Features of the translation of newspaper and information materials. The concept of terminological clichés and set phrases in translation theory Suffixes - er, - or are used to form nouns denoting specialists, machines, mechanisms, devices and
Publications perform many functions:
informational
educational,
influencing,
Propaganda or agitation-propaganda,
educational,
popularization,
organizational,
Hedonistic (entertainment), etc.
The most important of them are two:
1. The function of influence (agitation and propaganda, influencing or expressive, propaganda function) is persuasion with the help of facts, a system of evidence and images. The task of a journalistic text, reporting information about any event or fact from life, is to influence the beliefs of readers, to make them act as the author of this publication suggests. This function involves the formation of the worldview of a person (reader, listener, viewer), including the formation of life (political, social, etc.) attitudes, behavioral motives, and a system of values. Publicistic works touch upon topical problems of our time that are of interest to society (political, economic, philosophical, moral, issues of culture, art, etc.). By exerting its influence on the reader and listener, journalism not only guides in these events, but also seeks to influence his behavior. The ultimate goal is the creation of a certain public opinion regarding individuals, organizations, parties, events, etc.
2. Communicative and informational function of news reporting. It is embodied in the desire of any periodical publication, any media outlet to report fresh news as soon as possible.
It is these two functions that are style-forming. Their implementation finds its concrete expression in the style and language of journalistic works, determines the features of the vocabulary, syntax and structure of journalistic documents, the composition of journalism genres.
In general, as M.S. Kagan, the study of reality by a person occurs in four practical forms: “a subject can reflect objective connections and relationships, i.e. to know the world; he can consider its meaning for himself as a subject, i.e. value it to comprehend; he can construct new ideal objects, i.e. to design non-existent; these are the three possible positions of the subject in relation to the object. The fourth can only be an intersubject relationship - communication in the form of a dialogue. Finally, it is possible - and necessary for culture! - such a form of activity in which all four of its initial practical forms are syncretically merged, mutually identified ... ".
Continuing the thought of the philosopher, we note that journalism is a syncretic form of reflection of reality, combining the features of both scientific and artistic knowledge of reality. As E.P. Prokhorov, journalism (Latin publicus “public, folk, public”) as a type of creativity “accompanies the entire history of mankind (originating in the syncretism of thinking and forms of verbal communication in primitive society), although the word “publicism” itself came into use in the first half of e XIX century in Russia.
The term "journalism" is still interpreted by researchers in different ways. Some of them consider only works of social and political themes to be journalistic; others call publicism mass-political texts; the third - polemically sharp works; fourth - materials written in analytical genres, excluding informational and artistic-journalistic texts.
So, V.V. Uchenova believes that "any appeal to a wide audience with the aim of its political activation can be called journalistic." From the position of today's journalism, one can object to it: one of the trends in the development of the media is the emphasis on entertainment materials, on the contrary, leading the reader away from political battles and social problems. Moreover, the political bias of texts today is often associated not so much with journalism itself, but rather with well-disguised political "PR".
Perhaps it is time to reconsider the criteria of journalism as a natural feature of a journalistic text - such as the presence of a pronounced authorial modality in the text and an orientation towards maximum communicative efficiency - establishing mutually acceptable contact with the audience.
The change in modern practice, the difficulty of isolating journalistic texts proper in it led to the gradual switching of researchers to the use of the term "journalistic text" instead of "journalistic text". In particular, one of the arguments against the use of the term “journalistic text” (and, accordingly, “for” journalistic text) is the interstyle nature of modern materials distributed through mass communication channels: “It seems that the term “journalistic text” itself quickly entered the scientific everyday life and willingly picked up by the journalists themselves precisely because it emphasizes the interstyle nature of modern media texts and there is no binding of the text to a particular style, as was the case in the term "journalistic text". In our opinion, syncretism is a natural property of a journalistic text, and such a dilution of concepts is an unnecessary terminological fragmentation.
Given the above circumstances, we will consider journalism as a type of creative activity, and journalism as a way of its existence. At the same time, the journalistic text, in our opinion, is a kind of a broader concept - the media text.
Let us highlight the specific features of a journalistic text related to its functioning in one of the leading subsystems of mass communication:
1) Focus on reflecting the "panorama of modernity" based on the analysis of individual facts and phenomena captured at a certain moment in their development.
As E.P. Prokhorov, “the panorama of modernity in journalism consists of many works. Each of them has an independent value, but it acquires its true meaning only when it is docked with others on a newspaper page or in a TV program ... ". Reporting the facts of reality, the publicist must comply with the requirement of objectivity in covering the situation and at the same time efficiency, so as not to miss the moment when his message is relevant, i.e. meets the interests and needs of the audience during communication. Thus, the well-known Soviet publicist I. Ehrenburg adhered to the motto “Not a day without a line” in his work, rightly believing that a journalist, unlike a writer, cannot afford to hone his form for a long time, because, unlike a literary text, a journalistic text evaluates first of all, the depicted reality, and not just how the text is created.
In addition to the requirements of objectivity, efficiency and relevance, the journalistic text must be relevant and decoded for the audience (E.P. Prokhorov), adequate and unbiased in the disclosure of the topic.
