Dangerous invasive species. Phytoinvasions: danger and ecological consequences. Humanitarian disaster due to fish
The most dangerous animals that can instantly adapt to new living conditions. They have either already destroyed or are now engaged in the destruction of other animals. Some species of animals are engaged in the creation of supercolonies on a planetary scale, while others destroy all zooplankton and animals at an incredible rate.
Source: www.hormigas.org
Argentine ants originally lived only in South America, but now their colonies exist in Southern Europe, the USA, and also in Asia. In Europe, the largest colony of Argentine ants stretches for 6 thousand km, stretching along the entire Mediterranean coast of Spain, France, Monaco and Italy. The ant colony in the USA (California) has already grown to 900 km. The third colony of Argentine ants is located on the west coast of Japan. All three Argentine ant colonies were found to be tolerant of each other, ie. form a huge supercolony on a planetary scale.
The homeland of the giant Achatina is the coastal part of East Africa. During the Second World War, this mollusk spread throughout Oceania, the Caribbean, and America. The expansion of the range of Achatina was stopped due to the introduced quarantine. The incipient invasion of the snail in the United States was prevented. Achatina giant is a dangerous species, since Achatina are hermaphrodites, that is, each individual has male and female genital organs. At a low population density, self-fertilization is possible. The snail has learned to master all kinds of biotopes: coastal lowlands, river valleys, forests, shrubs, as well as fields and arable lands. Achatina giant is recognized as an extremely dangerous agricultural pest.
Source: upload.wikimedia.org
The American signal crayfish originally lived in North America. In the 20th century, it spread in Europe, because it is not only resistant to crayfish plague, but is itself its distributor. Endemics are not able to compete with the American signal cancer. Currently found in Europe (on the territory of 25 countries), as well as in Russia.
Source: upload.wikimedia.org
The deer is included in the list of the most dangerous invasive species according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature. The red deer is most dangerous in South America, where the rare South Andean deer competes with it for food. In Argentina, red deer have spread to many national parks. In some regions, the red deer does not allow the populations of local plant species, which are especially actively used for food, to recover, thus affecting plant diversity.
Source: upload.wikimedia.org
The venous rapana is a predator that could initially be found only in Peter the Great Bay, as well as off the coast of Japan, but in 1947 the rapana was accidentally brought into the Black Sea. Due to the absence of natural enemies in the sea, the mollusk population instantly grew and caused great damage to the fauna of the Black Sea. In the future, due to intensive maritime transport, the area of \u200b\u200bthe rapana increased: now it inhabited the entire Mediterranean Sea, as well as the North Sea. There is evidence that the rapana has already entered the waters of South America.
Source: upload.wikimedia.org
India is considered the birthplace of the tobacco whitefly. Whiteflies are dangerous because their larvae suck plant juices and transmit phytopathogenic viruses. A particularly dangerous insect for melons, vegetables and industrial crops. Berry, citrus and forest tree plantations are also affected. Whiteflies have settled on all continents (except Antarctica).
Source: c1.staticflickr.com
Yellow crazy ants originally lived only in West Africa. Now colonies of these ants are found in the Caribbean, Indian Ocean and Oceania. Destroyed a unique ecosystem on Christmas Island. Yellow crazy ants are capable of creating supercolonies (i.e. they do not compete with each other). Use human transport to capture new territories. Destroy other insects, arachnids, mollusks. Their diet also includes grains and seeds.
Invasive species, or invasive species (from lat. invasio - « invasion, attack, raid; violence; violent capture"") - a biological species that has spread as a result of human activities, the spread of which threatens biological diversity. The initial reason for their spread is the intended or unintentional introduction of organisms outside their natural habitats.
Invasive animals
Huge losses are incurred by agriculture and forestry from insect pests, a significant part of which are invasive species.
Invasive plants
The definition of invasive plant species often includes an assessment of harm from an economic point of view. However, there are neutral or useful invasive species, the so-called "soft invasive species", whose environmental or economic damage is negligible.
In Western classifications, among the totality of invasive species (which are understood as alien species that can spread over large areas), there are “transformers” (eng. transformers), species that can change ecosystems over a large area. The influence of transformers may consist in excessive consumption (water, oxygen, light) or resource donation (nitrogen), counteracting or, conversely, strengthening soil erosion processes, accumulation of harmful substances and other influences.
In the Russian classification, the concept of a transformer roughly corresponds to the concept agriophyte, and invasive species include agriophytes (plants that have invaded natural cenoses) and epecophytes(plants spreading through anthropogenic habitats).
see also
Notes
Literature
Elton Ch. Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants = The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. By Charles S. Elton. London, 1958 / Charles Elton / Trans. from English. Yu. I. Lashkevich; Ed. and with preface. prof. N. P. Naumova. - M.: Publishing house of foreign literature, 1960. - 232 p.
Tokhtar V. K., Mazur N. V. Analysis of invasive species in Central Russia // Scientific Bulletin of the Belgorod State University. Series: Natural Sciences. 2010. No. 21 (92). Issue. 13. S. 20-23.
Vinogradova Yu.K. Code for managing the behavior of invasive alien species in botanical gardens // Botanical gardens in the modern world: theoretical and applied research: Proceedings of the All-Russian Scientific Conference / Ed. A. S. Demidov. - M. : KMK Scientific Publications Partnership, 2011. Archived on May 12, 2012.
Yu. K. Vinogradova , S. R. Maiorov , A. A. Notov Black Book of Flora of the Tver Region: Alien Plant Species in the Ecosystems of the Tver Region / Ch. botanical garden them. N. V. Tsitsina. - M.: Association of scientific publications KMK, 2011. - 292, p. - (Alien species of Russia). - 550 copies. - ISBN 978-5-87317-804-9.
Kuklina A., Vinogradova Yu.
Alla Kuklina, Candidate of Biological Sciences, Main Botanical Garden. N. V. Tsitsina RAS Yulia Vinogradova, Doctor of Biological Sciences, Main Botanical Garden named after. N. V. Tsitsina RAS "Science and Life" №5, 2015
Over the past 200 years, the flora of many countries of the world has changed significantly. Almost a third of the total number of species is now made up of alien plants that have successfully taken root in their new homeland. Seeds or cuttings of unknown plants come with transport, containers from imported fruits or vegetables, or as an admixture with imported goods, especially grain; Our compatriots also bring them from tourist trips.
Invasive plant species
The most aggressive alien species, which displace local, native plants, are classified into a special group - invasive species. Today, there are more than 300 invasive species in 57 countries of the world; in the flora of central Russia - so far 52 species, but this list is constantly updated due to new "uninvited" guests that violate natural communities. Among them are Michurin's chokeberry (chokeberry), wrinkled rose, rudbeckia hard-haired.
A significant part of invasive species came to Europe from America. For quite a long time, some of them, such as ash-leaved maple and Pennsylvania ash, were grown as cultivated plants, and only later they began to actively populate neighboring territories.
“Escaped” from the collections of botanical gardens are small-flowered galinzoga, prickly echinocystis, leafy string, fragrant chamomile, iron-bearing touchy.
The gardens still grow goldenrod, Jerusalem artichoke, Caucasian comfrey, perennial daisy, erect oxalis (especially the purple-leaved form), filiform veronica, spiked shadberry, and sea buckthorn. Fragments of rhizomes and shoots with seeds of these plants, removed from the plots, remain in the soil for a long time and can spread over considerable distances, creating large colonies capable of populating all free spaces in a decade.
Among the invasive species there are plants that are dangerous to human health. First of all, it is ragweed. In the southern regions of Russia, especially in the Stavropol Territory, Rostov and Volgograd regions, its pollen is one of the strongest allergens. During the flowering period of ragweed, 40% of people suffering from hay fever are forced to take sick leave. Ambrosia pollen circulates in the air outside of these regions as well.
Echinocystis lobata ( Echinocystis lobata). North American seed plant: one plant produces up to 100 seeds. Massively found in central Russia. Usually, its shoots spread along the ground or wrap around bushes along the river, drowning out the growth of representatives of the natural flora. Photo by Alla Kuklina
Ambrosia sagebrush ( Ambrosia artemisiifolia). The plant is native to North America. The secondary range occupies the south of European Russia, the Southern Urals (the ragweed is also introduced here) and the south of the Far East. In central Russia, ragweed is brought with the seeds of agricultural crops (sunflower, hemp, alfalfa, etc.), the harvesting of which coincides with the maturation of the weed. Photo by Natalia Reshetnikova
In Russia, ragweed was first registered in 1918, but this plant came to Europe half a century earlier. The fight against ambrosia requires a lot of money. In Germany, for example, almost 20% of all state spending on the elimination of weeds is spent on controlling its resettlement.
Do not forget that the pollen of ash-leaved maple, Pennsylvania ash, as well as cocklebur cyclaena can also cause allergies.
Invasive species are a danger to our nature. Getting into meadows or forests, they not only compete with local native species for light and nutrients, but subsequently even displace some of them or, forming hybrids with them, contribute to a change in the genetic diversity of plant communities.
