Reception of the formation of a new language unit. Ticket. Language as a system. Basic language levels. Language units and their qualitative difference. What discipline studies the literal composition of the word, the rules for writing words, their parts and forms
So, you already know that a language is a system, and any system consists of separate elements interconnected. What elements does the language consist of and what is the relationship between them?
These elements are called "language units". In most languages of the world, such units of language are distinguished as phoneme, morpheme, word, phrase, sentence, text.
So, we see that the smallest units of the language add up to larger ones, but the units of the language differ from each other not only in size. The main difference between linguistic units is not quantitative (some are larger, others are smaller), but qualitative (difference in their function, purpose). True, size also has some significance: each higher language unit can include subordinate ones, but not vice versa (that is, a phoneme is included in a morpheme, a morpheme in a word, a word in a phrase and sentence).
The units of the language in their structure can be simple and complex. Simple ones are absolutely indivisible (phoneme, morpheme), complex ones (phrase, sentence) always consist of simpler ones.
Each language unit takes its place in the system and performs a specific function.
The set of basic units of the language forms certain levels of the language system. Traditionally, the following main levels of language are distinguished: phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic.
The structure of each level, the relationship of language units in it are the subject of study of various sections of the science of language:
ü phonetics studies the sounds of speech, the laws of their formation, properties, rules of functioning;
ü morphology - word formation, inflection and categories of words (parts of speech);
ü lexicology - the vocabulary of the language;
ü Syntax studies phrases and sentences.
The simplest unit of language is phoneme- an indivisible and in itself insignificant sound unit of the language, which serves to distinguish between minimal meaningful units (morphemes and words). For example, words sweat - bot - mot - cat differ in sounds [p], [b], [m], [k], which are different phonemes.
Minimum significant unit – morpheme(root, suffix, prefix, ending). Morphemes already have some meaning, but they cannot be used on their own. For example, in the word Muscovite four morphemes: Moscow-, -ich-, -k-, -a. Morpheme moscow-(root) contains, as it were, an indication of the area; -ich- ( suffix) denotes a male person - a resident of Moscow; -to- (suffix) denotes a female person - a resident of Moscow; -a(ending) indicates that the given word is a feminine singular noun in the nominative case.
Has relative independence word- the next in terms of complexity and the most important unit of the language, which serves to name objects, processes, features or point to them. Words differ from morphemes in that they not only have some meaning, but are already capable of naming something, i.e. a word is the minimum nominative (naming) unit of a language. Structurally, it consists of morphemes and is a building material for phrases and sentences.
phrase- a combination of two or more words, between which there is a semantic and grammatical connection. It consists of the main and dependent words: new book, put play, each of us (key words in italics).
The most complex and independent unit of language, with which you can not only name some object, but also tell something about it, is sentence- the main syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or a prompt. The most important formal feature of a sentence is its semantic design and completeness. Unlike a word, which is a nominative (nominative) unit, a sentence is a communicative unit.
Language units are interconnected by paradigmatic, syntagmatic (compatibility) and hierarchical relations.
Paradigmatic called the relationship between units of the same level, by virtue of which these units differ and group. Units of the language, being in paradigmatic relations, are mutually opposed (for example, the phonemes "t" and "d" are distinguished as voiceless and voiceless; the forms of the verb I write - I wrote - I will write are distinguished as having the meanings of the present, past and future tense), interconnected, i.e. combined into certain groups according to similar features (for example, the phonemes “t” and “d” are combined into a pair due to the fact that both of them are consonants, front-lingual, explosive, solid; these three forms of the verb are combined into one category - the category of time, so as they all have a temporary value), and thus interdependent.
Syntagmatic(Compatibility) refers to the relationship between units of the same level in the speech chain, by virtue of which these units are associated with each other - the relationship between phonemes when they are connected into syllables, between morphemes when they are connected into words, between words when they are connected into phrases. However, at the same time, units of each level are built from units of a lower level: morphemes are built from phonemes and function as part of words (that is, they serve to build words), words are built from morphemes and function as part of sentences.