2) The syncretism of journalism is manifested in several aspects: Firstly, interaction with science and art enriches journalism with the possibility of combining two ways of cognizing reality - rational-conceptual and emotional-figurative. Secondly, syncretism is manifested in the integration in the general sign space of journalism, a single text of a printed publication (as Yu.M. Lotman wrote about it, a “newspaper novel”) of signs of various orders: written and iconic, as well as “media”, which appeared due to development of modern technologies for the functioning of various channels of mass communication. Thirdly, due to the need to reflect the “picture of the day”, the current moment of reality in its various manifestations, the total text of a newspaper issue or television program acquires a mosaic, collage, that is, it combines texts that are quite heterogeneous in their subject matter and genres. Fourthly, the syncretism of journalistic texts, in our opinion, is manifested in the trend noted by E.A. Zhigareva: “starting from the second half of the 19th century, a synthesis of texts built according to different models, which traditionally correlate with different functional styles, takes place in the journalistic text.”
Journalistic texts "are the field in which the boundaries between the literary language and non-literary forms of the national language are open." Today, in particular, he has left the rigid system of book styles and actively interacts with colloquial, business speech, as well as with advertising and oratorical texts.
The world does not stand still and everything develops in it, especially in the 21st century in the information age, therefore now informational and informative translation of texts is so popular, therefore we can no longer imagine life without information that we constantly draw from news on television, radio, from newspapers and magazines, and of course from the Internet, probably the fastest way to get information at the moment. The word "information" comes from the Latin word "informatio" (informatio) - clarification, presentation, awareness, that is, information is any information on any topic obtained from various sources, the most important criteria for information are its novelty, relevance, reliability, objectivity , completeness and value.
Informative translation - a type of translation, distinguished on the basis of the nature of the translated texts, their genre and stylistic classification, characterizes the translation of special (scientific, scientific and technical, documents, etc.) texts.
Informational or informative translation is the translation of news, periodicals, that is, newspapers and magazines, as well as journalistic articles from Internet resources. From a scientific point of view, an informative translation can be called a translation of texts, the purpose of which is to convey some information and, in fact, so that such information in its design has an impact on the opinion or emotions of the reader, and the subject matter of informational translation can be completely different. But often such types of informative translation include scientific, business, socio-political, everyday and articles of other areas, this number can also include the translation of detective stories, historical novels, adventure stories, in which the plot tells about what is happening on the pages of the book, which is ordinary information.
Basically, the texts of literary and informative translation are opposed to each other, since the main task of informative translation of scientific, business, journalistic and other texts is to convey information, and the main goal of literary translation is figurative and aesthetic influence on the recipient. By opposing literary and informational translation to each other, we can see only the main function of the original, which should be reproduced in translation, and therefore it is not surprising that in some journalistic texts the reader is also influenced, as well as in literary texts. But at the same time, the actual division of these types of translations is impossible, since literary translation may contain separate parts of the text that carry an exclusively informational function, and vice versa, an informative translation may have elements of literary translation.
Naturally, such an information overloaded world requires a more careful attitude, and therefore, information translations have taken an important place, often in the business sector - these are translations of office documents. Informative translations usually have a standard form and the use of standard language means, therefore, when translating informational texts, the translator in most cases faces linguistic problems in conveying the content of the original text, which are associated with differences in the semantic structure and peculiarities of the use of certain expressions or words in two language systems. .
At present, today everyone follows the proverb “who owns the information, owns the world”, therefore the problem of informative translation is now very relevant, because the volume of informative translations is growing every day, and in the process of translation there are difficulties that the translator of informative translations constantly faces. texts, because no matter what the subject of the translation, it must be done correctly and in accordance with the original.
Revealing the specifics of a separate subspecies of translation, the special theory of translation studies three series of factors that should be taken into account when describing translations of this type. First, the mere fact that the original belongs to a particular functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, the focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to choose such language means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And, finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, translation features proper can be found, associated both with common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of this type of translation process. In other words, the special theory of translation studies the impact on the process of translation of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in the FL, the functional style similar to it in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.
Within each functional style, some linguistic features can be distinguished, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. In the newspaper-information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special nature of the headlines, the widespread use of newspaper clichés, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to these common features, in each language a similar functional style has specific linguistic features.
The newspaper-information style also has specific features that affect the translation process. The main task of materials of this style is to communicate certain information from certain positions and thereby achieve the desired effect on the receptor. The content of newspaper information messages differs from scientific and technical information, in particular, in that here we are talking about phenomena that are understandable to a wide range of non-specialists, directly or indirectly related to their lives and interests. Since, however, the task is to communicate some facts, and here it is necessary to accurately designate concepts and phenomena. Hence the important role of terms, names and titles, unambiguously pointing to the subject of thought.
Political terminology, especially characteristic of the newspaper-information style, has the same basic features that are characteristic of scientific and technical terminology. At the same time, they also reveal some differences related to the less rigor and orderliness of terminological systems in the socio-political sphere, as well as the dependence of the meanings of a number of terms on the corresponding ideological concepts. In newspaper and information materials, there are often polysemantic terms, synonymous terms, abbreviated terms and names. The term state in US political terminology can mean both "state" and "state": Both the state and Federal authorities are bent on establishing a police state. In the first case, the term state is on a par with the definition of "federal" and, of course, refers to state governments, as opposed to the government of the whole country. In the second case, state is used in the meaning of "state". The term Congressman can have a broader meaning - "member of the American Congress" or a narrower one - "member of the House of Representatives (US Congress)": Last year a number of American Senators and Congressmen visited the Soviet Union. Along with Congressman, its synonym Representative is also used in its narrow sense. The charters of various organizations may be referred to in English as Regulations, Rules, Constitution, Statutes or Charter. Well-known terms are often used in the text in abbreviated form: Youth is also virtually excluded from Congress, the average age of members of the Senate being 56 years and of the House 51 years. Here the abbreviated House is used instead of the full term The House of Representatives.
