A phraseological combination (collocation) is a stable turnover, which includes words both with a free meaning and with phraseologically related, non-free (used only in this combination). Phraseological combinations are stable turns, but their holistic meaning follows from the meanings of their individual words.

Unlike phraseological unions and unities, combinations are semantically divisible - their composition allows limited synonymous substitution or replacement of individual words, while one of the members of the phraseological combination turns out to be constant, while the others are variable: for example, in phrases burn with love, hate, shame, impatience word burn down is a constant member with a phraseologically related meaning.

As variable members of the combination, a limited range of words can be used, determined by semantic relations within the language system: for example, the phraseological combination burn with passion is a hypernym for combinations like burn from..., while due to the variation of the variable part, the formation of synonymous series is possible burn with shame, disgrace, disgrace, burn with jealousy, thirst for revenge.

Another example: English to show one's teeth"snarl" (literally - "show your teeth"). Semantic independence in this combination is shown by the word one's"someone". It can be replaced with words my, your, his etc.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions are phraseological phrases that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically articulated, but also consist entirely of words with a free nominative meaning. Their only feature is reproducibility: they are used as ready-made speech units with a constant lexical composition and certain semantics.

Often a phraseological expression is a complete sentence with a statement, edification or conclusion. Examples of such phraseological expressions are proverbs and aphorisms. If there is no edification in the phraseological expression or there are elements of understatement, then this is a saying or a catchphrase. Another source of phraseological expressions is professional speech. Speech cliches also fall into the category of phraseological expressions - stable formulas like good luck, see you again etc.

Many linguists do not classify phraseological expressions as phraseological units, since they lack the main features of phraseological units.

Pleonasm

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Pleonasm(from other Greek πλεονασμός - superfluous, excess) - a turn of speech in which some element of meaning is duplicated; the presence of several language forms expressing the same meaning within a complete segment of speech or text; as well as the language expression itself, in which there is such duplication.

The term "pleonasm" came from ancient style and grammar. Ancient authors give different assessments of pleonasm. Quintilian, Donatus, Diomedes define pleonasm as an overload of speech with unnecessary words, therefore, as a stylistic vice. On the contrary, Dionysius of Halicarnassus defines this figure as the enrichment of speech with words that at first glance are superfluous, but in reality give it clarity, strength, rhythm, persuasiveness, pathos, which are not feasible in laconic speech.

Stylistic figures close to pleonasm are tautology and, in part, paraphrase. Term Relationship pleonasm and tautology understood by linguists in different ways. Pleonasm is a linguistic term, tautology is both linguistic and logical (although in logic this word is used in a completely different sense).

Phraseological turns are the scourge of everyone who studies a foreign language, because, faced with them, a person often cannot understand what in question. Often, in order to understand the meaning of a particular statement, one has to use a dictionary of phraseological combinations, which is far from always at hand. However, there is a way out - you can develop the ability to recognize phraseological units, then it will be easier to understand their meaning. True, for this you need to know what types of them are and how they differ. Special attention in this matter it is worth paying attention to phraseological combinations, since they (due to various ways their classifications) create the most problems. So what is it, what are their distinctive features And in what dictionaries can you find clues?

Phraseology and the subject of its study

The science of phraseology, which specializes in the study of a variety of stable combinations, is relatively young. In Russian linguistics, it began to stand out as a separate section only in the 18th century, and even then at the end of this century, thanks to Mikhail Lomonosov.

Its most famous researchers are linguists Viktor Vinogradov and Nikolai Shansky, and in English - A. McKay, W. Weinreich and L.P. Smith. By the way, it is worth noting that English-speaking linguists, unlike Slavic specialists, pay much less attention to phraseological units, and their stock in this language is inferior to Russian, Ukrainian or even Polish.

The main subject, on the study of which this discipline focuses its attention, is a phraseological unit or phraseological phrase. What is it? This is a combination of several words that is stable in structure and composition (it is not compiled anew each time, but is used in the already ready-made). For this reason, when parsing phraseologism, regardless of its type and the length of its constituent words, always appears as a single member of the sentence.

Each language is a unique thing related to its history and culture. It cannot be fully translated without losing its meaning. Therefore, when translating, phraseological units already similar in meaning that exist in another language are most often selected.

For example, the well-known English phraseological combination: "Keep your fingers on the pulse", which literally means "keep your fingers on the pulse", but it makes sense to "keep abreast of events." However, since there is no one hundred percent analogue in Russian, it is replaced by a very similar one: "Keep your finger on the pulse."

Sometimes, due to the proximity of countries, similar phraseological phrases appear in their languages, and then there are no problems with translation. So, Russian expression“to beat the buckets” (to mess around) has its twin brother in the Ukrainian language - “baidyky life”.

Often such expressions appear simultaneously in several languages ​​due to some important event such as Christianization. Despite belonging to different Christian denominations, in Ukrainian, French, Spanish, German, Slovak, Russian and Polish, the phraseological unit “alpha and omega” is common, taken from the Bible and meaning “from beginning to end” (completely, thoroughly).

Types of phraseological turns

So far, linguists have not come to the same opinion on the classification of phraseological units. Some additionally include proverbs (“You can’t stay without the sun, you can’t live without a sweetheart”), sayings (“God won’t give out - a pig won’t eat”) and language stamps (“hot support”, “working environment”). But for now, they are in the minority.

On the this moment The most popular in the East Slavic languages ​​is the classification of the linguist Viktor Vinogradov, who divided all set phrases into three key categories:

• Phraseological fusions.
• phraseological unity.
• phraseological combinations.

Many linguists correlate fusion and unity with the term "idiom" (by the way, this word has the same root as the noun "idiot"), which is actually a synonym for the noun "phraseologism". This is due to the fact that sometimes it is very difficult to draw a line between them. This name is worth remembering, since in English phraseological unions, unities, combinations are translated precisely with its help - idioms.

Question about phraseological expressions

Colleague Shansky insisted on the existence of a fourth type - expressions. In fact, he divided Vinogradov's phraseological combinations into two categories: combinations proper and expressions.