Relationships between units of different levels are recognized hierarchical.
[?] Questions and tasks
Language units are elements of the language system that have different functions and meanings. The basic units of the language include speech sounds, morphemes (parts of a word), words, sentences.
Language units form the corresponding levels of the language system: speech sounds - the phonetic level, morphemes - the morphemic level, words and phraseological units - the lexical level, phrases and sentences - the syntactic level.
Each of the language levels is also a complex system or subsystem, and their combination forms a common language system.
Language is a system that has naturally arisen in human society and is developing a system of sign units clothed in a sound form, capable of expressing the entire set of concepts and thoughts of a person and intended primarily for the purposes of communication. Language is at the same time a condition of development and a product of human culture. (N.D. Arutyunova.)
The lowest level of the language system is phonetic, it consists of the simplest units - speech sounds; units of the next, morphemic level - morphemes - consist of units of the previous level - speech sounds; units of the lexical (lexico-semantic) level - words - consist of morphemes; and the units of the next, syntactic level - syntactic constructions - consist of words.
Units of different levels differ not only in their place in the general system of the language, but also in their purpose (function, role), as well as in their structure. Thus, the shortest unit of language - the sound of speech - serves to identify and distinguish between morphemes and words. The sound of speech itself does not matter, it is connected with semantic distinction only indirectly: combining with other sounds of speech and forming morphemes, it contributes to the perception, discrimination of morphemes and the words formed with their help.
A syllable is also a sound unit - a segment of speech in which one sound is distinguished by the greatest sonority in comparison with neighboring ones. But syllables do not correspond to morphemes or any other meaningful units; in addition, the identification of the boundaries of the syllable does not have sufficient grounds, so some scholars do not include it among the basic units of the language.
A morpheme (part of a word) is the shortest unit of a language that has a meaning. The central morpheme of a word is the root, which contains the main lexical meaning of the word. The root is present in every word and can completely coincide with its stem. Suffix, prefix and ending introduce additional lexical or grammatical meanings.
There are word-forming morphemes (forming words) and grammatical (forming word forms).
In the word reddish, for example, there are three morphemes: the root edge- has an indicative (color) meaning, as in the words red, blush, redness; the suffix - ovate - denotes a weak degree of manifestation of the trait (as in the words blackish, rough, boring); the ending - й has a grammatical meaning of the masculine gender, singular, nominative case (as in the words black, rude, boring). None of these morphemes can be divided into smaller meaningful parts.
Morphemes can change over time in their form, in the composition of speech sounds. So, in the words porch, capital, beef, finger, the once distinguished suffixes merged with the root, a simplification took place: derivative stems turned into non-derivative ones. The meaning of the morpheme can also change. Morphemes do not possess syntactic independence.
The word is the main meaningful, syntactically independent unit of the language, which serves to name objects, processes, properties. The word is the material for the sentence, and the sentence may consist of one word. Unlike a sentence, a word outside the speech context and speech situation does not express a message.
The word combines phonetic features (its sound shell), morphological features (the set of its morphemes) and semantic features (the set of its meanings). The grammatical meanings of a word materially exist in its grammatical form.
Most of the words are polysemantic: for example, the word table in a particular speech stream can denote a type of furniture, a type of food, a set of dishes, a medical item. The word can have variants: zero and zero, dry and dry, song and song.
Words form certain systems, groups in the language: on the basis of grammatical features - a system of parts of speech; on the basis of word-building connections - nests of words; on the basis of semantic relations - a system of synonyms, antonyms, thematic groups; according to the historical perspective - archaisms, historicisms, neologisms; by sphere of use - dialectisms, professionalisms, jargon, terms.
Phraseological units, as well as compound terms (boiling point, plug-in construction) and compound names (White Sea, Ivan Vasilyevich) are equated to the word according to its function in speech.