One and the same term may receive a different meaning depending on the ideological orientation of the text in which it is used. The term idealism can be used in a philosophical sense as the name of a worldview opposed to materialism, and have a positive or negative meaning, depending on the ideological position of the author. But even more often it is used in a positive sense, directly related to the concept of ideals - “ideals” and meaning “service (commitment) to high ideals (or principles)”, for example: The Foreign Secretary "s most elaborate and numerous speeches seem to prove that idealism is his guiding star.
Widespread use of names and titles in the newspaper-informational style makes the message specific and relates the information transmitted to certain persons, institutions or areas. This implies significant prior (background) knowledge in the Receptor, allowing it to associate the name with the named object. Thus, the English Receptor out of context is well aware that Park Lane is a street, Piccadilly Circus is a square, and Columbia Pictures is a film company. Names and names are often used in newspaper and information materials in an abbreviated form. Often these abbreviations may be unknown to the general reader and their meaning is immediately deciphered in the note or message itself. But there are many such abbreviated names, which the readers of the newspaper have long been accustomed to and which therefore do not need explanations. The abundance of abbreviations is a characteristic feature of the newspaper-informational style of modern English. Wed names of parties, trade unions, various organizations and positions: AFL-CU = American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, OOP = Grand Old (Republican) Party, DD = Defense Department, NAACP = National Association for Advancement of Colored People, DA = District Attorney; surnames or familiar nicknames of famous political or public figures: JFK = John F, Kennedy, Rocky = Rockefeller, Ike = Eisenhower, RLS = Robert Louis Stevenson; place names: NJ. = New Jersey, Mo. = Missouri, S.F. = San Francisco, S.P. = South Pacific, E-W = East-West, etc.
A characteristic feature of the English newspaper-information style is the stylistic diversity of vocabulary. Along with book vocabulary, colloquial and poetic words and combinations are widely used here:
Instead of answering the Minister took the line of "you"re another", that other West German Ministries and the police had still more ex-Nazis in them than Ms own ministry.
The Tories hope to get away with it by invoking their old familiar maxim: When in trouble, Wave the Flag.
The much-vaunted the New Frontiers, the Alliance for Progress and other similar programs have joined the snows of the yesteryear.
gf. You "re another (The Fool Himself), to invoke an old maxim and to join the snows of the yesteryear.
In the field of phraseology, the newspaper-information style is distinguished by the widespread use of “ready-made formulas” or clichés. Here we find both numerous introductory phrases indicating the source of information (it is reported, it is claimed, our correspondent reports from, according to well-informed sources), stable combinations with obliterated imagery (to set the tone, to throw light, to lay the corner-stone, to give the lie), as well as a number of political clichés such as: government reshuffle, vested interests, an unnamed Power, generation gap, a foregone conclusion, etc.
Newspaper and information materials also note some features of the syntactic organization of the text: the presence of short independent messages (1-3 statements) consisting of long sentences with a complex structure (Marooned by a gale on a skeleton of a fire-gutted Wyle light-house in Morecombe Bay, with their dingey swamped, nine workmen last night decided to risk the two-mile journey back over the sands to Fleetwood), the maximum fragmentation of the text into paragraphs, when almost every sentence starts on a new line, the presence of subheadings in the body of the text to increase interest readers, frequent use of numerous attribute groups (Paris underground and bus transport services were stopped today by a 24-hour warning strike called by the CGT (French TUC) with the support of other unions). The lexical and grammatical specificity of the newspaper-information style is especially clearly manifested in newspaper headlines.
In the field of vocabulary, English newspaper headlines are characterized by the frequent use of a small number of special words that make up a kind of “headline jargon”: ban, bid, claim, crack, crash, cut, dash, hit, move, pact, plea, probe, quit, quiz , rap, rush, slash, etc. A distinctive feature of such “heading vocabulary” is not only the frequency of their use, but also the universal nature of their semantics. The word pact in the title can mean not only "pact", but also "agreement", "agreement", "deal", etc. The verb hit can be used in connection with any critical speech. Red can mean both "communist", and "socialist", and "progressive"; bid means both "call", and "invitation", and "an attempt to achieve a certain goal", etc.: National Gallery Launches Bid to Buy the Titian - The National Gallery is trying to acquire a painting by Titian; Bid to Stop New Police Powers - A call to prevent police empowerment; Sudan Army Regime's Bid to Crush the Left - An attempt by the Sudanese military regime to suppress a progressive movement. (Compare Soviet Peace Bid - Soviet Peace Initiative.)
Newspaper headlines especially use jargon and other colloquial vocabulary: Report Raps Lack of Law Reform, Hits GOPers Housing Stand, Dief Lends JFK a Helping Hand, etc. Even if the article itself describes a situation in a more restrained style, the title is often more conversational. Wed the beginning of an article in an English newspaper: A leading Chinese diplomat has been accused of responsibility for violence against foreign embassies with its headline: China Blames Diplomat for Embassy Rows.
Newspaper headlines also have a number of grammatical features. English and American newspapers are dominated by verbal headlines like: Floods Hit Scotland, William Faulkner Is Dead, Exports to Russia Are Rising. The verbosity is usually preserved also in headings consisting of an interrogative sentence: Will There Be Another Major Slump Next Year?. A specific feature of the English title is the ability to omit the subject: Hires Teen-Agers as Scabs, Want No War Hysteria in Toronto Schools, Hits Arrests of Peace Campaigners, etc.