A significant problem is created by the overgrowth of farmland with multi-leaved lupine and oriental goat's rue. In the forests where lupine is introduced, mushrooms stop growing, because nitrogen-fixing bacteria in lupine tubers transform the soil, and an excess of nitrogen negatively affects the mycelium. Increasingly, one can meet in the meadows and wastelands of the Moscow, Kaluga and Kursk regions huge thickets of North American plants: giant goldenrod, lobed echinocystis, Canadian small-flowered. With a strong clogging of the fields with the last of the listed plants, the yield is reduced, and the dry stems of this weed are hammered into the combine. Its appearance on vineyards inhibits the growth of the vine.
Many people are familiar with the giant umbrellas of Sosnovsky's hogweed, a widespread weed that inhabited large meadows and banks of reservoirs. This plant is capable of causing photodermatitis, which manifests itself in the form of skin burns that do not heal for a long time.
For animal husbandry, invasive species are dangerous, classified as quarantine weeds, among them - few-flowered cenhrus. On the territory of Russia, this plant penetrated up to the Volgograd and Belgorod regions. Cenchrus is an annual grass with a flat branched stem that can take root at nodes in contact with the soil. This dangerous species settles, attaching to human clothing, animal hair, sticking into car tires. Moves along with the streams of melt water. Its spikelets with a prickly wrapper cause long-term non-healing mouth ulcers in pets, which can later become a hotbed of serious infectious diseases. Getting on arable lands and pastures, in gardens and orchards, tsenhrus reduces the yield of forage grasses, corn, melons and row crops.
The economic damage in agriculture, forestry and water management from biological invasions is enormous. According to estimates by the UK Environment Agency, the cost of eradicating the aggressively growing impatiens iron in England and Wales alone could reach more than 210 million euros.
American ecologist David Peimentel has calculated that the damage from invasive species worldwide is more than 1.4 trillion dollars, that is, approximately 5% of the global economy. In total, the United States loses $137 billion from uninvited plants, India - $117 billion, Brazil - $50 billion.
The costs of collecting information about invasive species are also high. The cost of investments in the DAISIE information project (containing data on 2122 alien species in 27 EU countries) reaches 3.4 million euros, and up to 84 thousand euros. However, in any case, such investments are significantly lower than the costs associated with the control of alien species, which exceed 12 billion euros per year in Europe.
Biodiversity Conservation Strategy
Scientists in many countries are concerned about the negative impact of phytoinvasions on agriculture, human health and biological diversity. They understand how great the risk of penetration of dangerous plant species from the territories of neighboring states is, therefore, they unite efforts to control the spread of aggressive species.
In 1992, in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil), during the UN Conference on Environment and Development of the Environment, the Convention on Biological Diversity was submitted for signing by all states, which provided for a number of measures to prevent biological invasions, mitigate their consequences and extensive monitoring.
In 2010, the conference of the countries-participants of the UN Convention on Biodiversity in the city of Nagoya (Japan) approved a new strategic plan for the conservation of biodiversity and formulated 20 points that contribute to the conservation of the planet's wildlife. Here is one of them: “By 2020, invasive alien species and the vectors of their penetration into natural communities should be identified and prioritized. The most threatening (aggressive) species should be tightly controlled or destroyed, and measures to control the distribution pathways of such species to prevent their introduction and naturalization should be developed and adopted.
In order to reduce the damage from unwanted plants, specialists will have to continue a comprehensive study of various areas of invasive biology, study the features of the ongoing process in a number of species, identify their transit routes and directions for the introduction of alien species, and learn how to predict and prevent mass phytoinvasions. An essential foundation for solving this problem will be the creation of a unified database on invasive species in Russia and the development of legislative acts aimed at controlling the spread and destruction of dangerous plants.
Currently, as a result of anthropogenic activities, tens of thousands of animal and plant species move around our planet every day. However, many of them lead to very serious environmental, social and economic consequences.
Aggressive alien species introduced from other regions (often even from other continents), which spread through the fault of man, produce offspring in very large numbers and spread over a considerable distance from parental individuals, are called invasive species. They are characterized by active introduction into local communities, in which they often displace native plant species. The invasion of invasive species is a serious environmental problem worldwide, leading to the so-called« floristic pollution of the territory, is rightfully considered the second largest threat to biological diversity (after habitat destruction).
The study of the process and results of naturalization of alien species isurgent task of our timeand became the reasontopic selection my work: Invasive Species: Territory Invaders.
Object of study: fauna - like historically established set of speciesanimalsliving in a given area and included in all of itsbiogeocenoses.
Subject of research are animals (organisms that make up part of the organic world).
Target: conduct a comprehensive analysis of the study of invasive animal species.
Tasks:
To study the etymology of the concepts "invasive species" and "introduction".
Identify the most dangerous and aggressive invasive animal species.
Determine the consequences of the introduction of invasive species.
The novelty of the work. The paper studies the most dangerous and aggressive invasive species that can change the composition of communities, discusses some terminological aspects, as well as the features and consequences of the introduction of alien organisms, often acquiring the character of biological pollution.
Practical significance of the study. The materials obtained can be used in the course of biology (botany and ecology), to expand the ecological culture of schoolchildren and will be transferred to the Rospotrebnadzor of the Tver region to increase the attention of relevant organizations to preserve the uniqueness of the flora and fauna of the Tver region.
The main working method has become a method of selection, systematization and classification of scientific articles on a given topic.
The work of 39 pages, consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, conclusion, list of references, applications.
Chapter 1. Invasive (invasive) species
Etymology of the term "invasive" species
There is no unambiguous and correct definition. In Russian, the term "invasive species" is a morphological transfer from the English phrase invasivespecies.
In the Western school, a special discipline, defined as invasive plant ecology, deals with the study of invasive species; in Russia, these species are studied by florists as part of the adventitious floras of the regions and separately by specialists in other areas from the point of view of the biology and ecology of such species. As a rule, a set of species defined as "invasive" is part of a vast alien or adventive element of the flora, among which they stand out, first of all, by the ability to quickly spread and intrude into various types of cenoses. The website of the Global Invasive Species Program defines: “Invasive alien species are alien ( non-
native) organisms that cause or may cause damage to the environment, the economy or human health.”
So an invasive alien species means an alien species whose introduction and/or spread threatens biological diversity (species, habitats or ecosystems)¹.
Introduction- means the anthropogenic movement (direct or indirect) of an alien species outside its natural range.
Invasive ("aggressive") species negatively affect the local fauna and flora, which is why they become pests and quarantine objects.²
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² Negrobov S. O., Filonenko Yu. Ya.Ecological dictionary.- Lipetsk, Leningrad State University, 2001.
1.2. Introduction
Introduction (biological) (from lat. Introduction- "introduction") - intentional or accidental relocation of individuals of any species of animals and plants outside their natural range to new habitats for them. In other words, introduction is the process of introducing alien species into an ecosystem.
Introduced, or alien species (in biology) (from English. Introducedspecies) - non-indigenous, unusual for a given territory, deliberately or accidentally brought to a new place as a result of human activity.
The process of mastering an introduced species in a new place (adaptation to new environmental conditions) is called acclimatization.
Often introduced species can significantly change the existing ecosystem of the region and cause a significant reduction or even extinction of certain species of local flora and fauna.
Term introduced species for a number of reasons, it is often applied to close, but different concepts. Similarly, when describing the same case, other terms are used that are similar or close in meaning: they speak of acclimatized, adventitious, alien, exotic, invasive, naturalized, non-native, feral, xenobiotic, etc. species. there is a definite difference between some of these concepts.
Most often, the term “introduced” is used as a synonym for the word “alien”, and in this sense, according to the above definition, many horticultural and agricultural crops, such as potatoes, corn, which are widespread in the world, can be attributed to introduced plants. However, some sources add to this definition "... and reproduced in the wild", which leaves out the definition of all cultivated crops that are not able to reproduce without human intervention. For such plants, the term "cultivated" or "ornamental" species¹ is used.
There is some confusion as to whether "invasive" and "introduced" species are fully synonymous. Literally invasive are those species of organisms that, being introduced, capture new territories in a new place, harming the existing ecosystem, that is, they become pests.. The term implies both actual and potential danger. Some have challenged the notion of invasiveness, arguing that the extent of damage is usually beyond calculus, and organisms continue to spread into areas where they never existed, often without regard to whether or not they may cause harm².
1.3. Accidental and deliberate introduction
According to the definition, a species is considered introduced if it has been transferred from its natural range to a new territory as a result of human activity. The introduction can be either intentional or accidental. The intentional introduction of new species was motivated by the fact that these species would be useful to a person in a new place and increase his well-being. So, in connection with the development of new territories, agricultural crops, livestock and wild animals were imported that could diversify the local fauna.
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¹
http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/294598
²
Introduction and methods of culture of flower and ornamental plants. - M.: Nauka, 1997. - 168 p.
accidental introduction was a side, often undesirable, product of human activity - for example, the Colorado potato beetle, rats, cockroaches and synanthropic species of fruit flies spread widely. Further distribution of introduced species already in a new territory can occur both with the help of a person and independently.
intentional introduction. Organisms deliberately transported by humans can adapt to a new location in two different ways.