Word combinations are formed from words - syntactic constructions consisting of two or more significant words connected according to the type of subordinating connection (coordination, control, adjacency).
The phrase, along with the word, is an element in the construction of a simple sentence.
Sentences and phrases form the syntactic level of the language system. A sentence is one of the main categories of syntax. It is opposed to the word and phrase in terms of formal organization, linguistic meaning and functions. The sentence is characterized by intonational structure - the intonation of the end of the sentence, completeness or incompleteness; intonation of the message, question, motivation. The special emotional coloring that is conveyed by intonation can turn any sentence into an exclamatory one.
Offers are simple and complex.
A simple sentence can be two-part, having a subject group and a predicate group, and one-part, having only a predicate group or only a subject group; can be common and non-common; can be complicated, having in its composition homogeneous members, circulation, introductory, plug-in construction, isolated turnover.
A simple two-part non-common sentence is divided into a subject and a predicate, a common one is divided into a subject group and a predicate group; but in speech, oral and written, there is a semantic articulation of the sentence, which in most cases does not coincide with syntactic articulation. The proposal is divided into the original part of the message - "given" and what is affirmed in it, "new" - the core of the message. The core of the message, the statement is highlighted by logical stress, word order, it ends the sentence. For example, in the sentence A hailstorm predicted the day before broke out in the morning, the initial part (“data”) is the hailstorm predicted the day before, and the core of the message (“new”) is in the morning, logical stress falls on it.
A complex sentence combines two or more simple ones. Depending on the means by which the parts of a complex sentence are connected, compound, complex and non-union complex sentences are distinguished.
| From the Authors……………………………………………………………………………………………….. ................................................ | |||
| The list of textbooks and manuals recommended in the texts of lectures and abbreviated versions of their titles………………………………………………………………… ................. | |||
| Lecture #1 | Language and speech | ||
| Introduction………………………………………………………………………………. | |||
| …………………………………………. | |||
| 1.2. Russian scientists about the essence and directions of the study of the native language……… | |||
| 1.3. The essence of the concept of “speech”…………………………………………………………. | |||
| 1.4. Functions of language and speech……………………………………………………………… | |||
| 1.5. Properties of language and speech……………………………………………………………… | |||
| Lecture #2 | Speech activity. Speech interaction……………………………….. | ||
| 2.1. The unity of the internal and external mechanism of human development…………… | |||
| 2.2. Structure of speech activity……………………………………………….. | |||
| 2.3. General characteristics of the structural components of speech activity .... | |||
| 2.4. Speech interaction…………………………………………………………. | |||
| Recommended Reading……………………………………………………………... | |||
| Lecture #3 | Text as a speech work……………………………………………………… | ||
| 3.1. General concept of text and text categories…………………………….. | |||
| 3.2. Language means ensuring the unity of the text………………………. | |||
| 3.3. Articulation of the text. Composition ……………………………………………….. | |||
| 3.4. An example of linguistic text analysis……………………………………. | |||
| 3.5. Interaction of texts…………………………………………………………… | |||
| 3.6. Precedent texts………………………………………………………………. | |||
| Recommended Reading……………………………………………………………... | |||
| Lecture #4 | A culture of speech. Speech culture…………………………………………………. | ||
| 4.1. The essence of the concept of "culture". The main characteristics of culture……… | |||
| 4.2. Speech culture. Types of speech culture…………………………………… | |||
| 4.3. Speech culture as an important component of speech culture……………….. | |||
| 4.4. Linguistic personality…………………………………………………………........ | |||
| 4.5. Ways to improve speech culture…………………………………. | |||
| Recommended Reading……………………………………………………………... | |||
| Lecture #5 | Modern Russian literary language. Normative aspect of speech culture………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ........... | ||