Significant differences from other functional styles of modern English are noted in the nature of the use of verb tense forms in headings. English and American newspapers tend to use non-perfect forms of the verb in their headlines. When talking about events that occurred in the recent past, the present historical time is usually used: Russia Condemns West Provocation, Richard Aldington Dies 70, Concorde Lands at Heathrow. This is the most common type of header; the use of present historical time gives them liveliness, brings events closer to the reader, makes him, as it were, a participant in these events, and thereby enhances his interest in the published material. The Past Indefinite Tense is used in headings relating to past events, mainly in cases where the heading contains a time adverb, or if the reader knows that the event described happened at a certain point in the past: Husband Disappeared Two Years Ago, Why Rockefeller Couldn't Buy a Landslide Victory?, Wave of Peace Action Swept the Nation, etc.
The infinitive is widely used in headings to indicate the future tense: America To Resume Testing, Laundry Workers To Vote on New Contract, World Unions To Fight Monopoly, etc.
An important feature of English newspaper headlines is the prevalence of the elliptical form of the passive voice in them with the omission of the auxiliary verb to be to describe events both in the past and in the present tense: Paris Protest March Staged by Students, 8-Year-Old Boy Kidnapped in Miami, All Piers Paralysed on East Coast, etc.
The general features of the newspaper-information style, which have already been mentioned, are clearly manifested in newspaper headlines. Names and political terms, abbreviations and attributive groups, colloquial and slang elements, etc. are widely represented here.
Identification of the language specificity of a particular type of speech or functional style is carried out within the framework of a special theory of translation to determine the impact of this specificity on the translation process, on the nature and methods of achieving equivalence in the translation of materials of this type. The degree of such impact depends not only on the lexical and grammatical features of the original, but also on their relationship with similar phenomena in the target language. The course and result of the translation process is largely determined by the common and distinctive linguistic features of similar types of materials in FL and TL. Therefore, the description of the characteristic features of materials of newspaper-information styles in modern English should be followed by the identification of the language specifics of Russian texts related to these functional styles.
The grammatical specificity of the newspaper-information style in the Russian language is less clearly expressed. In general, the syntax of informational materials is of a bookish nature with frequent use of complex, especially complex sentences, participial and adverbial phrases. The use of passive constructions is also noted (a high harvest was harvested, a new health resort was opened, etc.), as well as generalized-personal forms of verbs of informational semantics (report, inform, transmit). Particular attention should be paid to the nominal nature of newspaper speech, which is expressed, in particular, in the high frequency of denominative prepositions (in the area, in relation, in order, along the line, in accordance), complex denominative unions (due to the fact that, due to the fact that , in order to), verb-nominal combinations with a weakened meaning of the verb (to provide assistance, express satisfaction, find application, pay a visit, take steps), etc.
Thus, the linguistic features of similar styles in FL and TL often do not coincide. Therefore, the belonging of the original and translated texts to a certain functional style imposes special requirements on the translator and affects the course and result of the translation process. The specificity of a certain type of translation depends not only on the linguistic features that are found in the corresponding style of each of the languages involved in the translation, but mainly on how these features relate to each other, how much the stylistic characteristics of this type of material coincide in both languages. If some features are found only in one of the languages, then a kind of stylistic adaptation occurs during translation: specific means of presentation in the original are replaced by linguistic means that meet the requirements of this style in the TL.
When translating English texts belonging to the newspaper-information style into Russian, the opposite phenomenon prevails - the division of a sentence during translation, when two or more correspond to one original sentence in the translation text. In English-Russian scientific and technical translations, division is used relatively rarely:
The limitations of the existing theories must be adequately understood if they are not to be used in places where they are not valid.
The limitations of existing theories must necessarily be understood. This will help to avoid applying these theories in cases where they are unfair.
Similar phenomena are observed in the translation of newspaper and information materials. And here the discrepancies in the linguistic features of the English and Russian texts necessitate stylistic adaptation. If English headings are characterized by the use of verb forms, and Russian headlines are nominal, then the translation has to be restructured accordingly: Floods Hit Scotland - Flood in Scotland, Exports to Russia Are Rising - Increase in exports to the Soviet Union, A Train Driver Dies after Locos Collide - The death of the driver as a result of a collision of trains. More complex transformations involve translating titles that have a verbal predicate in the personal form but no subject: Hires Teen-Agers as Scabs - Using teenagers as scabs, Want No War Hysteria in Toronto Schools - Protests against planting war hysteria in Toronto schools . The same in the translation of headings with participial forms: 2(f Killed in Air Crash - The death of 20 people in a plane crash, Compressors Delivery Ordered by Gov "t - Government order for the supply of compressors, British Railways Hit by National Strike - A nationwide strike by British railway workers.
Special translation theory describes various forms of stylistic adaptation in the translation of texts belonging to a particular functional style. Such adaptation is not only due to the linguistic differences that were discussed. Stylistic adaptation during translation may also be necessary in relation to those stylistic features that are simultaneously found in similar styles of FL and TL. The same stylistic feature may appear to varying degrees in each of the languages, and its presence in the original does not mean that it can simply be reproduced in the translated text.
Stylistic adaptation is also inherent in translations of newspaper and information materials. As already noted, both English and Russian texts of this type are characterized by the inclusion of elements of colloquial style. However, in the English originals, such elements are used more freely, they are sometimes familiar, and even slang. As a result, the translator sometimes has to “smooth” the text of the translation, replacing jargon-familiar words and phrases with more neutral ones:
In another "Let's get cracking" Note, the Soviet Union today proposed next Thursday as the starting date for Ambassadors" talks in Moscow to prepare a Summit conference.
In a new note proposing to start direct preparations for the summit conference, the Soviet Union today named next Thursday as the date for the start of negotiations between the ambassadors in Moscow.