Although Shansky's classification leads to confusion in the practical distribution set phrases, but it allows a deeper consideration of this linguistic phenomenon.

What is the difference between phraseological fusions, phraseological units, phraseological combinations

First of all, it is worth understanding that these stable units were divided into these types according to the level of lexical independence of their components.

Turnovers that are absolutely inseparable, the meaning of which is not related to the meaning of their components, were called phraseological fusions. For example: “to sharpen folly” (to have a stupid conversation), to wear one "s heart on one" s sleeve (to be frank, literally means "to wear a heart on your sleeve"). By the way, figurativeness is characteristic of adhesions, most often they arise from folk speech, especially outdated expressions or from ancient books.

Are over independent view, in relation to its components. Unlike splices, their semantics are determined by the meaning of their constituents. For this reason, puns are included here. For example: “small and daring” (a person who does something well, despite his unimpressive external data) or Ukrainian phraseological unit: “katyuzі on merit” (the guilty person received a punishment corresponding to his own misconduct). Incidentally, both examples illustrate a unique feature of unities: rhyming consonances. Perhaps that is why Viktor Vinogradov included sayings and proverbs among them, although their belonging to phraseological units is still disputed by many linguists.

The third type: free phraseological combinations of words. They are quite noticeably different from the two above. The fact is that the value of their components directly affects the meaning of the entire turnover. For example: "unrestrained drunkenness", "raise the issue."

Phraseological combinations in Russian (as well as in Ukrainian and English) have a special property: their components can be replaced by synonyms without loss of meaning: “hurt honor” - “hurt pride”, “crimson ringing” - “melodic ringing”. As an example from the language of the proud British, the idiom to show one's teeth (show teeth), which can be adapted for any face: to show my (your, his, her, our) teeth.

Phraseological expressions and combinations: distinctive features

The classification of Viktor Vinogradov, in which only one analytical type (phraseological combinations) stood out in composition, was gradually supplemented by Nikolai Shansky. It was quite easy to distinguish between idioms and combinations (because of their difference in structure). But new unit Shansky - the expression ("to be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest") was more difficult to distinguish from combinations.

But, if you delve into the question, you can see a clear difference, which is based on the meaning of phraseological combinations. So, expressions consist of absolutely free words, fully possessing independent semantics (“not all is gold - what glitters”). However, they differ from ordinary phrases and sentences in that they are stable expressions that are not combined in a new way, but are used in finished form, as a template: “radish horseradish is not sweeter” (Ukrainian version “radish horseradish is not malted”).

Phraseological combinations (“to give a head to cut off” - “to give a hand to cut off”) always have several words with an unmotivated meaning in their composition, while all components of expressions are absolutely semantically independent (“Man - it sounds proud”). By the way, this feature of them makes some linguists doubt that expressions belong to phraseological units.

Which combination of words is not a phraseological phrase

Phraseologisms, from a lexical point of view, are a unique phenomenon: on the one hand, they have all the features of phrases, but at the same time they are closer in their properties to words. Knowing these features, one can easily learn to distinguish stable phraseological combinations, units, fusions or expressions from ordinary phrases.

• Phraseologisms, like phrases, consist of several interconnected lexemes, but most often their meaning is unable to go beyond the sum of the meanings of their components. For example: “lose your head” (stop thinking sensibly) and “lose your wallet”. The words that make up the phraseologism are most often used in a figurative sense.
• When used in oral and written speech, the composition of phrases is formed anew each time. But unities and fusions are constantly reproduced in finished form (which makes them related to speech clichés). Phraseological combination of words and phraseological expression in this matter are sometimes confusing. For example: “hang your head” (to be sad), although it is a phraseological unit, each of its components is able to freely appear in ordinary phrases: “hang a coat” and “lower your head”.
• Phraseological turnover (due to the integrity of the meaning of its components) in most cases can be safely replaced with a synonymous word, which cannot be done with a phrase. For example: the expression "servant of Melpomene" can be easily changed to a simple word "artist" or "actor".
• Phraseologisms never act as names. For example, the hydronym "Dead Sea" and phraseological combinations " dead Season"(unpopular season)," lie dead weight "(lie unused load).

Classification of phraseological units by origin

Considering the question of the origin of phraseological combinations, expressions, units and unions, they can be divided into several groups.

Other classifications: Petr Dudik's version

• In addition to Vinogradov and Shansky, other linguists also tried to separate phraseological units, guided by their own principles. So, the linguist Dudik singled out not four, but as many as five types of phraseological units:
• Semantically inseparable idioms: "to be on short leg(close to someone to know).
• Phraseological units with a freer semantics of the constituent elements: “soap your neck” (punish someone).
• Phraseological expressions, consisting entirely of independent words, to the total value of which it is impossible to find a synonym. Dudik mainly refers to them sayings and proverbs: "A goose is not a comrade to a pig."
• Phraseological combinations are phrases based on a metaphorical meaning: “ blue blood", "Hawkeye".
• Phraseological phrases. They are characterized by the absence of metaphor and the syntactic unity of the components: “big swell”.

Classification by Igor Melchuk

Apart from all of the above is Melchuk's classification of phraseological units. According to it stands out significantly more species which fall into four categories.

• Degree: full, semi-phrase, quasi-phrase.
• The role of pragmatic factors in the process of phraseologism formation: semantic and pragmatems.
• Which one it refers to: lexeme, phrase, syntactic phrase.
• Component of a linguistic sign that has undergone phraseologization: sign syntactics, signifier and signified.

Classification by Boris Larin

This linguist distributed according to the stages of their evolution, from ordinary phrases to phraseological units:

• Variable phrases (analogous to phraseological combinations and expressions): "velvet season".
• Those that have partially lost their primary meaning, but were able to acquire metaphor and stereotyping: "keep a stone in your bosom."
• Idioms that are completely devoid of the semantic independence of their components, as well as that have lost touch with their original lexical meaning and grammatical role (an analogue of phraseological fusions and units): "out of hand" (bad).