| 5.1. The origin of the Russian language………………………………………………… | |||
| 5.2. Common language. Literary language……………………………………... | |||
| 5.3. Non-literary varieties of the Russian language…………………………….. | |||
| 5.4. Language norms. Codification of norms………………………………………… | |||
| 5.5 Types of dictionaries. Linguistic dictionaries……………………………………. | |||
| Lecture #6 | Ethical and communicative aspect of speech culture…………………….. | ||
| 6.1. General characteristics of communicative and ethical norms. Their interaction …………………………………………………….. ……………………….. | |||
| 6.2. Ethical and communicative norms within a communicative situation | |||
| 6.3. Speech etiquette………………………..………………………………………….. | |||
| 6.4. Communicative qualities of speech………………………………………………. | |||
| Recommended reading………………………………………………………….. | |||
| Lecture No. 7 | Stylistics………………………..………………………..……………………………. | ||
| 7.1. General characteristics of the concept of "style" ………………………………………. | |||
| 7.2. Three models of the concept of "style" ………………………..………………………….. | |||
| 7.3. Stylistics as a branch of linguistics. Stylistic structure………………… | |||
| Lecture No. 8 | Strict styles: formal business style. Scientific style………………. | ||
| 8.1. General concept of strict styles…………………………………………………. | |||
| 8.2. Scope of use and substyles of official business style. Document….. | |||
| 8.3. Scope of scientific style. Term and terminology……………… | |||
| 8.4. Substyles of Scientific Style………………………..………………………………… | |||
| 8.5. Style-forming features of strict styles and linguistic means of their implementation. ………………………..………………………..……………………………… | |||
| Recommended Reading………………………..…………………………………… | |||
| Lecture No. 9 | Journalistic style. Fundamentals of public speech………………………….. | ||
| 9.1. General characteristics of journalistic style …………………………… | |||
| 9.2. Style-forming features of journalism and linguistic means of their implementation………………………..………………………..………………………………….. | |||
| 9.3. Public speech. Formation of rhetoric as a science. Types and genres of red speech………………………..………………………..………………………………… | |||
| 9.4. The main stages of preparing a public speech………………………. | |||
| 9.5. Logical foundations of speech. Argumentation………………………………………. | |||
| 9.6. Interaction between speaker and audience…………………………………………….. | |||
| 9.7. Types of discussion speech………………………..……………………………... | |||
| Recommended Reading………………………..…………………………………. | |||
| Lecture No. 10 | Conversational style. Art style………………………. | ||
| 10.1. The place of everyday colloquial and artistic styles in the system of functional styles. General properties of styles and fundamental differences between them………………………..………………………..……………………………... | |||
| 10.2. Style-forming features of everyday colloquial style and language means of their implementation………………………..………………………………………. | |||
| 10.3. Style-forming features of the artistic style and linguistic means of their implementation ………………………..………………………..………………………... | |||
| Attachment 1. | Basic orthoepic norms………………………..………………………….. | ||
| Appendix 2 | Basic grammatical norms………………………..…………………………. | ||
| Appendix 3 | Basic lexical norms………………………..………………………………… | ||
| Appendix 4 | Point of view and ways of expressing it………………………………………………… | ||
| Appendix 5 | The most common metatextual means……………………………… | ||
| Appendix 6 | Language means of creating expressiveness……………………………………. |
Language, culture, culture of speech are the basic concepts for humanity in general and for each individual in particular. Features of the national worldview, including the Russian one, are based on these pillars, they do not exist outside of them. That is why a person's love for himself and self-care should be manifested primarily in learning to live harmoniously in his environment, including cultural and linguistic, without being engaged in its subjective rationalization, reformism, etc. All these actions (however bitter to admit it) were experienced by our irresponsibility in our native Russian language, in connection with which both the speech and the culture of our contemporary cannot but cause fear and pain in a person who is not indifferent and reflective. It seems that the reason for introducing the course "Russian Language and Culture of Speech" into the curriculum of the vast majority of Russian universities was concern for the moral, spiritual, and intellectual health of the nation.