In the first case, they are specially released into the wild. It is often difficult to predict whether a plant or animal will get along in a new place or not, and sometimes, in the event of a first failure, repeated attempts were made in the hope that new individuals would improve the survival and reproduction of the species.
In the second case, the distribution in the wild outside the natural range occurred against the will of man: the animals ran away to freedom and ran wild, and the plants began to grow outside the gardens, household plots and agricultural land.
The most common motivation for conscious introduction was the increase in economic income from local biocenoses. During the period of great geographical discoveries, Europeans transported cultivated plants and livestock with them. For example, carp came to the American continent for the purpose of breeding and then spread in the wild ( Cyprinuscarpio); ampullaria snails ( Ampullariidae), as a product rich in protein, were introduced to South East Asia, and from there they got to Hawaiian Islands where an entire industry was founded Food Industry. In 1905 to Europe from North America for the sake of valuable fur, muskrats were transported - first they were released into the wild near Prague, and then they settled in the vast territory of Eurasia, even reaching China, Korea and Mongolia. In exactly the same way, arctic foxes appeared on many islands off the coast of Alaska.
Sometimes alien species of animals appear due to the passion for sport hunting and fishing - thus the species used for bait salamander tiger ambistoma (Ambystomatigrinum) appeared in California, where it displaces a local endemic species California ambistyoma (Ambystomacaliforniense). Occasionally common domestic animals such as cats, goats, pigs and parrots become wild. Such a new neighborhood does not always benefit the local fauna and flora: for example, feral cats on islands where seabirds unaccustomed to terrestrial predators nest cause a sharp decline in the population and even extinction of local species such as albatrosses and petrels. Settled since the time of the goat pirates on Galapagos Islands eat vegetation, due to which local iguanas survive. The Colorado potato beetle established itself in Europe during World War I and since then began his victorious march across the continent
Sometimes organisms travel with a person and independently find themselves in a new environment for them. For example, three types of rats (black, gray and small) lived in the holds of ships until they moored to a new territory for them. As a result, they are now found even on remote islands, which negatively affects the birds nesting there.
A large number of marine organisms such as shellfish river mussel (Dreissenapolymorpha) accidentally ended up in a new location along with transported water used as ballast.
About 200 alien organisms have settled in San Francisco Bay, thus making it the most intruded estuary in the world.
In the first half of the 20th century, along with the potatoes being transported, it first came to France, and then the Colorado potato beetle entrenched throughout Europe, which caused considerable harm to agriculture.
Through botanical gardens and collectors of exotic plants, the North American Prickly lobed (Echinocystis lobata); with peasant settlers, he ended up in Central Asia; in Siberia, the ways of penetration of this species are associated with the development of tourism, the intensive development of horticulture. It sometimes occupies quite large spaces, both in the vicinity of settlements and quite far from them, and has a high activity for renewal and reproduction.
1.4. Ecological introduction / reintroduction
A special place in the deliberate resettlement of species is occupied by reintroduction, which consists in the return of species that previously lived in the area, but then disappeared through the fault of man. Reintroduction is carried out by interstate and local environmental organizations. One example of such a migration is the reintroduction of the David deer into the Dafin Milu Nature Reserve. DafengMilureserve) near Beijing. This deer was practically exterminated in China in the Middle Ages, and the last individuals remaining in the garden of the emperor died at the end of the 19th century during floods and popular unrest. Miraculously preserved at the courts of Europe, 16 deer marked the beginning of the restoration of the population, part of which was returned to the places where they once lived.
In addition, sometimes, due to a particularly alarming situation that threatens the existence of a species, some animals are relocated to similar climatic conditions in order to preserve it. That's what happened to Chinese alligator, which, due to the loss of natural habitats in the Yangtze River valley, was on the verge of extinction. To create a reserve of the species, several alligators were relocated to the reserve RockefellerWild life in the US state of Louisiana.
Among the introduced species, there are not only animals and plants, but also various microorganisms - viruses, bacteria and fungi, including pathogens. The most widely known spread of the virus smallpox to the American continent along with the first conquistadors in the process of the so-called columbian exchange, as a result of which entire Indian civilizations were destroyed even before Europeans saw them.
In the XX-XXI century, a serious threat is the spread of fungi such as endothiaparasitica, which causes chestnut endothium cancer, and Ceratocystisulmi that causes elm disease ¹´²´³.
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¹http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki
³Primak R. Fundamentals of Biodiversity Conservation M., From the Scientific and Educational Center, 2002. 256 p.
Chapter 2. Characteristics of invasive species
2.1. The most dangerous invasive species in the world
The list of the 100 most dangerous invasive species was compiled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) invasive species team. It includes organisms that have had the greatest negative impact on human activities and native species.¹ The list includes 56 animal species ( see table 1.),
36 types of plants, 3 types of fungi, 3 types of chromists, 1 type of protozoa and 2 viruses.
Table 1. The most dangerous animal species
Russiantitle
Classification
natural range
Achatina giant
Gastropods: Achatinids
East Africa
common lane
Birds: Starlings
Central and South Asia
Biter white-and-white
Insects: Mosquitoes
Southeast Asia
Malaria mosquito four-spotted
Insects: Mosquitoes
North America
Amur starfish
Sea stars: Asteriidae
Far East
tobacco whitefly
Insects: Whiteflies
Asia
brown boyga
Reptiles: Already-shaped
Southeast Asia, Australia
domestic goat
Mammals: Bovids
Asia
Noble deer
Mammals: Deer
Eurasia
Aphid
Insects: Real aphids
Southern Europe
Frog clariid catfish
Ray-finned fish: Clariidae
Southeast Asia
Carp
Ray-finned fish: Cyprinids
Europe
Dreissena river
Bivalves: Dreissenidae
Europe
Coca
Amphibians: Eleutherodactylidae
South America
Chinese mitten crab
Higher Cancers: Varunidae
Asia
Cat
Mammals: Feline
Africa
common gambusia
Ray-finned fish: Pecilia
North America
small mongoose
Mammals: Mongoose
Asia
Nile perch
Ray-finned fish: Latidae
West Africa
Argentine ant
Insects: Ants
Argentina
Bullfrog
Amphibians:
real frogs
East North America
gypsy moth
Insects: Volnyanki
Eurasia, North Africa
crabeater macaque
Mammals: Monkeys
Southeast Asia
largemouth bass
Ray-finned fish: Centarch fish
North America
house mouse
Mammals: Mouse
Asia
Ermine
Mammals: Mustelids
Eurasia, North America
Nutria
Mammals: Bristly rats
South America
Black Sea mussel
Bivalves: Mussels
Europe
Mikizha
Ray-finned fish: Salmon
West North America
mozambique tilapia
Ray-finned fish: Cichlids
South Africa
wild rabbit
Mammals: Hares
Southern Europe
Corbula Amur
Bivalves: Corbulidae
Far East
Rose-bellied true bulbul
Birds: Bulbul
Asia
black rat
Mammals: Mouse
India
Toad-yeah
Amphibians: Toads
Latin America
Trout
Ray-finned fish: Salmon
Eurasia, North Africa
carolinian squirrel
Mammals:
squirrels
East North America
Ant fire imported red
Insects: Ants
South America
common starling
Birds: Starlings
Eurasia, North Africa
Boar
Mammals: Pigs
Eurasia
Red-eared turtle
Reptiles: American freshwater turtles
East North America
fox kuzu
Mammals: Cuscus
Australia
Kozheed grain
Insects: Kozheedy
India
common wasp
Insects: Real wasps
Eurasia, North America
red fox
Mammals: Canids
Eurasia, Africa, North America
small fire ant
Insects: Ants
Latin America
¹http :// www. nature. su/item/1772
2.2 Most aggressive invasive species cane toads.
In 1935, 60,000 cane toads were released in Queensland, Australia to control sugarcane pests, but these amphibians did not like sugarcane as a habitat, and they dispersed everywhere, leaving the pests in perfect health. Some individuals of cane toads can reach 40 cm in length. These amphibians also do not complain about poor appetite, literally everything goes to them. Unfortunately, the toxic secretions of the skin of toads were not to the taste of Australian predators, and the driest continent of the planet once again faced an uncontrolled increase in the number of aliens. What onlyways to deal with cane toadsthe Australians did not. To combat these amphibians, even cat food was used. Sprinkling cat food near the “place of deployment” of toads, scientists attracted the attention of ants, which attacked amphibians and their offspring. As a result of ant attacks, about 80% of all offspring of cane toads died.
snakehead fish (snakehead).
This fish, reaching a length of one meter, was brought to Europe from East Asia. The European reservoirs, in which this voracious creature turned out, lost all living things in an instant. The most unpleasant thing was that this fish is able to crawl on its belly overland from one reservoir to another and at the same time breathe atmospheric air for four days.
common starling.