Common examples of phraseological combinations

Below are a few more well-known set phrases.

Although the classification of Vinogradov and Shansky does not apply to the language, however, it is possible to select stable phrases that can be classified as phraseological combinations.
Examples:

• Bosom friend - bosom buddy (bosom friend - bosom buddy).
• A Sisyfean labor (Sisyphean labor).
• A pitched battle - a fierce battle (a fierce battle - a fierce battle).

Phraseological dictionaries

The presence of a large number of classifications is due to the fact that none of them gives a 100% guarantee of the absence of errors. Therefore, it is still worth knowing in which dictionaries you can find a hint if you cannot accurately determine the type of phraseological unit. All dictionaries of this type are divided into monolingual and multilingual. The most famous books of this kind are translated below, in which you can find examples of set expressions that are most common in the Russian language.

• Monolingual:"Training phrasebook» E. Bystrova; "A burning verb - a dictionary of folk phraseology" by V. Kuzmich; "Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language" A. Fedoseev; “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Literary Language” by I. Fedoseev and “Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary” by M. Michelson.
• Multilingual:"Big English-Russian Phraseological Dictionary" (twenty thousand phraseological turns) by A. Kunin, "Big Polish-Russian, Russian-Polish Phraseological Dictionary" by Y. Lukshin and Random House Russian-English Dictionary of Idioms by Sofia Lubenskaya.

Perhaps, having learned that sometimes it is not easy to immediately distinguish what kind a particular phraseological unit belongs to, this topic may seem incredibly complicated. However, the devil is not as terrible as he is painted. main way to develop the ability to correctly find a phraseological combination of words among other phraseological units - to train regularly. And in the case of foreign languages- study the history of the emergence of such phrases and memorize them. This will not only help in the future not to get into awkward situations, but will also make the speech very beautiful and imaginative.

A common fact for all languages ​​of the world is the creation idiom(gr. idioma - a peculiar expression), or phrases(gr. phrasis - expression, turn of speech) - stable indecomposable combinations of words. The creation of such units occurs due to the frequent repetition of word combinations. Phraseology, or idiom, thus, 1. The science of stable turns of speech. 2. Stock of idioms or phrases in the language.

Stable turns of speech are opposed to free combinations of words. Free word combinations differ in that the words in them have their own meaning and therefore can be combined with many other words of the language. For example, the word sharpen can be combined with different words: scissors, knife, saw, pencil etc.; word eat is also free in its combinations, for example, eat ice cream, bun, dinner, pancakes etc.

In free phrases, the meanings of individual words are, as it were, added up, “summed up” by the speaker, and the general meaning of the phrase clearly follows from the meanings of the words included in the combination. Phrases sharpen scissors, eat ice cream have a meaning that is determined by the words included in the combination. In this case, there is also a correspondence between the articulation of form and articulation of content, meaning, i.e. each of these free combinations consists of two units (in terms of form) and two units (in terms of meaning). A free combination of words, as a rule, is created in the process of speech, "made" by the speaker in accordance with his needs in expressing thoughts, feelings and moods.

Stable word combinations, or phraseological units, are characterized by the unity of the components, the integrity of the meaning, the constancy of the composition and structure, as well as reproducibility, for example: lead by the nose, plug in the belt, lather the neck, remove the shavings, eat the dog, grated kalach. Phraseology enters our speech as a ready-made element of the language. It is not "made" by the speaker, but only applied by him.

Phraseologisms they are equal in meaning to a word, but very rarely coincide with it in structure, usually it is a phrase, part of a sentence and a whole sentence: slipshod(phrase) where Makar does not graze calves(subordinate part of the sentence), do not count your chickens before they are hatched(indefinite personal sentence). In a sentence, phraseological units often play the role of one member of the sentence and, in general, they can be decomposed according to the members of the sentence only formally, but not in meaning. Phraseological units can be considered from the same points of view as vocabulary: take into account polysemy, group into synonymous and antonymic groups, characterize stylistically, etc.

Following Vinogradov V.V. It is customary to distinguish three groups of phraseological units from the point of view of their semantic unity: phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological fusions - such semantically indivisible phraseological turns in which the integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the individual meanings of the words that make them up. For example, beat the buckets- to be idle. Experts note that phraseological fusions are such designations of certain phenomena of reality in which the sign underlying the name is no longer felt. This motivational feature can be revealed only from an etymological point of view. As a rule, phraseological fusions are the equivalents of words that are subsumed under certain grammatical categories as single, absolutely indecomposable semantic units. Can be called signs of adhesions:

1. The presence of obsolete and therefore incomprehensible words in the phraseological unit: get into a mess, sharpen balusters, beat the buckets(slippage- machine for twisting threads; balusters- posts for railings; buckets- chocks for making small wood chips).

2. The presence of grammatical archaisms. For example, sleeveless, headlong. In modern Russian, gerunds perfect look formed with suffixes c, -lice (dropping, breaking). Examples of grammatical archaisms include: now you let go(let go) dark water in the clouds(in the clouds).

3. The absence of a living syntactic connection between the words that make it up, the presence of syntactic disorder and indivisibility. How to drink to give, a joke to say, was not, on my mind– in these and similar fusions, there are no clear and distinct connections between words motivated from the point of view of modern grammatical rules.

Phraseological units- phraseological phrases that are also semantically indivisible and integral, but in them their integral semantics is already motivated by the individual meanings of their constituent words. They are distinguished from phraseological fusions by semantic derivativeness, the conditionality of their meaning by the meaning of individual words: throw a fishing rod, pull a strap, bury talent in the ground, seven Fridays a week, swims shallowly, the first pancake is lumpy etc. However, this motivation, the derivation of values ​​is not direct, but indirect.

The property of real-life figurativeness is the main property of phraseological units. This is what distinguishes them from homonymous free combinations of words.

