minutes should not cause reflex reactions in the human body.
MPC SS - maximum allowable average daily concentration of a chemical in the air of populated areas, mg/m3. This concentration should not have a direct or indirect harmful effect on a person during indefinitely long (years) inhalation.
Public administration in the field of atmospheric air protection is carried out by the Government of the Russian Federation directly or through a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric air protection, as well as state authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. The structure of federal authorities in the field of atmospheric air protection is shown in Figure 2.11.
The State Committee for Ecology of Russia, as a specially authorized federal executive body in the field of atmospheric air protection, carries out intersectoral coordination and activities in the field of atmospheric air protection together with other federal executive authorities within their competence and interacts with executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.
Ticket number 15
1.Basic laws of ecology.
Basic laws of ecology:
· Law of indispensability of the biosphere: the biosphere is the only system that ensures the stability of the habitat in case of any disturbances that arise. There is no reason to hope for the construction of artificial communities that provide environmental stabilization to the same extent as natural communities.
The law of biogenic migration of atoms (V.I. Vernadsky): migration chemical elements on the earth's surface and in the biosphere as a whole is carried out with the direct participation of living matter - biogenic migration.
· The law of physical and chemical unity of living matter: the general biospheric law - living matter is physically and chemically united; for all the different qualities of living organisms, they are so physically and chemically similar that what is harmful to some is not indifferent to others (for example, pollutants).
· Redi's principle: the living comes only from the living, there is an impenetrable boundary between living and non-living matter, although there is constant interaction.
· The law of unity "organism - environment": life develops as a result of a constant exchange of matter and information based on the flow of energy in the total unity of the environment and the organisms inhabiting it.
· The law of unidirectional energy flow: the energy received by the community and assimilated by producers is dissipated or, together with their biomass, is transferred to consumers, and then to decomposers with a drop in flow at each trophic level; since an insignificant amount of initially involved energy (maximum 0.35%) enters the reverse flow (from reducers to producers), it is impossible to speak of an “energy cycle”; there is only a circulation of substances supported by the flow of energy.
· L. Dollo's law of irreversibility of evolution: an organism (population, species) cannot return to its previous state, already realized in the series of its ancestors, even after returning to their habitat.
· The law (rule) of 10 percent R. Lindemann: the average maximum transition from one trophic level of the ecological pyramid to another 10% of energy (or matter in energy terms), as a rule, does not lead to adverse consequences for the ecosystem and the energy-losing trophic level.
The law of tolerance (V. Shelford): the limiting factor for the prosperity of an organism (species) can be both a minimum and a maximum environmental impact, the range between which determines the amount of endurance (tolerance) of the organism to this factor.
· Law of Optimum: any environmental factor has certain limits of positive impact on living organisms.
· The law of the limiting factor (Liebig's law of the minimum): the most significant factor is the one that most deviates from the optimal values for the organism; the survival of individuals depends on it at the moment; the substance present in the minimum controls the growth.
· Gause's exclusion law (principle): two species cannot exist in the same locality if their ecological needs are identical, i.e. if they occupy the same ecological niche.
· "Laws" of B. Commoner's ecology: 1) everything is connected with everything; 2) everything has to go somewhere; 3) nature "knows" better; 4) nothing is given for free.
Several consequences follow from the law of universal connection (“everything is connected with everything”):
The law of large numbers - the cumulative action of a large number of random factors leads to a result that is almost independent of chance, that is, of a systemic nature. Thus, myriads of bacteria in soil, water, in the bodies of living organisms create a special, relatively stable microbiological environment necessary for the normal existence of all living things. Or another example: the random behavior of a large number of molecules in a certain volume of gas causes quite certain values temperature and pressure.
The principle of Le Chatelier (Brown) - with an external influence that brings the system out of a state of stable equilibrium, this equilibrium is shifted in the direction in which the effect of the external influence decreases. At the biological level, it is realized in the form of the ability of ecosystems to self-regulate.
The law of optimality - any system functions with the greatest efficiency in some of its characteristic spatio-temporal limits.