We see the same when translating titles: Hip and Square Films - Ultramodernist and traditional films, Putting Pep Into the Palace - The intensification of the work of the Buckingham Palace staff.
In both languages, the newspaper-informational style is characterized by conciseness. However, in English texts this requirement is observed more strictly than in Russian. Therefore, in English-Russian translations, it is often necessary to choose a more lengthy version:
According to W.H.O. statistics, heart diseases were the no. 1 killer.
According to the World Health Organization, the first place among all causes of death was occupied by heart disease.
Contents: Principles of description of genre and stylistic subspecies of translation (115). Lexical features of scientific and technical materials (116 -120). Grammatical features of scientific and technical materials (121 -129). Lexical and grammatical features of English newspaper and information materials (130 - 135). Linguistic specificity of newspaper headlines (136 -141). LSK-siko-grammatical features of Russian scientific and technical materials (142 -147). Some specific features of Russian newspaper and information materials (148 -149). Stylistic adaptation in translation (150 -151). The discrepancy in the use of similar stylistic features in the original and translation (152-154). Different frequency of use of certain parts of speech (155). Clarification of the logical connection between statements (156). Stylistic adaptation in the translation of newspaper and information materials (157 -158).
115. Revealing the specifics of a particular subspecies of translation, the special theory of translation studies three sets of factors that must be taken into account when describing translations of this type. Firstly, the mere fact that the original belongs to a particular functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, the focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to choose such language means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And, finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, translation features proper can be found, associated both with common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of this type of translation process. In other words, the special theory of translation studies the impact on the process of translation of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in the FL, the functional style similar to it in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.
116. Within each functional style, some linguistic features can be distinguished, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. For example, in the scientific and technical style, these are lexico-grammatical
features of scientific and technical materials and, first of all, the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary. In the newspaper-information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special nature of the headlines, the widespread use of newspaper clichés, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to these common features, in each language a similar functional style has specific linguistic features.
117. The characteristic features of the scientific and technical style are its informativeness (meaningfulness), consistency (strict sequence, clear connection between the main idea and details), accuracy and objectivity, and clarity and understandability arising from these features. Individual texts belonging to this style may have these features to a greater or lesser extent. However, all such texts reveal the predominant use of language tools that contribute to meeting the needs of this sphere of communication.
In the field of vocabulary, this is primarily the use of scientific and technical terminology, etc. special vocabulary. Terms are words and phrases denoting specific objects and concepts used by specialists in a particular field of science or technology. As terms, both words used almost exclusively within the framework of this style, and special meanings of popular words can be used. For example, lexical units such as coercivity, keraumophone, klystron, microsyn, etc., widely used in texts on electronics, are difficult to find outside of scientific and technical materials. At the same time, these texts also use such words as dead, degeneracy, ripple, rope, etc., which have well-known commonly used meanings. Terms should provide a clear and precise indication of real objects and phenomena, establish an unambiguous understanding of the transmitted information by specialists. Therefore, special requirements are imposed on this type of words. First of all, the term must be precise, i.e. have a strictly defined meaning, which can be revealed by a logical definition that establishes the place of the concept designated by the term in the system of concepts of a given field of science or technology. If some quantity is called scalar (scalar), then
The meaning of this term must exactly match the definition of the concept (a quantity that has magnitude but no direction), which relates it to other concepts contained in the definition (magnitude, direction) and contrasts the concept of vector (a quantity which is described in terms of both magnitude and direction). If any part of an optical instrument is referred to as a viewfinder (viewfinder), then this term should refer only to this part that performs certain functions, and no other parts of this instrument or any other device. For the same reasons, the term must be unambiguous and, in this sense, independent of the context. In other words, it must have its exact meaning, indicated by its definition, in all cases of its use in any text, so that the users of the term do not have to decide each time in which of the possible meanings it is used here. Directly related to the accuracy of the term is the requirement that each concept correspond to only one term, i.e. so that there are no synonymous terms with the same meanings. It is clear that the exact identification of objects and concepts is difficult when the same thing is named differently. The term must be part of a strict logical system. The meanings of terms and their definitions must obey the rules of logical classification, clearly distinguishing between objects and concepts, avoiding ambiguity or inconsistency. And, finally, the term should be a purely objective name, devoid of any secondary meanings that distract the attention of a specialist, introducing an element of subjectivity. In this regard, emotionality, metaphoricality, the presence of any associations, etc. are “contraindicated” for the term.
118. Much attention is paid to the systematic nature of newly created terms. In many areas, special rules for the formation of terms for concepts or objects of a certain class have been developed. Thus, the names of various types of electronic lamps are created by analogy with the term electrode indicating the number of electrodes used in the lamp (diode, triode, tetrode, pentode, hexode, heptode, etc.), a number of specialized electronic devices are named with the element
-iron(additron, carcinotron, cryotron, exitron, ignitron, klystron, permatron, phantastron, plasmatron, platinotron, skiatron, thyratron, etc.), chemical terms in -ite, -ate denote salts, on -/s,
-louse- acids, etc.
The same purpose is served by the widespread use of terms-phrases, which are created by adding specific features to the term denoting a generic concept in order to obtain specific concepts that are directly related to the original one. Such terms are in fact folded definitions that bring this concept under a more general one and at the same time indicate its specific feature. Thus, peculiar terminological nests are formed, covering numerous varieties of the designated phenomenon. For example, the English term impedance, defined as “impedance in an alternating current circuit” (impedance), is used as the basis for a number of terms that specify the nature of resistance or the section of the circuit in which it exists: blocked impedance, biasing impedance, vector impedance, driving- point impedance, feed-point impedance, input impedance, surface impedance, etc. Dozens, and sometimes hundreds of such combinations are created on the basis of such fundamental concepts as "voltage, force, current, force", etc. If the device is called a rectifier, then any devices that perform the same function will be named by adding specific features to this term (plate-supply rectifier, argon rectifier, silicon rectifier, bridge rectifier, half-wave rectifier, etc.).