Soaping one's head, taking it in one's hands, plugging one's belt, riding a crow - are equally possible both as phraseological units (then they will be figurative expressions) and as ordinary free combinations of words (then they will be used in their direct, nominative meanings).

Unlike phraseological fusions, phraseological units do not represent a completely frozen mass: their constituent parts can be separated from each other by insertions of other words.

Phraseological fusions and unities are often combined into one group, in such cases they are usually called idioms or idiomatic expressions.

Phraseological combinations- these are turns in which there are words with both free and related use. For example, bosom friend. Word friend has free use (it can be combined not only with the word bosom), and the word bosom It has limited use. Combination examples: sworn enemy, ticklish question, bloody nose (lips), pitch hell (darkness), bare teeth, biting frost, frown eyebrows etc.

A feature of phraseological combinations is that their constituent words with phraseologically related meanings can be replaced by synonymous ones: suddenly- suddenly, sour- break. The wider the circle of words with which a member of a phraseological combination can be connected, which has non-free use, the closer this phraseological combination is to the category of phraseological expressions.

Phraseological units have purely national character and almost untranslatable from one language to another, but still translations are possible: The end of the crown- from lat. Finis coranat opus.

Here the dog is buried- from it. Da ist der Hund begraben.

Many phraseological units exist in languages ​​in their national form:

lat. Aut Caesar, aut nigil (either Caesar or nothing).

lat. Meménto mori (remember death), etc.

Literature

Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language / Ed. A.I. Molotkov. - M., 1987.

Similar information.

→ Phraseological unions, unity, combinations and expressions

Phraseological unions, unity, combinations and expressions

Phraseological turns in terms of merging their constituent parts

Phraseological turns that exist in the Russian literary language are currently an extremely complex and diverse phenomenon. They differ from each other in their origin, stylistic and artistic and expressive qualities, and what they represent in terms of structure, lexical and grammatical composition and the fusion of their constituent parts into a single semantic whole.

From the point of view of merging the parts that make up phraseological turns, they can be divided into four groups:

The first two groups constitute semantically indivisible phrases. They are equivalent in terms of their meaning to one word. The third and fourth groups, i.e., phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions, are already semantically segmented turns. Their meaning is equivalent to the semantics of their constituent components.

Phraseological unions

Phraseological fusions are such semantically indivisible phraseological turns in which the integral meaning is completely inconsistent with the individual meanings of their constituent words. The meaning of this kind of phraseological turns is just as unmotivated and completely conditional as the semantics of words with a non-derivative basis.

For example, phraseological turns "" (to mess around) and "head-on" (reckless) are the same unmotivated and conditional designations of the phenomena of objective reality, which are compound words such as "imitate", "peer", "headlong", etc. where the derivativeness is not felt at all and the meaning of the word is absolutely inconsistent with the meanings of their constituent parts. Indeed, just as the meaning of the word "headlong" is not deduced from the meaning of the parts striving- down (cf.: rapids, impetuous etc.) and chapters(cf.: chief, head etc.), and the meaning of the expression "head over heels" is not deduced from the meaning of the words outline and head.

Thus, phraseological fusions are such designations of certain phenomena of reality that are similar to what we observe in words with a non-derivative stem, in words in which the sign underlying the name is no longer felt. The sign underlying the name, both in non-derivative words and in phraseological fusions, can be revealed only from a historical point of view.

There are essentially no words with their independent meanings in phraseological fusions. The words included in them do not have any separate meanings. The meaning of the whole is not derived here and does not follow from the meaning of its constituent components.

The expression “uneven hour”, which is a phraseological fusion, is equal in meaning to “what if” (for example, uneven hour he will notice it). In its semantics, it is completely inconsistent with the meanings that are characteristic of the words "uneven" and "hour".

Such a turn as “and no nails” is equal in meaning to the words “basta”, “enough”, “nothing more”. Its integral meaning as a phraseological unit is not made up of the meanings of words and no nails and does not follow from those individual meanings that are inherent in these words in their free use.

If the elements that make up the phraseological fusion have words that sound the same with them, then this ratio is purely homonymous.

So, for example, the combination of the words “wash the bones” on the one hand, can appear before us as a phraseological fusion, the meaning of which does not follow from the real meanings of the individual words “wash” and “bones” (gossip), but on the other hand, it can be the free use of these words in their direct, nominative meaning.

In this way, phraseological fusions - these are the equivalents of words, brought under certain grammatical categories as single, absolutely indecomposable semantic units. As examples one can cite such phraseological fusions as “get into a mess”, “sharpen balusters”, “beat the bucks”, where there are obsolete, obsolete words: slippage(machine for twisting ropes), balusters(turned railing posts), buckets(chocks for making small wood chips).

Secondly, due to the presence of grammatical archaisms within the phraseological fusion.

As examples, we can point out the phraseological fusions “sloppy”, “headlong”, in which the archaic form will be the gerunds “later”, “breaking” (in modern Russian, gerunds of the perfect form are formed, therefore it should have been “lowering”, “ breaking”, and not “later”, “breaking”; the phrase “now you let go” (cf. letting go), “dark is the water in the clouds” (cf. in the clouds) and etc.

Thirdly, due to the absence within its boundaries of a living syntactic connection between its constituent words, the presence of syntactic disorder and indivisibility. Compare, for example, phraseological fusions “than light”, “how to give a drink”, “tell a joke”, there was no”, “at least where”, “on your mind”, in which there are clear and distinct syntactic links between words, motivated from the point of view of modern grammatical rules, does not exist.

Phraseological units

The second group of phraseological turns are phraseological units. They are such phraseological units that, like phraseological fusions, are semantically indivisible and integral, but in them, unlike phraseological fusions, their integral semantics is already motivated by the individual meanings of their constituent words. The indecomposable meaning of phraseological units arises as a result of the merging of the meanings of their individual constituent parts in a single generalized figurative semantics of the whole.

The semantic indivisibility of such phraseological turns brings them closer to phraseological fusions, and their semantic derivative, the conditionality of their meaning by the meaning of individual words, distinguishes them from phraseological fusions.