From our point of view, the main goal of this course is the formation of a moral position on speech as an innate mechanism of human life, providing knowledge of the world around and establishing relationships with its systems, and on language as an environment for the development and self-identification of a person, as well as the development of students' personal responsibility for their own speech activity and improvement of one's own speech culture. To achieve this goal and in accordance with the State Educational Standard, we have created this textbook, which in the process of work has acquired the form of a course of lectures. Our course of lectures is addressed primarily to students of non-philological specialties of all forms of education. (change word order), as well as teachers and specialists in the field of higher professional education.
1. The principle of consistency supply of material. We define system-forming, fundamental concepts as those indicated in the title of this discipline: (Russian) language - culture - speech, forming a kind of axiological triad
Language
Culture Speech
2. The principle of uniformity in the presentation of theoretical material and diversity argumentative and illustrative base.
3. Scientific principle, realized, firstly, in the representation of content according to the principle "from general to particular" - from an objective law, regularity to a particular case of its manifestation, a rule; secondly, in the consistent appeal of the authors to the competent opinion of well-known and authoritative Russian scientists.
4. The principle of accessibility , implying a logically consistent deployment of content, carried out in an understandable language, using visual aids (diagrams, tables, figures) and brief, but necessary, in our opinion, comments on the personalities mentioned in the training manual.
5. Dialogic principle necessary to activate the student's mental activity and informal mediated interaction between the authors of the textbook and the reader. This principle manifests itself not only in the system of problematic questions that organically accompany the presentation of educational material, but also in the creative tasks that complete each subtopic of the lecture, questions for reflection or micro-research (in the text, these questions and tasks are indicated by the icon).
and abbreviated versions of their names in the texts of lectures
| Bibliographic description of the book | Abbreviation | |
| → | Vvedenskaya L.A., 1997 |
| → | Vvedenskaya L.A., 2002 |
| → | Golub I.B., |
| → | Dantsev A.A. |
| → | Ippolitova N.A. |
| → | Shiryaev E.N. |
| → | Nevezhina M.V. |
| → | Maksimov V.I. |
| → | Chernyak V.D. |
| → | Textbook-dictionary |
| → | Sidorova M.Yu., 2002 |
| → | Sidorova M.Yu., 2005 |
LECTURE #1
Topic: LANGUAGE AND SPEECH
Lecture plan
Introduction
1.1. Language is a natural sign system
1.2. Russian scientists about the essence and directions of the study of the native language
1.3. The essence of the concept of "speech"
1.4. Functions of language and speech
1.5. Properties of language and speech
Introduction
Since childhood, we have been studying our native language, we think in our native language, we communicate in it, one of the main school subjects is the “Russian language”, however, the oral and written literacy of the vast majority of Russian-speaking people still leaves much to be desired, in general it is unsatisfactory. The axiomatic statement “Outside and without language and speech, a person does not exist” does not, unfortunately, contribute to the active development of the native language.
What is the reason for this? Much.
First, our ignorance of the purpose and misunderstanding of the essence of the language. But even Vladimir Ivanovich Dal warned: “ One cannot joke with language, with the human word, with speech; the verbal speech of a person is a VISIBLE, tangible connection, an allied LINK BETWEEN BODY AND SPIRIT: without words there is no conscious thought, but there is ‹…› only feeling and lowing. Without material means in the material world, the spirit cannot do anything, it cannot even manifest itself.
The second reason is our approximate, one might say, fantasy-fabulous, idea of the birth of a language. How did it come about? This is one of the key questions of modern linguistics - what are the causes and conditions for the emergence of an infinitely harmonious, wise system, the laws of functioning of which have not been fully studied. After all, the probability that sounds arose on their own, then somehow combined into morphemes (or immediately into words?) Is very small and controversial, since it gives rise to a number of unanswered questions. For example: did the words themselves form by chance? Or do they have an author? It is known that any new word is formed according to the models existing in the language from the morphemes existing in the language. Then the following question is natural: how did word-formation models and morphemes (roots, suffixes, etc.) originate?