Our compatriot Yevgeny Shiffelin, a major manufacturer of medicines and a lover of Shakespeare, was involved in the appearance of the European starling on the North American continent. In 1890, he released 60 birds in New York's Central Park, and 40 more the following year. The starlings liked the New World. Forming numerous states with a number of birds reaching a million, they make devastating raids on agricultural land, causing damage to the American economy by 800 million dollars annually. In addition, birds cause many plane crashes.
Burmese python.
Burmese pythons brought to the United States have bred in the south of the country. There are already 30,000 of them in the Florida National Park. Such a large snake, reaching a length of 6 meters, has no natural enemies on the North American continent. Even alligators are found in the stomach of these snakes. According to American naturalists,global warmingwill contribute to the further advancement of these snakes to the north of the country.
Eastern gray squirrel. EThis type of squirrel was brought to the UK from North America. Local British red squirrels are smaller in size, and they have not been able to compete with larger and more aggressive comrades from across the ocean. In addition, foreigners brought a deadly virus from the New World, which began to "mow down" the populations of red squirrels in Great Britain. The authorities of Britain in every possible way stimulate the hunt for foreign squirrels, praising the taste and health benefits of squirrel meat.
African bees.
Aggressive African bees were introduced to Brazil from Tanzania as a replacement for European honey bees. African bees took to the New World conditions and spread throughout Brazil and even crossed all the countries of Central America, ending up in the southern states of the United States. A large number of animals and people become victims of their aggression every year. Asian or Silver carp.The weight of individual individuals of the Asian carp can exceed 45 kilograms. Initially, this fish was brought to one of the ponds in the United States, but as a result of the flood, it ended up in the waters of the Mississippi River, where it successfully multiplied, “eating” local fish species. Rats.Rats have already settled on 90% of the islands of the oceans. As a result, 60% of the bird and reptile species of most of the islands have disappeared forever. Rat Island is a classic example of such an island.(one of the Aleutian Islands off the coast of Alaska). In 1789, as a result of the wreck of a Japanese ship, Norwegian rats ended up on the shores of this island. Just a few years later, many species of sea birds disappeared from the island. In 2008, the US authorities scattered packages of rat poison all over the island and thus stopped the rampage of rats. Starfish. Looking like an alien invader, the starfish is a nightmare with skin covered in sharp needles. Usually starfish are up to 33 cm in diameter and have five rays protruding from the body, which are covered with razor-sharp spines that protect them from most predators. The stars themselves feed on coral polyps. Starfish have become a problem in their native ecosystem due to environmental changes. Thanks to their insatiable appetite and rapid breeding rate, each star in the "herd" can consume up to six m2 of coral reefs per year, destroying massive patches. Scientists believe that the too rapid increase in the number of starfish is caused by human-induced changes in the ocean ecosystem, primarily associated with an increased content of nutrient pollution.
Giant Canada Goose. Although Canada does not have a bird that serves as a symbol of the country, the vast majority of wildlife enthusiasts would attribute this role to the Canada goose, since there are more birds of this species in Canada than any other. Canada goose are responsible for the gradual destruction of the coastline along the mouth of the Gulf of Georgia. This area is of great importance as it is a stopover for many species of migratory birds, and it is also the main habitat for salmon, an endangered game fish. Goose destroy the natural habitat of many animals and cause disturbances in the food chain.
Dark tiger python. The majority of invasive species are small animals, however, dark tiger pythons are huge and potentially deadly giants. They first appeared in the Everglades National Park (Florida), the world famous marsh region. This monster, brought to America by conquistadors, is one of the largest snakes on the planet, it grows up to five meters in length and weighs about 90 kg. Now the number of snakes in the Everglades reaches several thousand individuals, and this is more than in their original habitat in South Asia. Giant pythons, with their powerful jaws and sharp teeth, threaten to destroy the ecosystem of the wetland region as they quickly decimate native species, including the normally invulnerable American alligators.
Brown boyga. If a predatory invasive species ends up on an island, then the native species usually lack the ability to cope with a threat that they have never encountered before. Coupled with the lack of predators higher up in the food chain, this could lead to the extinction of native species.
When brown boygies arrived on the island of Guam after World War II, in the cargo holds of ships, they caused the largest environmental disaster caused by introductions. Poisonous snakes have destroyed most of the vertebrates native to the forests of the island, they also bite people, and their bites are very painful. In addition, the Boigis have caused frequent power outages as they have invaded human settlements. In safe conditions, boigas grow up to three meters in length due to an unnaturally large amount of food. To control the number of reptiles, the introduction of toxins into dead mice, which snakes love to eat, is used.
Domestic cat. Cats are considered man's second best friends, but they also have a reputation as the most dangerous invasive predators, as they intensively destroy the local fauna when they find themselves in a foreign environment. Through direct and indirect human assistance, stray cats have killed millions of continental songbirds, ill-equipped to fend off stealth attacks from a growing number of predators.
The presence of cats on the islands has catastrophic consequences: an unprecedented case is known when the cat of one person caused the complete extinction of one of the bird species in New Zealand - the Stefanov bush wren. On many islands and continents, invasive cats have reduced bird and small mammal populations. However, there is a downside: some scientists believe that cats can help humans control populations of small predators such as rats.
Crab-eating macaque. Most often, ecologists call humans the main invasive species on the planet, but we rarely imagine monkeys in this role. However, crab-eating macaques are included in the list of the 100 most dangerous invasive species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Crab-eating macaques are carnivorous primates that have invaded a number of islands in an unnatural habitat for them thanks to human assistance. Like many terrestrial predators, crabeater macaques, which also have the rudiments of intelligence, threaten the reproduction of tropical birds and, according to some experts, may be responsible for the rapid extinction of already endangered species.
Macaques can also pose a danger to humans because they carry a deadly strain of the herpes virus that has symptoms similar to herpes simplex, but without proper treatment can lead to brain damage and death.
Cow corpse. Initially, cow trupials lived on the plains of North America, where they coexisted with buffaloes and fed on insects climbing around these large herbivorous insects. However, the increase in the number of buffaloes began to prevent the birds from building nests and raising offspring - then the cow corpses began to throw their eggs into the nests of other birds, which is why their own chicks of these species cannot develop normally.
In addition, the reduction of forest areas in some habitats of trupials led to their spread to thousands of km2 of forests, where they caused a decrease in the number of forest songbirds, whose own chicks were doomed to starvation. However, cow corpses have managed to reduce even the rare Kirtland treeworts.
Colorado potato beetle- one of the most unusual species of insects in terms of its activity, which, already in the memory of people, switched to feeding on the leaves of cultivated potatoes (and to a lesser extent tomatoes, eggplants, etc.) from wild nightshade. The harmfulness of the beetle is determined by several factors. The fecundity of the beetle is very high, with one female usually laying about 700 eggs, and the maximum recorded fecundity was 3382 eggs. At the same time, depending on the climatic and geographical conditions, up to 3 generations of insects can be replaced during the warm period. In this case, theoretically, the offspring of one female can reach 30 million individuals by the end of the season. For a month, each beetle destroys more than 4 g of leaf mass, the larva - about 1 g. Depending on the degree of damage to the potato tops by pests, the yield can be significantly reduced. So, during the laying of tubers, the most sensitive to leaf damage, only 10 larvae of the Colorado potato beetle on a bush can reduce the yield by 10-15%, 15 larvae - by 50%, 40-50 larvae - by 100%. Uncontrolled reproduction of the pest can completely destroy the potato crop¹´².
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¹http://www.priroda.su/item/1772
²http://www.publy.ru/post/4985
2.3 Invasive species of Russia
The territory of Russia, of course, is no exception, it is also subject to invasions of alien species of plants and animals. In some cases, the status of pests is gradually acquired by intentionally imported (introduced) species (more often this applies to vertebrates and ornamental plants). Usually, potentially dangerous species are introduced accidentally with various products and goods, with transport (or on it), with personal luggage of passengers, as a result of ill-conceived imports for the purpose of study, and even smuggling.
There are conditionswhich allow classifying specific species, for example, the flora of Central Russia, as invasive:
the species is alien (adventive) for most regions of Central Russia;
the species must be noted in at least 70% of all regions that make up Central Russia;
in regions where the species is present, it must be at the stage of epecophyte or agriophyte at least in part of the territory;
according to the results of long-term observations from the moment of the first discovery, the species shows a tendency to active dispersal;
the species may (but need not) be a source of economic damage¹.
Work on the acclimatization of fish in the inland waters of Russia has been carried out since the second half of the 18th century, when carp was brought into the ponds near St. Petersburg. Over the past 250 years, 58 species of fish have been acclimatized (of which 20 species are for the purpose of naturalization).
Of course, the most extensive work has been carried out since the middle of the 20th century. Only in 1961-1971. up to 400 fish transportations per year were carried out. The fish were relocated both to regions remote from their natural range and to water bodies located close to their usual habitats.
A very clear example of the first case is pink salmon.
The natural spawning range of this salmon is located mainly in the basin of the Far Eastern seas - from the Bering Sea to the Sea of Japan. From 1956 to 1987, pink salmon was periodically introduced into the rivers of the Northwestern region of Russia, belonging to the basin of the Barents and White Seas. Currently, this fish comes to spawn in the rivers from Murmansk to the Yugorsky Peninsula, and is also found off the coast of the British Isles, Norway, Sweden, Iceland and Svalbard. But between the natural, Far Eastern range and the new distribution area, there are vast water areas of the Siberian shelf seas, in which pink salmon is not found.