If we take phraseological units as examples: “”, “pull the strap”, “bury talent in the ground”, “seven Fridays in the week”, “floats shallowly”, “suck it out of your finger”, “the first pancake is lumpy”, “put your teeth on shelf, etc., - then their meanings, in contrast to phraseological fusions, are derivative, motivated and arising from the semantics of the words that form them. In this respect, they are similar to words with a derived stem, i.e., a stem divided into morphological parts. However, it should be noted that this motivation, the derivativeness of the considered phraseological units is not direct, but indirect. All very numerous phraseological units in the Russian language are figurative expressions, constituent units, the understanding of which is necessarily connected with the understanding of the inner figurative core on which they are built.

The property of real-life figurativeness is the main property of phraseological units. This is what distinguishes them from homonymous free combinations of words.

Such combinations of words as: “soap your head”, “take it in your own hands”, “plug it in your belt”, “ride it on blacks”, etc., are equally possible as phraseological units (then these will be figurative expressions) and as ordinary free combinations of words (then these words will be used in their direct, nominative, meanings).

Unlike phraseological fusions, phraseological units do not represent a completely frozen mass: their constituent parts can be separated from each other by insertions of other words. This property of phraseological units sharply separates them not only from phraseological fusions, but also from most phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions.

Phraseological fusions and phraseological units as equivalents of words are often combined into one group. In such cases they are usually called idioms or idiomatic expressions. Phraseological fusions and phraseological units (“I ate a dog”; “in all Ivanovo”, “break into open door»; "neither to the village, nor to the city"; "rubbed to powder"; “Siamese twins”, etc.) are opposed by phraseological combinations and phraseological expressions that are not semantically indivisible equivalents of words, but are semantically segmented phrases, the meaning of which fully corresponds to the meaning of the words that form them (“frown your eyebrows”; “sworn enemy”; "verification of execution"; "struggle for peace", etc.).

Phraseological combinations

Phraseological combinations are stable combinations of words in which there are words both with free use and with associated ones.

Consider the turnover "bosom friend". Before us is a phraseological combination made up of two words. Of these, the word "friend" has free use. It can be combined not only with the word "bosom", but also with a number of other words, very different in their own way. lexical meaning, expressive-stylistic coloring, etc. As for the word "bosom", it is, as it were, attached to the word "friend" and can only be used in speech with it.

Another example: phraseological combinations "delicious question", "delicious situation" - combinations of the word "delicate" with the words "question" and "position".

The word "delicious" in the appropriate sense appears only in combination with these two words, that is, it has a related use. As for the word "question" and "position". then they have free use and can be combined with a variety of words.

Let us give some other examples of phraseological combinations: “break your nose”, “fragile boat”, “pitch hell”, “pitch darkness”, “ sudden death”, “grin your teeth”, “biting frost”, “furrow your eyebrows”, “hang your nose”, etc.

Therefore, phraseological combinations are called such kind of turnovers that are stable in their composition, which are formed from words with a free and phraseologically related meaning.

Phraseological combinations have almost no homonymous free phrases. their peculiarity is that their constituent words with phraseologically related meanings can be replaced by synonymous ones ( sudden death - sudden death, bloody nose - break the nose etc.). The wider the circle of words with which a member of a phraseological combination can be linked, which has a non-free meaning, the closer this phraseological combination is to the category of phraseological expressions.

Phraseological expressions

Phraseological expressions one should name such phraseological units that are stable in their composition and use, which are not only semantically articulated, but also consist entirely of words with free meanings (“all ages are submissive to love”, “wholesale and retail”, “seriously and for a long time”, “ to be afraid of wolves - do not go into the forest", "socialist competition", "not all that glitters is gold", etc.).

They differ from phraseological combinations in that they do not contain a single word with a phraseologically related meaning. The words that make them up cannot have synonymous substitutions that are possible for words with a non-free meaning in the group of phraseological combinations (For example, open one's mouth open one's mouth).

By the nature of the connections of the words that make them up and by their general meaning, they do not differ in any way from free phrases.

the main specific feature that delimits them from free combinations of words is that in the process of communication they are not formed by the speaker, like the latter, but are reproduced as ready-made units with a constant composition and meaning.

The use of the phraseological expression “All ages are submissive to love” differs from the use, for example, of the sentence “Poems conquered readers with their sincerity and freshness” in that they are retrieved from memory as a whole, just like a single word or phraseological units equivalent to a word, while the sentence "Poems conquered the reader with their sincerity and freshness" is created by the speaker according to the laws of Russian grammar from individual words in the very process of communication.

Among phraseological expressions, there are both predicative phrases equal to a sentence, and combinations that are part of a sentence: “and Vaska listens and eats; “good impulses are destined for us”, “man - this sounds proud”; "work successes"; "at this stage"; "catch up and overtake"; “Without difficulty, you can’t even pull a fish out of a pond”; “Looks at a book, but sees a fig”; “radish horseradish is not sweeter”, etc.

The classification of phraseological units, as a rule, is often limited to considering them only from the point of view of the degree of merging of their constituent parts. However, phraseological turns do not represent uniformity in their structure and lexical and grammatical composition.

Phraseologism- this is a stable combination of words peculiar only to a given language, the meaning of which is not determined by the meaning of the words included in it, taken separately. Due to the fact that phraseological units cannot be translated literally (the meaning is lost), translation and understanding difficulties often arise. On the other hand, such phraseological units give the language a bright emotional coloring. Often grammatical meaning idioms do not meet the norms of the modern language, but are grammatical archaisms. An example of such expressions in Russian: “stay with the nose”, “beat the buckets”, “give back”, “play the fool”, “point of view”, etc.

The main features of phraseology. In order to separate a phraseological unit from other linguistic units, in particular from a word and a free phrase, it is necessary to determine the characteristic features of phraseological units.

1. Reproducibility of phraseological units in speech as finished units. Stable combinations exist in the language as a set of ready-made, previously created language formations that need to be remembered in the same way as we remember words.