Understanding the origins of language, obviously, should determine not only the direction of development of the science of language (linguistics), but also the attitude of an individual to language - as a teacher or as a subordinate. What is created by man can hardly be called absolutely perfect, so it can be modified, changed. But if we begin to correct what we have not created, the laws of existence of which we do not understand (for example, nature), then we get grief from our “mind”. On this occasion, it is appropriate to recall the words of another sage - S.Ya. Marshak: " Human found words for everything that he discovered in the universe". Note: found, but not invented, not created, not invented and not even found. polysemantic word find denotes in Russian two counter, opposite concepts at the same time: 1) to acquire, to search, to discover, to come across, going to hit; 2) invasion from above, descent, inspiration - influx.
The third question is: why did language arise? Suggested instant response: "For communication." Of course, this is true, but still think: communication is our main life task, which language helps to solve? If this is so, then, obviously, we mean thoughtful, non-aggressive, without condemnation, gossip, ridicule, idle talk, retelling of platitudes, foul language, verbal interaction of people. Let's be honest: this is not always how we communicate, to put it mildly. And the sages, who were aware of the weightiness and unprimitivity of the word, were generally more silent, or even completely stopped talking.
On the other hand, is communication itself limited to conversations with their own kind? Of course not. Language allows us to conduct an internal dialogue (here is your task: explore your inner speech, its quality), communicate with nature, with technology, read books (that is, talk with people in time and space), turn to God ...
These are the questions that we must find answers to, realizing how important it is to understand each word, how important the language itself is for us. By the way, the research of modern physicists allowed them to draw the following conclusion: DNA is the same text as the text of a book, but it can be read with any letter, because there is no break between words. Those who read this text with each subsequent letter receive more and more new texts. Moreover, the text can be read in the opposite direction if the row is flat. And if the chain of text is deployed in three-dimensional space, as in a cube, then the text is read in all directions. This text is non-stationary, it is constantly moving, changing, because our chromosomes breathe, oscillate, giving rise to a huge number of texts. Academician P.P. Garyaev, for example, states: A human being is a self-readable text structure… A program that is written on DNA could not have arisen as a result of Darwinian evolution: to record such a huge amount of information, it takes time that is many times longer than the existence of the Universe».
A.S. Shishkov wrote: "There are no empty sounds in the language." The words "far from being empty sounds, they contain the mind of it (language) and thoughts that not to know is to alienate oneself from knowledge of the language." What information, in your opinion, can be gleaned by studying the following system of single-root words: on the cha lo - con ec - rank- per con- on the cha flax?
1.1. Language is a natural sign system
The Russian language, like any other language, is a structure and a system. A system is a combination of elements that are in relationships and connections and form integrity, unity. Therefore, each system:
a) consists of many elements;
b) the elements are connected with each other;
c) the elements form a single whole.
The main units of the language (its signs) are presented in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Basic language units
| Language unit (sign) | Definition | Level language | Chapter linguistics |
| Phoneme (sound) | The smallest unit of language and speech, which has a form, but not content; serves to identify or distinguish between words and morphemes | Phonetic (phonemic) | Phonetics |
| Morpheme * | A non-independent unit of a language, a meaningful part of a word that has both form and content | Morphemic (word-forming) | Morphemic Word Formation |
| Word (lexeme) | The central independent unit of the language, which has a form, as well as the unity of lexical and grammatical meanings | Lexical Grammar** | Lexicology Morphology |
| Sentence | The main syntactic unit of the language, which is a means of forming, expressing and communicating thoughts, as well as a means of transmitting emotions and will | Grammar** | Syntax |
Notes:* Varieties of morphemes: root, prefix (prefix), suffix, postfix, ending.