Successfully passed the acclimatization of the Black Sea-Azov mullet mullet(Lizaaurata)
in the Caspian Sea and the Far East pelengas mullet(Lizalauvergnii)
introduced into the Black Sea-Azov basin. Acclimatized in the same way vendace-ripusa(Coregonusalbula)
and a number of other species of this genus. Their natural range is confined to the Baltic Sea basin, and they acclimatized in the Ural River basin.
A very famous example is the successful remote acclimatization gambusia. The natural range of the gambusia is the water bodies of America: from the USA (Illinois and New Jersey) in the north to Argentina in the south. Gambusia is a small fish, from 3.5 to 7.5 cm long, and females are often larger than males. Gambusia's favorite food is mosquito larvae and pupae. It is because of this gastronomic predilection that these fish have become the most popular object of introduction and acclimatization in many countries where malaria was common.
In the second half of the 19th century, they imported from Western Europe for commercial cultivation rainbow trout(parasalmomikissirideus)
, then American smallmouth palia(Salvelina fontinalis) and a number of other types. However, this direction of acclimatization gained a truly wide scope only in the second half of the 20th century, when they began to import and release into ponds such species as peled(Coregonus peled),chir(Coregonus nasus),whitefish(Coregonus muksun),whitefish(Coregonus pidschian), white(Hypophalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp(Aristichthys nobilis) and others.
Intentional introduction also includes the release of aquarium fish into natural reservoirs. In Russia, however, there are few such examples. This is first of all guppies(Poecillareticulata).
Discarded by negligent aquarists, these American fish have adapted to live in rivers near heated water discharge sites and in warm settling ponds in Moscow, Tver, Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Voronezh and some other cities. Another well-known example is the Far Eastern rotan firebrand(perccotusgleni),
populated many reservoirs in the region of St. Petersburg and Moscow.
However, rotan settled in the waters of the European part of Russia, not only thanks to aquarists. It was brought here unintentionally. (We will tell in more detail about the history of the settlement of this amazing species in the next issues of our newspaper.) Among other fish that have settled in the inland waters of Russia due to unintentional, accidental Amur chebachka(Pseudorasboraparva),
"penetrated" from China into the basins of the Black and Azov Seas, a small star button(Benthophilusstellatus),
brought from the mouths of the Black and Azov Seas to the Volga basin, chubbyigloo fish(SyngnathusAbaster),
settled in the reservoirs of rivers flowing into the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas. All of them turned out to be undesirable components of ecosystems, but they have adapted to live and reproduce in them very successfully¹´².
The scale of the introduction of animal species (mammals, insects) for Russia at the level of subjects of the Russian Federation is shown on the maps ( rice. 12). The most uniform picture is shown by mammals, the deliberate introduction of which was carried out for a long time and over large areas in order to "enrich the local commercial fauna." The largest number of introducers was noted for Leningrad, Tver, Moscow, Voronezh, Ryazan, Tomsk, Sakhalin regions, Krasnodar and Primorsky territories, Dagestan, Bashkortostan. No relationship was found between the natural level of taxonomic diversity and the number of introducers. Apparently, the current picture is largely determined by the activity of scientific and practical organizations that introduced commercial species.
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¹ Zotova N.Yu. Problems of invasion and introduction of fish in Russia, "Biology", publishing house September 1, 2010
²Alimov A.F., Orlova M.I., Panov V.E. Consequences of introductions of alien species for aquatic ecosystems and the need for measures to prevent them. In: Invader Species in the European Seas of Russia. Collection of scientific papers. Apatity, ed. Kola Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2000, pp. 12-23.
Fig.1.Number of introduced mammal species
Fig.2.Number of introduced insect species.
The distribution of regions by the number of introduced fish species demonstrates the deliberate nature of the introduction in the process of enrichment of the local commercial ichthyofauna. The largest number of species has been introduced in the Chelyabinsk, Sverdlovsk, Rostov regions and in Tatarstan.
Regions with a large number of introduced insects are associated with points of entry into Russia of various cargoes (ports, large railway junctions). And their distribution along the borders of the country reflects the unintentional nature of the introduction typical of this group.
About 100 alien species of herbivorous insects settled on the territory of the former USSR. In other regions of the world, the number of settled alien species of insects is much larger. There are more than 1,500 of them in the USA. Of the 600 most serious plant pests, 235 here are alien species. In Japan, out of 198 insect species of alien origin, 72% are classified as harmful (while the proportion of pests among local herbivorous species does not exceed 7%)
For 30 years, the area occupied in Russia by the Colorado potato beetle has increased 12,190 times. During the same period, the area occupied by the American white butterfly has increased 832 times here.
In general, it can be argued that at the current level of development of the introduction process on the territory of Russia and neighboring countries, it is not possible to catch the impact on the success of the introduction of the level of local biological diversity. In most cases, the distribution of introduced species is associated with cultural or significantly transformed natural ecosystems, and they are not part of natural communities. At the same time, the introduction leads to an increase in the level of biological diversity.
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¹Izhevsky S.S. Alien insects as biopollutants. Ecology. 1995. No. 2. pp.119-122. ²Izhevsky S.S. Penetration of alien herbivorous insects on the territory of Russia // Protection and quarantine rast. 2002. No. 1. with. 28-31.
Features inproduction process in Russia:
A large territory of the country with the virtual absence of internal control over the transfer of species;
The history of Russia is full of wars of a continental and regional nature, accompanied by intensive transportation of military and civilian goods, people;
For a long time on the territory of the USSR, a policy of resettlement and acclimatization of organisms was carried out in order to increase the productivity of ecosystems and obtain new food products;
The constant need to build roads, canals and reservoirs, large cities;
High level of commercial traffic and relatively weak control over the transfer of invaders across the state border;
Insufficiently developed legislation regarding introductions and accidental introduction of organisms from other countries;
Poor development of information support for monitoring alien species and poor development of the system of education and enlightenment in the field of aggressive introduced species;
Weak funding for research on alien species;
Fairly widespread among the population are hobbies associated with home keeping and breeding of exotic plants and animals, some of which, once in natural habitats, turn into typical invasive species.
Currently, as a result of anthropogenic activities, tens of thousands of animal and plant species move around our planet every day. However, many of them lead to very serious environmental, social and economic consequences.
Aggressive alien species introduced from other regions (often even from other continents), which spread through the fault of man, produce offspring in very large numbers and spread over a considerable distance from parental individuals, are called invasive species. They are characterized by active introduction into local communities, in which they often displace native plant species. The invasion of invasive species is a serious environmental problem worldwide, leading to the so-called« floristic pollution of the territory, is rightfully considered the second largest threat to biological diversity (after habitat destruction).
The study of the process and results of naturalization of alien species isurgent task of our timeand became the reasontopic selection my work: Invasive Species: Territory Invaders.
Object of study: fauna - like historically established set of speciesanimalsliving in a given area and included in all of itsbiogeocenoses.
Subject of research are animals (organisms that make up part of the organic world).
Target: conduct a comprehensive analysis of the study of invasive animal species.
Tasks:
To study the etymology of the concepts "invasive species" and "introduction".
Identify the most dangerous and aggressive invasive animal species.
Determine the consequences of the introduction of invasive species.
The novelty of the work. The paper studies the most dangerous and aggressive invasive species that can change the composition of communities, discusses some terminological aspects, as well as the features and consequences of the introduction of alien organisms, often acquiring the character of biological pollution.
Practical significance of the study. The materials obtained can be used in the course of biology (botany and ecology), to expand the ecological culture of schoolchildren and will be transferred to the Rospotrebnadzor of the Tver region to increase the attention of relevant organizations to preserve the uniqueness of the flora and fauna of the Tver region.
The main working method has become a method of selection, systematization and classification of scientific articles on a given topic.
The work of 39 pages, consists of an introduction, 3 chapters, conclusion, list of references, applications.
Chapter 1. Invasive (invasive) species
Etymology of the term "invasive" species
There is no unambiguous and correct definition. In Russian, the term "invasive species" is a morphological transfer from the English phrase invasivespecies.
In the Western school, a special discipline, defined as invasive plant ecology, deals with the study of invasive species; in Russia, these species are studied by florists as part of the adventitious floras of the regions and separately by specialists in other areas from the point of view of the biology and ecology of such species. As a rule, a set of species defined as "invasive" is part of a vast alien or adventive element of the flora, among which they stand out, first of all, by the ability to quickly spread and intrude into various types of cenoses. The website of the Global Invasive Species Program defines: “Invasive alien species are alien ( non-
native) organisms that cause or may cause damage to the environment, the economy or human health.”
So an invasive alien species means an alien species whose introduction and/or spread threatens biological diversity (species, habitats or ecosystems)¹.
Introduction- means the anthropogenic movement (direct or indirect) of an alien species outside its natural range.