2. The integrity of the meaning of phraseological units lies in the fact that, despite the dismemberment of the structure, they have a generalized holistic meaning, which, as a rule, is a rethinking of the phrase, which is based on a specific semantic content. Obvious examples of the fact that the meaning of a phraseological unit does not consist of the meanings of its components are stable combinations, one of the members of which is obsolete and is not used in modern language outside of this expression. However, the speaker does not have the feeling that this word is unfamiliar to him, since he knows the general, integral meaning of the entire phraseological unit. Such expressions, in which it is possible to trace the connection between the general meaning of a stable combination and the values ​​of its constituent components, also have a generalized holistic value.

3. The constancy of the component composition, stability distinguishes phraseological units from free phrases. A feature of stable combinations is that they are, as a rule, constant in composition and structure, i.e. they include certain words arranged in the prescribed order. The interchangeability of the components of a phraseological unit is possible only in general language phraseological variants, i.e. in stable combinations that have the same meaning, the same figurative structure, but differ in their lexical and grammatical composition.

4. Equivalence of a phraseological unit and a separate word means that a stable combination has a lot in common with the word. Like the word, it is a unit of the language, it is reproduced in finished form, and not created anew each time, it has an independent meaning and grammatical correlation, which lies in the fact that a phraseological unit, like a word, refers to a certain part of speech. It is possible to single out nominal phraseological turns (a shot sparrow is an experienced person), adjectives (there are not enough stars from the sky - about an ordinary, unremarkable person) verbal (become a dead end - find yourself in predicament); adverbs (tirelessly - diligently, tirelessly), interjection (know ours! - about praising yourself). Many phraseological units correspond in meaning to one word (put on both shoulder blades - win). Set phrases are close to words in terms of their syntactic function, since they play the role of a separate member of a sentence. For example: She turned her head to more than one Adam's grandson (M. Lermontov);

5. Separate arrangement of phraseological units consists in the fact that it includes at least two verbal components, each of which is grammatically designed as an independent unit, i.e. has its own accent and its own ending. This is the main difference between phraseology and words.

6. Imagery of phraseology consists in the fact that many stable phrases do not just name phenomena, signs, objects, actions, but also contain a certain image. This applies primarily to those phraseological units, the meanings of which were formed on the basis of a linguistic metaphor, as a result of the similarity and comparison of two phenomena, of which one becomes the basis of comparison, and the other is compared with it. For example, the phraseological unit grated kalach, denoting an experienced person who has seen a lot in life, correlates with grated kalach (the name of one of the varieties of kalach), which, before baking, is rubbed and crumpled for a long time. This creates the figurativeness of phraseology. Some phraseological units of the Russian language are devoid of figurativeness. These include various kinds of semantically indivisible combinations, which are compound names and terms (such as coal, agenda, safety pin, eyeball), as well as phraseological units such as have a meaning, win.

7. Emotionally expressive coloring phraseological units is manifested in the fact that most phraseological units of the Russian language, in addition to the nominative function, also perform a characterological function: they not only name some objects, phenomena, actions that exist in objective reality, but at the same time evaluate the named objects, phenomena, actions. The emotional and expressive significance of phraseological units of the Russian language is different. Some of them have minimal expression (expressiveness), for example: to stand in the ears - "to be constantly heard." Others have a pronounced expression and serve as a means of emphasizing the assessment of what is being said. These are, for example: to beat with a key - "to flow violently, to manifest itself." The presence of emotionally expressive coloring in phraseological units can be traced on synonymous phraseological units, which, with a common meaning, can differ in their coloring. For example, about a person who knows how to do everything, they say a jack of all trades (positive assessment), from boredom of all trades (jokingly ironic assessment), and a shvets, and a reaper, and a playful player (jokingly ironic assessment).

8. Phraseology, the non-freeness of the meaning of one of the components is a characteristic feature of most stable combinations. For some phraseological units, it manifests itself in the fact that its component has a phraseologically related meaning in the language, the main features of which are the lack of semantic independence and dependence in the choice of lexical environment. For example, the phraseological meaning of the word “sworn” is manifested in the fact that it has its own meaning only in a certain lexical environment, in combination with the word “enemy”: sworn enemy - “irreconcilable enemy” - and outside of this stable combination it is not used in Russian. The phraseological meaning of one of the components of a stable combination of another type is manifested in the fact that this component acquires a special phraseologically related meaning, only within the framework of this phraseological unit, and outside it can have an independent meaning and be used in many free combinations. For example, the word "white" is used in the language with its own independent value in free combinations (white paper, white snow), but only within the framework of a stable combination White crow it acquires its own special, phraseologically related meaning - "dissimilar to others, distinguished by something."

9. Idiomatic phraseology manifests itself in the fact that its semantically inseparable meaning is not derived from the meanings of its constituent components, taken separately, and does not coincide with them. Hence the impossibility of an accurate translation of phraseological unit into other languages ​​arises; this can be explained by the presence of specific laws inherent in this particular language. If free phrases are built mainly according to the general laws of linguistic reflection of extralinguistic reality, then the use of words in the composition of phraseological units is determined by the specific laws of the system of a given language.

* Issues of semantics of phraseological units in recent times attract more and more attention of researchers of phraseology, who, noting the specifics of their semantics, use a variety of names: a generalizing metaphorical meaning (S. A. Abakumov), semantic solidity (P. P. Kalinin), a single integral meaning (V. V. Vinogradov ), semantic idiomaticity (A. I. Smirnitsky), etc. Such an abundance of names to denote the semantic specificity of phraseological units reflects the undoubted complexity of this phenomenon, associated with insufficient knowledge of the issue itself.

The main feature of phraseological units is their completely or partially rethought meaning. Only a part of phraseological units is identified by individual lexemes, while most of them can be defined only with the help of a phrase or a detailed description. The semantic originality of the phraseological unit lies in the specificity of the combination of components, thus, they act not only as parts of the main semantic components of the phraseological unit, but also as links between them. These components are the minimum semantic units of phraseological units and perform meaning-defining or meaning-forming functions.