** The grammatical level includes two sublevels: syntactic and morphological.
The level (horizontal) association of language signs reveals its structure. The systemic nature of the language lies in the fact that within it there is a hierarchy of inclusion, that is, the semantic connection and conditionality of language units: a large unit includes a smaller one, and the meaning (content, purpose, etc.) of a larger unit predetermines the choice of one or another smaller language unit . For example, changing the sound in words du X and du sh a resulted in a change in the meaning of the word. What "forced" to prefer one sound to another? The meaning (purpose) of the root. In the same way, the meaning of the higher unit, the word, forces the choice of morpheme: raft Morpheme - derivational level
Phoneme - phonetic level
Rice. 1.1. Structural connection of language units
The interrelationship of linguistic elements can be illustrated by comparing two sentences from a linguistic point of view: From here you can see the sea and From here you can see the sea. The informative content of these sentences is almost identical, and the linguistic difference is obvious only at the phonetic level: homograph words it is seen and it is seen differ in stressed syllables. However, further analysis (at the level of school analysis by the composition of the word, by parts of speech and by members of the sentence) leads us to the result presented in Table 1.2.
§one. Oral and written speech. Sounds and letters. Transcription. Phonetics
Language is presented in the form of speech: oral and written. Written speech appeared later than oral speech. Writing was invented to store information and transmit it in time and space. Thanks to this, we can find out information recorded many centuries ago very far from the place where we are now. The advent of writing is as important a milestone in the development of human civilization as the advent of a computer today. Even more important.
Oral speech is a stream of sounds, but a stream organized according to special laws. The minimum units of oral speech are sounds.
Sounds can be pronounced.
Sounds can be heard.
For this, a person has special organs: the speech apparatus and the organs of hearing.
Letters are conditional and not always accurate designations of sounds in a letter.
Letters can be written.
The letters can be read.
To do this, a person has a hand and writing tools: a pencil, pen, chalk, charcoal, and today a computer. Letters are perceived by sight. The human eye is the organ of vision.
Words can be spelled out. Letters of the Russian alphabet. Speak right: alphabet.
Sounds and letters are not the same number. There are 6 stressed vowels in Russian (there are also unstressed ones) and 36 consonants. 33 letters convey in writing all the sounds and their various combinations too. It is clear that there are no unambiguous correspondences between letters and sounds. That's why we have so many spelling rules.
The sound composition of a language, the characteristics of sounds, how they behave when they are next to each other and in different positions in a word, is studied by phonetics. The alphabetic composition of words, the rules for writing words, their parts and forms are studied by spelling. See Russian spelling rules. Spelling.
§2. Word. The lexical meaning of the word. Lexicology
Each word has its own sound shell. Each has its own morphemic structure (see below for the structure of the word). Unlike sounds and morphemes, words express meaning. The role of the word is to name objects, signs, actions and other realities of reality. Therefore, the word is considered significant, i.e. meaningful unit of language. It is important that the word generalizes people's ideas. House this is not only a specific house in which, for example, you live, but all houses. It is also important that the word is able to convey emotion, appreciation, shades of meaning. House is one thing, and house- other. The words shack, mansion, house, palace can be used instead of the word house people who want to express their attitude to the subject.
The word as a unit of the lexical composition of the language is studied by lexicology.
§3. Word composition. Morphemics
The word is made up of parts. These parts are called morphemes. Morphemes are the building blocks of words.
Morphemes: root, prefix, su´ ffix, interfi´ ks, ending.
The root is defined as follows: country
The prefix is designated as follows: by look
The suffix is denoted as follows: young ec
Interfi´ ks do not designate in any way. Interfix are connecting vowels e and about in compound words: myself about var, earth e swarm.
The ending is indicated as follows: countries a, look be, well done
Root, prefix, suffix, interfix are included in the basis of the word. Which stem depends on the structure of the word. If the word has only a root and an ending, then the stem will consist only of the root. The ending is not included in the stem of the word. The basis is indicated by underlining: countries a , look t , well done .