119. To a large extent, mutual understanding of specialists is promoted by their widespread use of the so-called special general technical vocabulary, which also constitutes one of the specific features of the scientific and technical style. These are words and combinations that do not have the property of a term to identify concepts and objects in a certain area, but are used almost exclusively in this area of communication, selected by a narrow circle of specialists, familiar to them, allowing them not to think about the way of expressing thoughts, but to focus on the essence of the matter. . Special vocabulary includes all sorts of derivatives of terms, words used to describe the connections and relationships between terminologically designated concepts and objects, their properties and features, as well as a number of popular words used, however, in strictly defined combinations and thus specialized. Such vocabulary is usually not recorded in terminological dictionaries, its meanings are not set by scientific definitions, but it is no less typical for the scientific and technical style,
than terms. In English texts on electricity, for example, the voltage is applied (cf. voltage is applied), the magnetic field is set up (cf. a magnetic field is created), the line is terminated (cf. the circuit is output to the terminals), the switch is closed (cp, switch closes). This is how these phenomena are described in a variety of cases and by a variety of authors. Compliance with the norms of the use of special vocabulary poses special tasks for the translator when creating the text of the translation.
120. Of course, not only terminological and special vocabulary is used in scientific and technical materials. They contain a large number of popular words used in any functional styles. When translating such lexical units, the translator of scientific and technical literature faces the same difficulties and uses the same techniques to overcome them as his brothers working in other fields. There are also lexical elements in scientific and technical materials that are more characteristic of the colloquial style, when translating which the translator has to face the need to choose expressive and stylistic options. Scientific and technical presentation is sometimes by no means neutral-objective. In linguistic studies, the facts of the use in scientific articles of seemingly foreign elements such as:
A large part of industrial America is rushing to get on the nuclear bandwagon.
Branched chain paraffins will be the fair-haired boys in our future gasolines.
Calcium cyanamide has been getting a big play in Germany recently.
Buick has stolen a march on the rest of the industry with a cast-iron V-6 engine.
Cellulose triacetate will give other fibers a run for their money.
Obviously, in order to understand and translate such phrases, it is not enough for a translator of scientific and technical literature to have knowledge in the field of terminology and special vocabulary. Like any translator, he must have a good command of all the richness of the languages with which he has to deal.
121. English scientific and technical materials discovered
and a number of grammatical features. Of course, there is no "scientific-technical grammar". In scientific and technical speech, the same syntactic structures and morphological forms are used as in other functional styles. However, a number of grammatical phenomena are noted in this style more often than in others, some phenomena, on the contrary, are relatively rare in it, others are used only with a characteristic lexical “filling”.
122. Already the most general properties of the scientific and technical presentation, which we spoke about above, cannot but be reflected in the syntactic structure of the utterance. Thus, we have already noted that for such materials, the definitions of concepts and the description of real objects by indicating their properties are especially characteristic. This predetermines the widespread use of structures of type A is B, i.e. simple two-part sentences with a compound predicate consisting of a linking verb and a nominal part (predicative): The barn is a unit of measure of nuclear cross sections, A breakdown is an electric discharge through an insulator, etc. An adjective or prepositional phrase often acts as a predicative: The pipe is steel, The surface is copper, These materials are low-cost, Control is by a foot switch, Wing de-icing is by ducting exhaust heated air through leading edge duct.
Similar structures are also used in the negative form, where instead of the usual verbal negation (do not), a compound predicate is often used, in which the predicate is preceded by the negation pop: The stuff is pop-shrink, The refrigerants are nontoxic and nonirritating.
Numerous attributive groups are also hidden definitions, which are used in large numbers in scientific and technical materials. After all, calling the device a mechanically timed relay is the same as defining it as a relay which is mechanically timed. Such folded definitions make it possible to indicate a variety of features of an object or phenomenon: medium-power silicon rectifiers, mercury-wetted contact relay, open-loop output impedance, etc. The number of definitions in such combinations can be quite significant. (Compare: a differential pressure type specific gravity measuring instrument.)
123. The desire to point to real objects, to operate with things leads to the predominance in English
scientific and technical style of nominal structures, to its characteristic nominative ™. It's not just that there are many names of real objects in technical texts. Studies have shown that descriptions of processes and actions are also nominalized in such texts. Instead of saying to clean after the welding, the specialist says to do post-welding cleaning; if it is necessary to indicate that the particle is near the nucleus, they say it occupies a juxtanuclear position; instead of The contents of the tank are discharged by a pump, Discharge of the contents of the tank is effected by a pump is preferred. The removable cover in the device exists not just to make it easy to clean and repair, but for ease of maintenance and repair.
124. Due to the fact that the function of the real description of the action is transferred to the name, the predicate in the sentence becomes only a general designation of the procedural ™, a kind of "operator" in the name. In scientific and technical texts, there is a wide use of such operator verbs as effect, assure, perform, obtain, provide, give, involve, entail, imply, result in, lead to, to be ascribed to, to be attributed to, etc. , the meaning and translation of which entirely depends on the nouns that carry the main semantic load in the sentence.
The desire for the nominative also leads to the replacement of adverbs by prepositional-nominal combinations. So, accurately becomes with accuracy, very easily - with the greatest ease or the easy way (Compare: to do something the hard way), etc.