* The classification of phraseological units is based on the sign of the semantic unity of the components, the lesser or greater motivation of the meaning of the phraseological unit. Following Academician V. V. Vinogradov, it is customary to distinguish three main types: phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations.

Phraseological unions- these are phraseological units that are indecomposable in meaning, their holistic meaning is absolutely not motivated by the meanings of the component words, for example: beat the thumbs, get into a mess, sharpen lyases, turuses on wheels, headlong, etc. Phraseological fusions often include words that are not used independently in modern Russian.

Phraseological units- these are such phraseological units, the integral meaning of which is motivated by the meanings of their components. Examples of unities: pull the strap, swim shallowly, bury talent in the ground, suck it out of your finger, lead by the nose, etc. One of characteristic features phraseological units - their figurativeness. The presence of figurativeness distinguishes phraseological units from homonymous free combinations of glories. So, in the sentence The boy soaped his head with toilet soap, the combination soaped his head is free, it has a direct meaning and is devoid of any imagery; in the sentence I am afraid that the boss will soap his head for being late, the combination lathered his head is used figuratively and represents a phraseological unity.

Phraseological combinations- these are such phraseological units, the holistic meaning of which is made up of the meaning of the components, and at the same time one of the components has the so-called associated use. To understand what the associated usage is, consider the turns: fear takes, envy takes, anger takes. The verb to take used in these phrases is not combined with any name of feelings, but only with some, for example: one cannot say “joy takes”, “pleasure takes”. This use of the verb is called connected (or phraseologically related). Related is the use of the word delicate in turnovers a delicate issue, a delicate matter; with other nouns, even close in meaning to the words question and deed, the adjective ticklish does not combine.

As in phraseological unions, many words that are part of phraseological combinations do not have free meanings at all and exist in the language only as part of phraseological units. For example, the words to downcast, pitch black in modern Russian function only as part of phraseological combinations: lower your eyes, lower your eyes, pitch hell, pitch darkness.

Such turns of phrase, in which the word is used in a non-free, phraseologically related meaning, and are called phraseological combinations.

The semantics of a phraseological unit largely depends on its structural organization. Some phraseological units are formed according to the phrase scheme: puzzle, and others - according to the sentence scheme: hands itch (who?), the sky seemed like a sheepskin (to whom?). Phraseologisms of the first group have the greatest functional and semantic similarity with the word.

Phraseologisms formed according to the model of a non-predicative phrase can be single-valued and polysemantic, capable of entering into synonymous and antonymic relations, combined into thematic series on the basis of semantic commonality, etc.

The vast majority of phraseological units are unambiguous. The development of polysemy is hindered by the fact that phraseological units are often formed as a result of a metaphorical rethinking of free phrases of the same composition. As a result of repeated metaphorization of the same free phrase, such polysemantic phraseological units appear that have only metaphorical meanings. For example, the phraseologism to wag the tail means:

1. "cunning, cunning"; “You, brother, I'm sorry, I'm a taiga man, straight, I can't cunning, I can't wag my tail” (Yu.M. Shestakov);
2. “to hesitate in choosing a solution, to evade a direct answer”: “Speak up! Do not wag your tail ... a bag of saddlebags ”(M.E. Sltykov-Shchedrin);
3. (before whom?) "to seek someone's disposition by flattery, servility." “Because of your personal, one might say, family calculations, wag your tail in front of the factory owner ...” (D.N. Mamin-Sibiryak).

Polysemy is most typical for verbal and adverbial constructions as the most common, to a lesser extent - for nominal (adjective, etc.).

Separate phraseological units are able to combine opposite meanings. For example, the verb turnover turns in the head can mean:

1. "constantly conscious, disturbing the mind." “A chaotic dream was spinning in my head, which was interrupted several times at night by awakenings” (MA Bulgakov);
2. “I can’t remember at all”: “It seems that it’s so easy to remember, it just spins in my head, it spins painfully close, but I don’t know what exactly. You can’t grab it in any way ”(V. Garm).

Antonymic relations in phraseology are less developed than synonymic ones. Only phraseological units enter into antonymic relations, correlative according to some feature - qualitative, quantitative, temporal, spatial and belonging to the same category of objective reality as mutually exclusive concepts.

The antonymy of phraseological units is often supported by the antonymic connections of their lexical synonyms: seven spans in the forehead (smart) - he won’t invent gunpowder (stupid); blood with milk (ruddy) - not a blood in the face (pale).

AT special group antonymic phraseological units are distinguished, partially coinciding in composition, but having components that are opposed in meaning: with a heavy heart - with a light heart. Components that give such phraseological units opposite meaning, are often lexical antonyms. But they can get the opposite meaning only as part of phraseological units (face - back).

The most striking semantic feature of phraseological units is their ability to enter into synonymous connections and relationships with each other: to lead by the nose, to fool the head - to act dishonestly, to deceive someone.

Phraseological synonymy is rich and varied. In Russian, there are about 800 synonymic rows. Phraseological synonyms are understood to mean phraseological units with extremely close meaning, correlative, as a rule, with one part of speech, having similar or identical compatibility.

Phraseological synonyms can be single-structured, multi-structured and similar-structured. Single-structural synonyms are formed according to the same model: the Kolomna verst and the fire tower - according to the model “ex. in them. p. + adj. Synonyms of different structure are built according to different models: headlong, floundering, with closed eyes. In similarly structured synonyms, the grammatically dominant component of a phraseological unit is expressed by one part of speech, and all the rest are differently designed: hang your head, lose heart - become discouraged, despair.

Phraseologisms included in the synonymic series can differ in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, and sometimes all these features at the same time.

Due to polysemy, phraseological units can have synonymous connections in each meaning. In Russian, there are extensive synonymic series with common values: “reprimand in harsh terms”: give heat, set a couple, remove shavings, lather your head, give a light.