Different words have different morphemic composition. The morphemic structure of words, i.e. composition of words, studies morphemic.
§four. Word production. word formation
The formation of words, their production is the work of morphemes. Compare words: house and house ik.
Word house ik derived from the word house. Word formation is not interested in the endings of words, the basis is important for it. It is important to understand what is formed from what, which basis is derivative, and which is generating.
Hood oh → skinny th,
→thin-about-a,
→thin - yshk-a,
→thin-th → thinner-th→ thinner-e, more precisely: [n'iy'] - [e]
From what, what basis, and how, in what way, and also with the help of what means the basis of a new word is formed, studies word formation.
§5. Word form. Inflection. Parts of speech. Morphology
Classes of words that have a similar grammatical meaning, a set of forms when they change, and a role in a sentence are called parts of speech.
Parts of speech, their meanings and role, as well as their permanent and variable features are studied by morphology.
§6. The role of words in phrases and sentences. Syntax
We don't speak in words. We talk in sentences. A sentence is a higher level unit of communication.
Word calls.
But it does not express a complete thought and is not a unit of communication.
The word is not an independent unit of language.
Sentence expresses thought and is a unit of communication.
In addition, a sentence, unlike a word, is expressed with a specific purpose, which may be different.
The sentence is grammatically and intonation formalized.
A sentence is an independent unit of a language.
Words are included in the sentence as building material. This is possible due to the mechanism of changing words and special syntactic links inherent in the phrase and sentence.
Phrases and sentences: simple and complex, their structure and types of connection are studied by syntax.
§7. Language levels and language units
In a language, lower-level units serve as building blocks for higher-level units. Morphemes are made up of sounds. In Russian, morphemes consisting of only one sound are possible, for example:
pass[zdat '] - prefix With- pronounced as one sound [z],
affairs and t[d'el'it'] - suffix -and-
consists of one sound,
house at[home] - ending -y consists of one sound.
Words are made up of morphemes. In Russian, words consisting of only one morpheme are possible: how- root, apart- root , it's a pity - root.
Phrases and sentences are made up of words. Sentences consisting of only one word are possible. But in order to become a sentence, the word must be pronounced with a specific purpose, it must be formalized intonationally and grammatically. For example, Night! - this is a narrative, exclamatory, simple one-part with the main member of the subject - nominative, non-common, complete, uncomplicated.
§eight. The word as a unit of study of various linguistic disciplines: phonetics, lexicology, morphemics, word formation, morphology and syntax
Words have a sound composition.
Words have lexical meaning.
Words have a morphemic structure: the parts of which it is composed.
Words have the ability to be the basis for the production of other words.
A word has a grammatical meaning and a grammatical form.
The word has a role in the sentence.
test of strength
Check your understanding of the contents of this chapter.
Final test
What is the smallest unit of speech?
- Word
What are the special symbols used to convey the nature of the sound called?
- Letters
- Transcription marks
What discipline studies the literal composition of a word, the rules for writing words, their parts and forms?
- Phonetics
- Spelling
- Morphemics
What unit of language names objects, signs, actions and other realities of reality?
- Morpheme
- Word
What is the study of morphemics?
- The sound composition of words
- Lexical meaning of words
- Morphemic structure of words
- Ways to form words
Does word formation consider stems or endings of words?
- basics
- graduation
Are all Russian words changeable?
What are the classes of words that have a similar grammatical meaning, a set of forms when modified, and a role in a sentence called?
- Ways of word formation
- Parts of speech
- Offers
What signs are characteristic of all words of one part of speech: constant (unchanging) or inconstant (changing)?
- Permanent
- Fickle
What unit of language is grammatically and intonationally formed?
- Word
- Sentence
Right answers:
- Transcription marks
- Spelling
- Word
- Morphemic structure of words
- basics
- Parts of speech
- Permanent
- Sentence
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