Only intensifying adverbs stubbornly resist this trend, which act in scientific and technical texts as the main modal expressive means that do not look like an alien element in a serious presentation. These are the adverbs: clearly, completely, considerably, essentially, fairly, greatly, significantly, markedly, materially, perfectly, positively, reasonably, etc. Cf.: The amount of energy that has to be dissipated is clearly enormous. The energy loss is markedly reduced.
125. Evidence of the same anti-verbal trend of scientific and technical style is the widespread use of verbal adjectives with prepositions instead of verbs: to be attendant on, to be conducive to, to be destructive of, to be incidental to, to be responsive to, to be tolerant of, etc. Compare: This system is conducive to high volumetric efficiency. This type of mixing is often incidental to other stages of the industrial process, e.g. size reduction.
126. Of course, the nominative nature of the scientific and technical style does not mean that the materials of this style completely lack full-valued verbs in personal forms. Without such verbs, it is difficult to imagine a coherent presentation of considerable length, although according to some estimates, the number of verbal predicative forms in scientific and technical texts is half that in literary works of the same length. Linguistic works have repeatedly noted such features of the use of verbs in the scientific and technical style of the English language as a significant predominance of passive forms and forms of the simple present tense, which is undoubtedly connected with the main characteristics and goals of scientific presentation. The translator's special attention deserves the widespread use of transitive verbs in intransitive form with a passive meaning in special texts: These filters adapt easily to automatic processing of many materials. The steel forges well. The unit must test for adequate wiring.
127. An important characteristic of the English scientific and technical style, which is reflected in the selection and use of linguistic means, is also its desire for brevity and compactness of presentation, which is expressed, in particular, in the rather wide use of elliptical structures. A misunderstanding of these constructions often leads to ridiculous translation errors. Having met the combination a remote crane or a liquid rocket in the text, the translator must recognize in them the elliptical combinations of the combinations a remote-operated crane and a liquid-fuelled rocket. Having read that A non-destructive testing college is to open in London this October, he should remember that the college that opens will not be non-destructive or testing at all, but will train specialists in the field of non-destructive testing of materials. Similarly, low-pressure producers may be low-pressure polyethylene producers.
This trend is reflected in a number of other grammatical features. The scientific and technical style is characterized, for example, by the replacement of attributive subordinate clauses by adjectives in postposition (especially with superfixes -ible, -able, -ive etc.): the materials available, excellent properties never before attainable, all factors important in the evaluation of, problems difficult with ordinary equipment, etc. Ta 116
the same goal can be achieved by using the infinitive form in the function of determining the forms: the properties to be expected, the temperature to be obtained, the product to be cooled, etc.
128. One can also note numerous cases of omission in scientific and technical materials of the article, especially a definite one, where in texts of another type its use is considered absolutely mandatory: General view is that..., First uranium mine in the region was....
The article is often missing before the names of specific parts in specifications, technical descriptions, instructions, etc.: Armstrong Traps have long-live parts, valve and seat are heat treated crome steel, lever assembly and bucket arc stainless steel.
The same phenomenon is observed before the names of scientific fields: ... in such fields as work study, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, telecommunication, standardization, higher education, etc.
129. In linguistic works that study the specifics of the scientific and technical style in modern English, a number of more particular grammatical features are also indicated, such as: the widespread use of the plural of real nouns (fats, oils, greases, steels, rare earths, sands, wools, gasolines, etc.), plurals in tool names (clippers, jointers, shears, dividers, compasses, trammels, etc.), the use of the preposition of to convey species-generic relationships (the oxidizer of liquid oxygen, the fuel of kerosene ), the prevalence of attribute combinations with the words type, design, pattern, grade: Protective clothing and dry-chemical-type fire extinguisher should be readily available in the area. Not only laboratories, but pilot-type manufacturing plants are included in the center.
In connection with the consistency and evidence of scientific presentation noted above, there is also an increased use of causal conjunctions and logical connectives such as since, therefore, it follows that, so, thus, it implies, involves, leads to, results in, etc.
The noted lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials have a direct impact on the communicative nature of such materials, which must be reproduced in translation.
130. The newspaper-information style also has specific features that influence the translation process. The main task of materials of this style is to
communication of certain information from certain positions and thereby in achieving the desired effect on the Receptor. The content of newspaper information messages differs from scientific and technical information, in particular, in that here we are talking about phenomena that are understandable to a wide range of non-specialists, directly or indirectly related to their lives and interests. Since, however, the task is to communicate some facts, and here it is necessary to accurately designate concepts and phenomena. Hence the important role of terms, names and titles, unambiguously pointing to the subject of thought.
131. Political terminology, especially characteristic of the newspaper-information style, has the same basic features that are characteristic of scientific and technical terminology. At the same time, they also reveal some differences related to the less rigor and orderliness of terminological systems in the socio-political sphere, as well as the dependence of the meanings of a number of terms on the corresponding ideological concepts. In newspaper and information materials, there are often polysemantic terms, synonymous terms, abbreviated terms and names. The term state in US political terminology can mean both "state" and "state": Both the state and Federal authorities are bent on establishing a police state. In the first case, the term state is on a par with the definition of "federal" and undoubtedly refers to state governments, as opposed to the government of the whole country. In the second case, state is used in the meaning of "state". The term Congressman can have a broader meaning - "member of the American Congress" or a narrower one - "member of the House of Representatives (US Congress)": Last year a number of American Senators and Congressmen visited the Soviet Union. Along with Congressman, its synonym Representative is also used in its narrow sense. The charters of various organizations may be referred to in English as Regulations, Rules, Constitution, Statutes or Charter. Well-known terms are often used in the text in abbreviated form: Youth is also virtually excluded from Congress, the average age of members of the Senate being 56 years and of the House 51 years. Here the abbreviated House is used instead of the full term The House of Representatives.