Many synonymic rows are semantically close. So, phraseological synonyms do not take an extra step, do not hit a finger on a finger (do not make the slightest effort) intersect with two other synonymous rows: beat the thumbs, fool around, spit on the ceiling (indulge in idleness, laziness) and cut the pavement, polish the boulevards, elephants to loiter (walk, loiter around).

Phraseological synonymy not only approaches lexical synonymy, but also differs from it. Phraseologisms are much poorer than words in lexico-grammatical terms. So, among phraseological units there is no actual pronominal category, in rare cases phraseological units correlate with full forms adjectives. At the same time, phraseological synonyms often convey such aspects of reality that cannot be expressed by lexical synonymy. For example, phraseological units synonymous series the wind whistles in the pockets (who?), an empty pocket (who?), not a penny behind the soul (who?) can only be interpreted by a detailed description “no one has any money at all, there are no signs of prosperity at all” .

Phraseological synonyms diverge from lexical and stylistic: phraseological units are more stylistic homogeneity than words of free use. This is due to the fact that phraseological units are mainly characterized by emotionally expressive coloring.

*The main property of a phraseological unit (PU) as a component of a language system is, first of all, the property of compatibility with other units.

PhU can have a single, narrow or wide compatibility, depending on the semantics of the characterized verb. Phraseologism in all eyes (in both, in both eyes) is combined with the verbs of visual perception of the semantic category of action, which indicates its narrow lexico-semantic compatibility: Various monovalent, divalent, trivalent, etc. PhUs are characterized only in relation to the number of joining verbs, i.e. only the quantitative aspect of valency is taken into account. The qualitative side of valence, determined by the nature of the semantic relationships between the combined units, is not disclosed in this approach, which necessitates further searches in the field of "power" possibilities of phraseological units. In addition, in some cases in a scientific linguistic text it is possible to use only one of the two terms, which indicates a distinction between their use and functions: valence possibilities / compatibility abilities, ability to combine, verbal valence (but not compatibility). The use of the term "valency" is recommended in order to avoid ambiguity and ambiguity: compatibility, as we found out, is divided into several types according to different criteria. "Valence" more successfully meets the requirements for terms, and helps to avoid ambiguity and achieve the accuracy of the name - in the context of our work - "verbal valency of phraseological unit".

*The main part of the phraseological resources of the Russian language consists of phraseological units of native Russian origin. Among the phraseological units of a colloquial nature, there are a significant number of those whose source is professional speech, for example: to sharpen laces, without a hitch and without a hitch (from the professional speech of carpenters), leave the stage, play first violin (from the speech of actors, musicians).

Single phraseological units fell into literary language from slang, for example, the turn to rub glasses is a cheating expression.

In the sphere of everyday and colloquial speech, there have constantly arisen and there are turns in which various historical events and customs of the Russian people. For example, the phraseologism to put (or put aside) in a long box is associated with the name of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (XVII century), on whose orders a box for petitions was installed in front of the palace in Kolomenskoye, but such an innovation did not eliminate the red tape, and the people accordingly reflected this fact: to put it on the back burner means to delay consideration of the issue for an indefinite period.

In addition to phraseological units, the origin of which is associated with colloquial speech, there is a significant number of phraseological units of book origin, both Russian and borrowed. Among them there are very old ones, borrowed from liturgical books, for example: seek and you will find, the holy of holies, the fiend of hell, in the image and likeness, etc.

The phraseology of the Russian language is actively replenished with popular expressions of literary origin. For example, the sword of Damocles, the Gordian knot, Procrustean bed - from ancient mythology; the expression from a beautiful far away belongs to N.V. Gogol; affairs of bygone days.

In addition to primordially Russian phraseological units, there are phraseological units of foreign origin. These are usually tracing papers from foreign phraseological units, for example: to remain silent (from Latin).

* The figurative and expressive possibilities of Russian phraseology can hardly be overestimated. A lot has been written and written by linguists about the stylistic possibilities of phraseological units. But language material, so attractive for any writer or publicist, is not so easy to make serve effectively and with dignity. The stylistic functioning of idiomatic expressions has one extremely important feature, about which an outstanding linguist, Professor B. L. Larin, once wrote. “As the light of the morning is reflected in a drop of dew”, so, according to the scientist, phraseological units reflect not only the historically established views of the people, but also social order, the ideology of the era that calls them to life.

In 1955, the collection "Winged Words" by N.S. Ashukina and M.G. Ashukina (3rd ed. M., 1966). Collected in the book a large number of literary quotations and figurative expressions located in alphabetical order. The presence of an alphabetical index at the end of the book allows you to use it as a reference.

Russian phraseology is presented with great completeness in the edition published in 1967, edited by A.I. Molotkov "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language", containing over 4000 dictionary entries (3rd ed. 1978; 4th ed. 1986). Phraseologisms are given with possible options components, an interpretation of the meaning is given and forms of use in speech are indicated. Each of the meanings is illustrated by quotations from fiction. In some cases, etymological information is given.

In 1975, the dictionary-reference book “Stable verb-nominal phrases of the Russian language” by V.M. Deribas. This manual contains over 5,000 set phrases, arranged according to their two components (verb - noun). In 1980, the School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language was published by V.P. Zhukov, containing about 2000 of the most common phraseological units found in literature and oral speech. In 1997, the Dictionary of Paraphrases of the Russian Language (Based on Newspaper Journalism) (A.B. Novikov) was published, in which turns are given for the type in the suit of Adam (naked), blue helmets (UN armed forces), black gold (oil) and etc.

Phraseology in broad sense The term also includes proverbs and sayings. The most complete collection of Russian proverbs is the collection "Proverbs of the Russian people" by V.I. Dahl, published in 1861-1862. (reissued in 1957). In 1966, the Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings was published by V.P. Zhukov (3rd ed. M., 1967), containing about 1000 proverbs and sayings, arranged alphabetically by the first word. In 1981, R.I. Yarantsev (2nd ed. M., 1985), which included about 800 phraseological units.