Invasive ("aggressive") species negatively affect the local fauna and flora, which is why they become pests and quarantine objects.²
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² Negrobov S. O., Filonenko Yu. Ya.Ecological dictionary.- Lipetsk, Leningrad State University, 2001.
1.2. Introduction
Introduction (biological) (from lat. Introduction- "introduction") - intentional or accidental relocation of individuals of any species of animals and plants outside their natural range to new habitats for them. In other words, introduction is the process of introducing alien species into an ecosystem.
Introduced, or alien species (in biology) (from English. Introducedspecies) - non-indigenous, unusual for a given territory, deliberately or accidentally brought to a new place as a result of human activity.
The process of mastering an introduced species in a new place (adaptation to new environmental conditions) is called acclimatization.
Often introduced species can significantly change the existing ecosystem of the region and cause a significant reduction or even extinction of certain species of local flora and fauna.
Term introduced species for a number of reasons, it is often applied to close, but different concepts. Similarly, when describing the same case, other terms are used that are similar or close in meaning: they speak of acclimatized, adventitious, alien, exotic, invasive, naturalized, non-native, feral, xenobiotic, etc. species. there is a definite difference between some of these concepts.
Most often, the term “introduced” is used as a synonym for the word “alien”, and in this sense, according to the above definition, many horticultural and agricultural crops, such as potatoes, corn, which are widespread in the world, can be attributed to introduced plants. However, some sources add to this definition "... and reproduced in the wild", which leaves out the definition of all cultivated crops that are not able to reproduce without human intervention. For such plants, the term "cultivated" or "ornamental" species¹ is used.
There is some confusion as to whether "invasive" and "introduced" species are fully synonymous. Literally invasive are those species of organisms that, being introduced, capture new territories in a new place, harming the existing ecosystem, that is, they become pests.. The term implies both actual and potential danger. Some dispute the notion of invasiveness, arguing that the extent of the damage is usually beyond calculus, and organisms continue to spread to areas where they never existed, often without regard to whether they can cause harm or not².
1.3. Accidental and deliberate introduction
According to the definition, a species is considered introduced if it has been transferred from its natural range to a new territory as a result of human activity. The introduction can be either intentional or accidental. The intentional introduction of new species was motivated by the fact that these species would be useful to a person in a new place and increase his well-being. So, in connection with the development of new territories, agricultural crops, livestock and wild animals were imported that could diversify the local fauna.
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¹
http://dic.academic.ru/dic.nsf/ruwiki/294598
²
Introduction and methods of culture of flower and ornamental plants. - M.: Nauka, 1997. - 168 p.
accidental introduction was a side, often undesirable, product of human activity - for example, the Colorado potato beetle, rats, cockroaches and synanthropic species of fruit flies spread widely. Further distribution of introduced species already in a new territory can occur both with the help of a person and independently.
intentional introduction. Organisms deliberately transported by humans can adapt to a new location in two different ways.
In the first case, they are specially released into the wild. It is often difficult to predict whether a plant or animal will get along in a new place or not, and sometimes, in the event of a first failure, repeated attempts were made in the hope that new individuals would improve the survival and reproduction of the species.
In the second case, the distribution in the wild outside the natural range occurred against the will of man: the animals ran away to freedom and ran wild, and the plants began to grow outside the gardens, household plots and agricultural land.
The most common motivation for conscious introduction was the increase in economic income from local biocenoses. During the period of great geographical discoveries, Europeans transported cultivated plants and livestock with them. For example, carp came to the American continent for the purpose of breeding and then spread in the wild ( Cyprinuscarpio); ampullaria snails ( Ampullariidae), as a product rich in protein, were introduced to South East Asia, and from there they got to Hawaiian Islands where an entire industry was founded Food Industry. In 1905 to Europe from North America for the sake of valuable fur, muskrats were transported - first they were released into the wild near Prague, and then they settled in the vast territory of Eurasia, even reaching China, Korea and Mongolia. In exactly the same way, arctic foxes appeared on many islands off the coast of Alaska.
Sometimes alien species of animals appear due to the passion for sport hunting and fishing - thus the species used for bait salamander tiger ambistoma (Ambystomatigrinum) appeared in California, where it displaces a local endemic species California ambistyoma (Ambystomacaliforniense). Occasionally common domestic animals such as cats, goats, pigs and parrots become wild. Such a new neighborhood does not always benefit the local fauna and flora: for example, feral cats on islands where seabirds unaccustomed to terrestrial predators nest cause a sharp decline in the population and even extinction of local species such as albatrosses and petrels. Settled since the time of the goat pirates on Galapagos Islands eat vegetation, due to which local iguanas survive. The Colorado potato beetle established itself in Europe during World War I and since then began his victorious march across the continent
Sometimes organisms travel with a person and independently find themselves in a new environment for them. For example, three types of rats (black, gray and small) lived in the holds of ships until they moored to a new territory for them. As a result, they are now found even on remote islands, which negatively affects the birds nesting there.
A large number of marine organisms such as shellfish river mussel (Dreissenapolymorpha) accidentally ended up in a new location along with transported water used as ballast.
About 200 alien organisms have settled in San Francisco Bay, thus making it the most intruded estuary in the world.
In the first half of the 20th century, along with the potatoes being transported, it first came to France, and then the Colorado potato beetle entrenched throughout Europe, which caused considerable harm to agriculture.
Through botanical gardens and collectors of exotic plants, the North American Prickly lobed (Echinocystis lobata); with peasant settlers, he ended up in Central Asia; in Siberia, the ways of penetration of this species are associated with the development of tourism, the intensive development of horticulture. It sometimes occupies quite large spaces, both in the vicinity of settlements and quite far from them, and has a high activity for renewal and reproduction.
1.4. Ecological introduction / reintroduction
A special place in the deliberate relocation of species is occupied by reintroduction, which consists in the return of species that previously lived in the area, but then disappeared due to human fault. Reintroduction is carried out by interstate and local environmental organizations. One example of such a migration is the reintroduction of the David deer into the Dafin Milu Nature Reserve. DafengMilureserve) near Beijing. This deer was practically exterminated in China in the Middle Ages, and the last individuals remaining in the garden of the emperor died at the end of the 19th century during floods and popular unrest. Miraculously preserved at the courts of Europe, 16 deer marked the beginning of the restoration of the population, part of which was returned to the places where they once lived.
In addition, sometimes, due to a particularly alarming situation that threatens the existence of a species, some animals are relocated to similar climatic conditions in order to preserve it. That's what happened to Chinese alligator, which, due to the loss of natural habitats in the Yangtze River valley, was on the verge of extinction. To create a reserve of the species, several alligators were relocated to the reserve RockefellerWild life in the US state of Louisiana.
Among the introduced species, there are not only animals and plants, but also various microorganisms - viruses, bacteria and fungi, including pathogens. The most widely known spread of the virus smallpox to the American continent along with the first conquistadors in the process of the so-called columbian exchange, as a result of which entire Indian civilizations were destroyed even before Europeans saw them.
In the XX-XXI century, a serious threat is the spread of fungi such as endothiaparasitica, which causes chestnut endothium cancer, and Ceratocystisulmi that causes elm disease ¹´²´³.
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¹http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki
³Primak R. Fundamentals of Biodiversity Conservation M., From the Scientific and Educational Center, 2002. 256 p.
Chapter 2. Characteristics of invasive species
2.1. The most dangerous invasive species in the world
The list of the 100 most dangerous invasive species was compiled by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) invasive species team. It includes organisms that have had the greatest negative impact on human activities and native species.¹ The list includes 56 animal species ( see table 1.),
36 types of plants, 3 types of fungi, 3 types of chromists, 1 type of protozoa and 2 viruses.