Any systemic changes in nature have a direct or indirect impact on a person - from the state of the individual to complex social relations.
From the law of conservation of the mass of matter ("everything must go somewhere"), at least two postulates of practical importance follow.
The law of development of a system at the expense of its environment states: any natural or social system can develop only through the use of the material, energy and informational capabilities of the environment. Absolutely isolated self-development is impossible.
The law of the irremovability of waste or side effects of production, according to which the waste generated in the process of production cannot be eliminated without a trace, they can only be transferred from one form to another or moved in space, and their action can be extended in time. This law excludes the fundamental possibility of waste-free production and consumption in modern society. Matter does not disappear, but only passes from one form to another, influencing life.
Similar information.
By scale There are monitoring basic (background), global, regional, impact.
on methods of conducting and objects of observation: aviation, space, human environment.
Base monitoring performs monitoring of general biospheric, mainly natural, phenomena without imposing regional anthropogenic influences on them.
Global monitoring monitors global processes and phenomena in the Earth's biosphere and its ecosphere, including all their ecological components (the main material and energy components of ecological systems), and warns of emerging extreme situations.
Regional monitoring monitors processes and phenomena within a certain region, where these processes and phenomena may differ both in their natural character and in anthropogenic impacts from the basic background characteristic of the entire biosphere.
Impact monitoring is the monitoring of regional and local anthropogenic impacts in especially dangerous zones and places.
Monitoring of the human environment monitors the state of the natural environment surrounding a person and prevents emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to the health of people and other living organisms.
The implementation of monitoring requires the use of fairly well-developed software, including complexes of mathematical models of the phenomena under study.
The development of a model of a particular phenomenon or natural system is associated with the choice of its conceptual structure and the availability of a closed package of computer programs. The most common type of models are sets of differential equations that reflect biological, geochemical, and climatic processes in the system under study. In this case, the coefficients of the equations either have a specific meaning or are determined indirectly through the approximation of experimental data.
Modeling a real natural system based on experimental data and carrying out numerous experiments on it make it possible to obtain quantitative estimates of the interactions of various components of communities both in natural systems and those formed as a result of intrusion into the natural environment by human economic activity.
EIA procedure
In accordance with existing rules, any pre-project and project documentation related to any economic undertakings, the development of new territories, the location of industries, the design, construction and reconstruction of economic and civil facilities must contain the section "Environmental Protection" and in it - a mandatory subsection EIA - materials on environmental impact assessment planned activity. EIA is a preliminary determination of the nature and degree of danger of all potential types of impact and an assessment of the environmental, economic and social consequences of the project; a structured process of taking into account environmental requirements in the system of preparation and decision-making on economic development.
EIA provides for variability of decisions, taking into account territorial features and interests of the population. EIA is organized and provided by the customer of the project with the involvement of competent organizations and specialists. In many cases, EIA requires special engineering and environmental surveys.
The main sections of the EIA
1. Identification of sources of influence using experimental data, expert assessments, creation of mathematical modeling settings, literature analysis, etc. As a result, sources, types and objects of impact are identified.
2. A quantitative assessment of the types of impact can be carried out by a balance or instrumental method. When using the balance method, the amount of emissions, discharges, waste is determined. The instrumental method is the measurement and analysis of results.
3. Forecasting changes in the natural environment. A probabilistic forecast of environmental pollution is given, taking into account climatic conditions, wind roses, background concentrations, etc.
4. Forecasting emergency situations. A forecast of possible emergencies, causes and probability of their occurrence is given. For each emergency, preventive measures are provided.
5. Determination of ways to prevent negative consequences. Opportunities to reduce the impact with the help of special technical means of protection, technologies, etc. are determined.
6. Choice of methods of control over the state of the environment and residual consequences. The system of monitoring, control should be provided in the designed technological scheme.
7. Ecological and economic assessment of options for design solutions. Impact assessment is done for everyone options with an analysis of damages, compensation costs for protection from harmful effects after the implementation of the project.