Table 1. The most dangerous animal species
Russiantitle
Classification
natural range
Achatina giant
Gastropods: Achatinids
East Africa
common lane
Birds: Starlings
Central and South Asia
Biter white-and-white
Insects: Mosquitoes
Southeast Asia
Malaria mosquito four-spotted
Insects: Mosquitoes
North America
Amur starfish
Sea stars: Asteriidae
Far East
tobacco whitefly
Insects: Whiteflies
Asia
brown boyga
Reptiles: Already-shaped
Southeast Asia, Australia
domestic goat
Mammals: Bovids
Asia
Noble deer
Mammals: Deer
Eurasia
Aphid
Insects: Real aphids
Southern Europe
Frog clariid catfish
Ray-finned fish: Clariidae
Southeast Asia
Carp
Ray-finned fish: Cyprinids
Europe
Dreissena river
Bivalves: Dreissenidae
Europe
Coca
Amphibians: Eleutherodactylidae
South America
Chinese mitten crab
Higher Cancers: Varunidae
Asia
Cat
Mammals: Feline
Africa
common gambusia
Ray-finned fish: Pecilia
North America
small mongoose
Mammals: Mongoose
Asia
Nile perch
Ray-finned fish: Latidae
West Africa
Argentine ant
Insects: Ants
Argentina
Bullfrog
Amphibians:
real frogs
East North America
gypsy moth
Insects: Volnyanki
Eurasia, North Africa
crabeater macaque
Mammals: Monkeys
Southeast Asia
largemouth bass
Ray-finned fish: Centarch fish
North America
house mouse
Mammals: Mouse
Asia
Ermine
Mammals: Mustelids
Eurasia, North America
Nutria
Mammals: Bristly rats
South America
Black Sea mussel
Bivalves: Mussels
Europe
Mikizha
Ray-finned fish: Salmon
West North America
mozambique tilapia
Ray-finned fish: Cichlids
South Africa
wild rabbit
Mammals: Hares
Southern Europe
Corbula Amur
Bivalves: Corbulidae
Far East
Rose-bellied true bulbul
Birds: Bulbul
Asia
black rat
Mammals: Mouse
India
Toad-yeah
Amphibians: Toads
Latin America
Trout
Ray-finned fish: Salmon
Eurasia, North Africa
carolinian squirrel
Mammals:
squirrels
East North America
Ant fire imported red
Insects: Ants
South America
common starling
Birds: Starlings
Eurasia, North Africa
Boar
Mammals: Pigs
Eurasia
Red-eared turtle
Reptiles: American freshwater turtles
East North America
fox kuzu
Mammals: Cuscus
Australia
Kozheed grain
Insects: Kozheedy
India
common wasp
Insects: Real wasps
Eurasia, North America
red fox
Mammals: Canids
Eurasia, Africa, North America
small fire ant
Insects: Ants
Latin America
¹http :// www. nature. su/item/1772
2.2 Most aggressive invasive species cane toads.
In 1935, 60,000 cane toads were released in Queensland, Australia to control sugarcane pests, but these amphibians did not like sugarcane as a habitat, and they dispersed everywhere, leaving the pests in perfect health. Some individuals of cane toads can reach 40 cm in length. These amphibians also do not complain about poor appetite, literally everything goes to them. Unfortunately, the toxic secretions of the skin of toads were not to the taste of Australian predators, and the driest continent of the planet once again faced an uncontrolled increase in the number of aliens. What onlyways to deal with cane toadsthe Australians did not. To combat these amphibians, even cat food was used. Sprinkling cat food near the “place of deployment” of toads, scientists attracted the attention of ants, which attacked amphibians and their offspring. As a result of ant attacks, about 80% of all offspring of cane toads died.
snakehead fish (snakehead).
This fish, reaching a length of one meter, was brought to Europe from East Asia. The European reservoirs, in which this voracious creature turned out, lost all living things in an instant. The most unpleasant thing was that this fish is able to crawl on its belly overland from one reservoir to another and at the same time breathe atmospheric air for four days.
common starling.
Our compatriot Yevgeny Shiffelin, a major manufacturer of medicines and a lover of Shakespeare, was involved in the appearance of the European starling on the North American continent. In 1890, he released 60 birds in New York's Central Park, and 40 more the following year. The starlings liked the New World. Forming numerous states with a number of birds reaching a million, they make devastating raids on agricultural land, causing damage to the American economy by 800 million dollars annually. In addition, birds cause many plane crashes.
Burmese python.
Burmese pythons brought to the United States have bred in the south of the country. There are already 30,000 of them in the Florida National Park. Such a large snake, reaching a length of 6 meters, has no natural enemies on the North American continent. Even alligators are found in the stomach of these snakes. According to American naturalists,global warmingwill contribute to the further advancement of these snakes to the north of the country.
Eastern gray squirrel. EThis type of squirrel was brought to the UK from North America. Local British red squirrels are smaller in size, and they have not been able to compete with larger and more aggressive comrades from across the ocean. In addition, foreigners brought a deadly virus from the New World, which began to "mow down" the populations of red squirrels in Great Britain. The authorities of Britain in every possible way stimulate the hunt for foreign squirrels, praising the taste and health benefits of squirrel meat.
African bees.
Aggressive African bees were introduced to Brazil from Tanzania as a replacement for European honey bees. African bees took to the New World conditions and spread throughout Brazil and even crossed all the countries of Central America, ending up in the southern states of the United States. A large number of animals and people become victims of their aggression every year. Asian or Silver carp.The weight of individual individuals of the Asian carp can exceed 45 kilograms. Initially, this fish was brought to one of the ponds in the United States, but as a result of the flood, it ended up in the waters of the Mississippi River, where it successfully multiplied, “eating” local fish species. Rats.Rats have already settled on 90% of the islands of the oceans. As a result, 60% of the bird and reptile species of most of the islands have disappeared forever. Rat Island is a classic example of such an island.. In 1789, as a result of the wreck of a Japanese ship, Norwegian rats ended up on the shores of this island. Just a few years later, many species of sea birds disappeared from the island. In 2008, the US authorities scattered packages of rat poison all over the island and thus stopped the rampage of rats. Starfish. Looking like an alien invader, the starfish is a nightmare with skin covered in sharp needles. Usually starfish are up to 33 cm in diameter and have five rays protruding from the body, which are covered with razor-sharp spines that protect them from most predators. The stars themselves feed on coral polyps. Starfish have become a problem in their native ecosystem due to environmental changes. Thanks to their insatiable appetite and rapid breeding rate, each star in the "herd" can consume up to six m2 of coral reefs per year, destroying massive patches. Scientists believe that the too rapid increase in the number of starfish is caused by human-induced changes in the ocean ecosystem, primarily associated with an increased content of nutrient pollution.
Giant Canada Goose. Although Canada does not have a bird that serves as a symbol of the country, the vast majority of wildlife enthusiasts would attribute this role to the Canada goose, since there are more birds of this species in Canada than any other. Canada goose are responsible for the gradual destruction of the coastline along the mouth of the Gulf of Georgia. This area is of great importance as it is a stopover for many species of migratory birds, and it is also the main habitat for salmon, an endangered game fish. Goose destroy the natural habitat of many animals and cause disturbances in the food chain.
Dark tiger python. The majority of invasive species are small animals, however, dark tiger pythons are huge and potentially deadly giants. They first appeared in the Everglades National Park (Florida), the world famous marsh region. This monster, brought to America by conquistadors, is one of the largest snakes on the planet, it grows up to five meters in length and weighs about 90 kg. Now the number of snakes in the Everglades reaches several thousand individuals, and this is more than in their original habitat in South Asia. Giant pythons, with their powerful jaws and sharp teeth, threaten to destroy the ecosystem of the wetland region as they quickly decimate native species, including the normally invulnerable American alligators.
Brown boyga. If a predatory invasive species ends up on an island, then the native species usually lack the ability to cope with a threat that they have never encountered before. Coupled with the lack of predators higher up in the food chain, this could lead to the extinction of native species.
When brown boygies arrived on the island of Guam after World War II, in the cargo holds of ships, they caused the largest environmental disaster caused by introductions. Poisonous snakes have destroyed most of the vertebrates native to the forests of the island, they also bite people, and their bites are very painful. In addition, the Boigis have caused frequent power outages as they have invaded human settlements. In safe conditions, boigas grow up to three meters in length due to an unnaturally large amount of food. To control the number of reptiles, the introduction of toxins into dead mice, which snakes love to eat, is used.
Domestic cat. Cats are considered man's second best friends, but they also have a reputation as the most dangerous invasive predators, as they intensively destroy the local fauna when they find themselves in a foreign environment. Through direct and indirect human assistance, stray cats have killed millions of continental songbirds, ill-equipped to fend off stealth attacks from a growing number of predators.
The presence of cats on the islands has catastrophic consequences: an unprecedented case is known when the cat of one person caused the complete extinction of one of the bird species in New Zealand - the Stefanov bush wren. On many islands and continents, invasive cats have reduced bird and small mammal populations. However, there is a downside: some scientists believe that cats can help humans control populations of small predators such as rats.
Crab-eating macaque. Most often, ecologists call humans the main invasive species on the planet, but we rarely imagine monkeys in this role. However, crab-eating macaques are included in the list of the 100 most dangerous invasive species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. Crab-eating macaques are carnivorous primates that have invaded a number of islands in an unnatural habitat for them thanks to human assistance. Like many terrestrial predators, crabeater macaques, which also have the rudiments of intelligence, threaten the reproduction of tropical birds and, according to some experts, may be responsible for the rapid extinction of already endangered species.
Macaques can also pose a danger to humans because they carry a deadly strain of the herpes virus that has symptoms similar to herpes simplex, but without proper treatment can lead to brain damage and death.
Cow corpse. Initially, cow trupials lived on the plains of North America, where they coexisted with buffaloes and fed on insects climbing around these large herbivorous insects. However, the increase in the number of buffaloes began to prevent the birds from building nests and raising offspring - then the cow corpses began to throw their eggs into the nests of other birds, which is why their own chicks of these species cannot develop normally.
In addition, the reduction of forest areas in some habitats of trupials led to their spread to thousands of km2 of forests, where they caused a decrease in the number of forest songbirds, whose own chicks were doomed to starvation. However, cow corpses have managed to reduce even the rare Kirtland treeworts.
Colorado potato beetle- one of the most unusual species of insects in terms of its activity, which, already in the memory of people, switched to feeding on the leaves of cultivated potatoes (and to a lesser extent tomatoes, eggplants, etc.) from wild nightshade. The harmfulness of the beetle is determined by several factors. The fecundity of the beetle is very high, with one female usually laying about 700 eggs, and the maximum recorded fecundity was 3382 eggs. At the same time, depending on the climatic and geographical conditions, up to 3 generations of insects can be replaced during the warm period. In this case, theoretically, the offspring of one female can reach 30 million individuals by the end of the season. For a month, each beetle destroys more than 4 g of leaf mass, the larva - about 1 g. Depending on the degree of damage to the potato tops by pests, the yield can be significantly reduced. So, during the laying of tubers, the most sensitive to leaf damage, only 10 larvae of the Colorado potato beetle on a bush can reduce the yield by 10-15%, 15 larvae - by 50%, 40-50 larvae - by 100%. Uncontrolled reproduction of the pest can completely destroy the potato crop¹´².
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¹http://www.priroda.su/item/1772
²http://www.publy.ru/post/4985
2.3 Invasive species of Russia
The territory of Russia, of course, is no exception, it is also subject to invasions of alien species of plants and animals. In some cases, the status of pests is gradually acquired by intentionally imported (introduced) species (more often this applies to vertebrates and ornamental plants). Usually, potentially dangerous species are brought in accidentally with various products and goods, with transport (or on it), with personal luggage of passengers, as a result of ill-conceived imports for the purpose of study, and even smuggling.
There are conditionswhich allow classifying specific species, for example, the flora of Central Russia, as invasive:
the species is alien (adventive) for most regions of Central Russia;
the species must be noted in at least 70% of all regions that make up Central Russia;
in regions where the species is present, it must be at the stage of epecophyte or agriophyte at least in part of the territory;
according to the results of long-term observations from the moment of the first discovery, the species shows a tendency to active dispersal;
the species may (but need not) be a source of economic damage¹.
Work on the acclimatization of fish in the inland waters of Russia has been carried out since the second half of the 18th century, when carp was brought into the ponds near St. Petersburg. Over the past 250 years, 58 species of fish have been acclimatized (of which 20 species are for the purpose of naturalization).
Of course, the most extensive work has been carried out since the middle of the 20th century. Only in 1961-1971. up to 400 fish transportations per year were carried out. The fish were relocated both to regions remote from their natural range and to water bodies located close to their usual habitats.
A very clear example of the first case is pink salmon.
The natural spawning range of this salmon is located mainly in the basin of the Far Eastern seas - from the Bering Sea to the Sea of Japan. From 1956 to 1987, pink salmon was periodically introduced into the rivers of the North-West region of Russia, belonging to the basin of the Barents and White Seas. Currently, this fish comes to spawn in the rivers from Murmansk to the Yugorsky Peninsula, and is also found off the coast of the British Isles, Norway, Sweden, Iceland and Svalbard. But between the natural, Far Eastern range and the new distribution area, there are vast water areas of the Siberian shelf seas, in which pink salmon is not found.
Successfully passed the acclimatization of the Black Sea-Azov mullet mullet(Lizaaurata)
in the Caspian Sea and the Far East pelengas mullet(Lizalauvergnii)
introduced into the Black Sea-Azov basin. Acclimatized in the same way vendace-ripusa(Coregonusalbula)
and a number of other species of this genus. Their natural range is confined to the Baltic Sea basin, and they acclimatized in the Ural River basin.
A very famous example is the successful remote acclimatization gambusia. The natural range of the gambusia is the water bodies of America: from the USA (Illinois and New Jersey) in the north to Argentina in the south. Gambusia is a small fish, from 3.5 to 7.5 cm long, and females are often larger than males. Gambusia's favorite food is mosquito larvae and pupae. It is because of this gastronomic predilection that these fish have become the most popular object of introduction and acclimatization in many countries where malaria was common.
In the second half of the 19th century, they imported from Western Europe for commercial cultivation rainbow trout(parasalmomikissirideus)
, then American smallmouth palia(Salvelina fontinalis) and a number of other types. However, this direction of acclimatization gained a truly wide scope only in the second half of the 20th century, when they began to import and release into ponds such species as peled(Coregonus peled),chir(Coregonus nasus),whitefish(Coregonus muksun),whitefish(Coregonus pidschian), white(Hypophalmichthys molitrix) and bighead carp(Aristichthys nobilis) and others.
Intentional introduction also includes the release of aquarium fish into natural reservoirs. In Russia, however, there are few such examples. This is first of all guppies(Poecillareticulata).
Discarded by negligent aquarists, these American fish have adapted to live in rivers near heated water discharge sites and in warm settling ponds in Moscow, Tver, Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Voronezh and some other cities. Another well-known example is the Far Eastern rotan firebrand(perccotusgleni),
populated many reservoirs in the region of St. Petersburg and Moscow.
However, rotan settled in the waters of the European part of Russia, not only thanks to aquarists. It was brought here unintentionally. (We will tell in more detail about the history of the settlement of this amazing species in the next issues of our newspaper.) Among other fish that have settled in the inland waters of Russia due to unintentional, accidental Amur chebachka(Pseudorasboraparva),
"penetrated" from China into the basins of the Black and Azov Seas, a small star button(Benthophilusstellatus),
brought from the mouths of the Black and Azov Seas to the Volga basin, chubbyigloo fish(SyngnathusAbaster),
settled in the reservoirs of rivers flowing into the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas. All of them turned out to be undesirable components of ecosystems, but they have adapted to live and reproduce in them very successfully¹´².
The scale of the introduction of animal species (mammals, insects) for Russia at the level of subjects of the Russian Federation is shown on the maps ( rice. 12). The most uniform picture is shown by mammals, the deliberate introduction of which was carried out for a long time and over large areas in order to "enrich the local commercial fauna." The largest number of introducers was noted for Leningrad, Tver, Moscow, Voronezh, Ryazan, Tomsk, Sakhalin regions, Krasnodar and Primorsky territories, Dagestan, Bashkortostan. No relationship was found between the natural level of taxonomic diversity and the number of introducers. Apparently, the current picture is largely determined by the activity of scientific and practical organizations that introduced commercial species.
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¹ Zotova N.Yu. Problems of invasion and introduction of fish in Russia, "Biology", publishing house September 1, 2010
²Alimov A.F., Orlova M.I., Panov V.E. Consequences of introductions of alien species for aquatic ecosystems and the need for measures to prevent them. In: Invader Species in the European Seas of Russia. Collection of scientific papers. Apatity, ed. Kola Scientific Center of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 2000, pp. 12-23.
Fig.1.Number of introduced mammal species
Fig.2.Number of introduced insect species.
The distribution of regions by the number of introduced fish species demonstrates the deliberate nature of the introduction in the process of enrichment of the local commercial ichthyofauna. The largest number of species has been introduced in the Chelyabinsk, Sverdlovsk, Rostov regions and in Tatarstan.
Regions with a large number of introduced insects are associated with points of entry into Russia of various cargoes (ports, large railway junctions). And their distribution along the borders of the country reflects the unintentional nature of the introduction typical of this group.
About 100 alien species of herbivorous insects settled on the territory of the former USSR. In other regions of the world, the number of settled alien species of insects is much larger. There are more than 1,500 of them in the USA. Of the 600 most serious plant pests, 235 here are alien species. In Japan, out of 198 insect species of alien origin, 72% are classified as harmful (while the proportion of pests among local herbivorous species does not exceed 7%)
For 30 years, the area occupied in Russia by the Colorado potato beetle has increased 12,190 times. During the same period, the area occupied by the American white butterfly has increased 832 times here.
In general, it can be argued that at the current level of development of the introduction process on the territory of Russia and neighboring countries, it is not possible to catch the impact on the success of the introduction of the level of local biological diversity. In most cases, the distribution of introduced species is associated with cultural or significantly transformed natural ecosystems, and they are not part of natural communities. At the same time, the introduction leads to an increase in the level of biological diversity.
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¹Izhevsky S.S. Alien insects as biopollutants. Ecology. 1995. No. 2. pp.119-122. ²Izhevsky S.S. Penetration of alien herbivorous insects on the territory of Russia // Protection and quarantine rast. 2002. No. 1. with. 28-31.
Features inproduction process in Russia:
A large territory of the country with the virtual absence of internal control over the transfer of species;
The history of Russia is full of wars of a continental and regional nature, accompanied by intensive transportation of military and civilian goods, people;
For a long time on the territory of the USSR, a policy of resettlement and acclimatization of organisms was carried out in order to increase the productivity of ecosystems and obtain new food products;
The constant need to build roads, canals and reservoirs, large cities;
High level of commercial traffic and relatively weak control over the transfer of invaders across the state border;
Insufficiently developed legislation regarding introductions and accidental introduction of organisms from other countries;
Poor development of information support for monitoring alien species and poor development of the system of education and enlightenment in the field of aggressive introduced species;
Weak funding for research on alien species;
Fairly widespread among the population are hobbies associated with home keeping and breeding of exotic plants and animals, some of which, once in natural habitats, turn into typical invasive species.