8. Registration of results. It is carried out in the form of a separate section of the project document, which is a mandatory annex and contains, in addition to the materials of the EIA list, a copy of the agreement with the Ministry of Health, state supervision bodies responsible for the use of natural resources, the conclusion of departmental expertise, the conclusion of public expertise and the main disagreements.
Environmental assessment
Environmental assessment – establishing the compliance of the planned economic and other activities with environmental requirements and determining the admissibility of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise in order to prevent possible adverse impacts of this activity on the environment and related social, economic and other consequences of the implementation of the object of environmental expertise ().
Environmental expertise involves a special study of economic and technical projects, objects and processes in order to make a reasonable conclusion about their compliance with environmental requirements, norms and regulations.
Environmental impact assessment thus performs the functions of a forward-looking preventive control design documentation and at the same time functions oversight for environmental compliance of project implementation results. According to Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Expertise" these types of control and supervision are carried out by environmental authorities.
Law of the Russian Federation "On Environmental Expertise"(Art. 3) formulates principles of ecological expertise, namely:
Presumptions of potential environmental hazard of any planned economic and other activities;
Mandatory conduct of the state environmental review before making decisions on the implementation of the object of environmental review;
The complexity of assessing the impact on the environment of economic and other activities and its consequences;
Obligation to take into account the requirements of environmental safety during the environmental impact assessment;
Reliability and completeness of information submitted for ecological expertise;
Independence of environmental review experts in the exercise of their powers in the field of environmental review;
Scientific validity, objectivity and legality of the conclusions of environmental expertise;
Glasnost, participation of public organizations (associations), consideration of public opinion;
Responsibility of the participants in the environmental review and interested parties for the organization, conduct, quality of the environmental review.
test questions
1. Formulate the concepts of monitoring, environmental monitoring.
2. Name the types of environmental monitoring.
3. Formulate the tasks and principles of organization of the environmental monitoring system.
4. What is the environmental passport of the enterprise, its content?
5. What is the EIA procedure? For what purpose is it carried out?
6. List the sequence of stages of the EIA.
7. What does the ecological expertise include?
8. Formulate the principles of ecological expertise.
Section 3
Safety in the production environment
(occupational Safety and Health)
The main provisions of the current legislation of the Russian Federation on labor protection
In the field of ensuring human safety at work in the Russian Federation, labor protection legislation is in force.
Legislation on labor and labor protection is based on the provisions Constitution of the Russian Federation(adopted December 12, 1993):
- “In the Russian Federation, the labor and health of people are protected, a guaranteed minimum wage is established” (Article 7);
- "Labor is free..." (Art. 37);
- “Forced labor is prohibited...” (Article 37);
- “Everyone has the right to work in conditions that meet the requirements of safety and hygiene ...” (Article 7);
- “Everyone has the right to rest...” (Article 37);
- “Everyone has the right to health care and medical care...” (Article 41);
- “The concealment by officials of facts and circumstances that pose a threat to the life and health of people entails responsibility ...” (Article 41).
Legislative acts containing labor protection requirements:
Labor Code of the Russian Federation. Federal Law No. 90-FZ dated June 30, 2006;
"On Compulsory Social Insurance against Industrial Accidents and Occupational Diseases". Federal law dated
24 07. 1998 No. 125-FZ.
In structure Labor Code of the Russian Federation available Section X–"Occupational Safety and Health".
It defines the concept of “labor protection” and other concepts, outlines the range of legal norms that form the legislation of the Russian Federation on labor protection, indicates the scope of the law, sets out the main directions of state policy in the field of labor protection.
Occupational Safety and Health - a system for ensuring the safety of life and health of workers in the course of work, including legal, socio-economic, organizational and technical, sanitary and hygienic, treatment and preventive, rehabilitation and other measures.
Workplace – the place where the worker is required to be or where he is required to arrive in connection with his work and which is directly or indirectly under the control of the employer.
Means of individual and collective defense workers – technical means used to prevent or reduce exposure of workers to harmful and (or) hazardous production factors, as well as to protect against pollution.
Certificate of conformity of work on labor protection (safety certificate) – a document certifying the compliance of the work carried out in the organization on labor protection with the established state regulatory requirements for labor protection.