One and the same term may acquire different meanings depending on the ideological orientation of the text in which it is used.
used. The term idealism can be used in a philosophical sense as the name of a worldview opposed to materialism, and have a positive or negative meaning, depending on the ideological position of the author. But even more often it is used in a positive sense, directly related to the concept of ideals - “ideals” and meaning “service (commitment) to high ideals (or principles)”, for example: The Foreign Secretary "s most elaborate and numerous speeches seem to prove that idealism is his guiding star.
132. Widespread use of names and titles in the newspaper-informational style makes the message specific and relates the information conveyed to certain individuals, institutions or areas. This implies significant prior (background) knowledge in the Receptor, allowing it to associate the name with the named object. Thus, the English Receptor out of context is well aware that Park Lane is a street, Piccadilly Circus is a square, and Columbia Pictures is a film company. Names and names are often used in newspaper and information materials in an abbreviated form. Often these abbreviations may be unknown to the general reader and their meaning is immediately deciphered in the note or message itself. But there are many such abbreviated names, which the readers of the newspaper have long been accustomed to and which therefore do not need explanations. The abundance of abbreviations is a characteristic feature of the newspaper-informational style of modern English. Wed names of parties, trade unions, various organizations and positions: AFL-CU = American Federation of Labor-Congress of Industrial Organizations, OOP = Grand Old (Republican) Party, DD = Defense Department, NAACP = National Association for Advancement of Colored People, DA = District Attorney; surnames or familiar nicknames of famous political or public figures: JFK = John F, Kennedy, Rocky = Rockefeller, Ike = Eisenhower, RLS = Robert Louis Stevenson; place names: NJ. = New Jersey, Mo. = Missouri, S.F. = San Francisco, S.P. = South Pacific, E-W = East-West, etc.
133. A characteristic feature of the English newspaper and information style is the stylistic diversity of vocabulary. Along with book vocabulary, colloquial and poetic words and combinations are widely used here:
Instead of answering the Minister took the line of "you"re
another", that other West German Ministries and the police had still more ex-nazis in them than Ms own ministry.
The Tories hope to get away with it by invoking their old familiar maxim: When in trouble, Wave the Flag.
The much-vaunted the New Frontiers, the Alliance for Progress and other similar programs have joined the snows of the yesteryear.
gf. You "re another (The Fool Himself), to invoke an old maxim and to join the snows of the yesteryear.
134. In the field of phraseology, the newspaper-information style is distinguished by the widespread use of “ready-made formulas” or clichés. Here we find both numerous introductory phrases indicating the source of information (it is reported, it is claimed, our correspondent reports from, according to well-informed sources), stable combinations with obliterated imagery (to set the tone, to throw light, to lay the corner-stone, to give the lie), as well as a number of political clichés such as: government reshuffle, vested interests, an unnamed Power, generation gap, a foregone conclusion, etc.
135. Newspaper and information materials also note some features of the syntactic organization of the text: the presence of short independent messages (1-3 statements), consisting of long sentences with a complex structure (Marooned by a gale on a skeleton of a fire-gutted Wyle light-house in Morecombe Bay, with their dingey swamped, nine workmen last night decided to risk the two-mile journey back over the sands to Fleetwood), the maximum division of the text into paragraphs, when almost every sentence starts on a new line, the presence of subheadings in the body of the text for increasing reader interest, frequent use of numerous attribute groups (Paris underground and bus transport services were stopped today by a 24-hour warning strike called by the CGT (French TUC) with the support of other unions). The lexical and grammatical specificity of the newspaper-information style is especially clearly manifested in newspaper headlines.
136. In the field of vocabulary, English newspaper headlines are characterized by the frequent use of a small number of special words that make up a kind of “headline jargon”: ban, bid, claim, crack, crash, cut, dash, hit, move, pact, plea, probe, quit , quiz, rap, rush, slash, etc. A distinctive feature of such “headline vocabulary” is not only the frequency of their use, but also the universal nature of their semantics. Word 120
pact in the title can mean not only "pact", but also "agreement", "agreement", "deal", etc. The verb hit can be used in connection with any critical speech. Red can mean both "communist", and "socialist", and "progressive"; bid means both "call", and "invitation", and "an attempt to achieve a certain goal", etc.: National Gallery Launches Bid to Buy the Titian - The National Gallery is trying to acquire a painting by Titian; Bid to Stop New Police Powers - A call to prevent police empowerment; Sudan Army Regime's Bid to Crush the Left - An attempt by the Sudanese military regime to suppress a progressive movement. (Compare Soviet Peace Bid - Soviet Peace Initiative.)
137. Jargon and other colloquial lexical items are particularly common in newspaper headlines: Report Raps Lack of Law Reform, Hits GOPers Housing Stand, Dief Lends JFK a Helping Hand, etc. Even if the article itself describes a situation in a more restrained style, the title is often more conversational. Wed the beginning of an article in an English newspaper: A leading Chinese diplomat has been accused of responsibility for violence against foreign embassies with its headline: China Blames Diplomat for Embassy Rows.
138. Newspaper headlines also have a number of grammatical features. English and American newspapers are dominated by verbal headlines like: Floods Hit Scotland, William Faulkner Is Dead, Exports to Russia Are Rising. The verbosity is usually preserved also in headings consisting of an interrogative sentence: Will There Be Another Major Slump Next Year?. A specific feature of the English title is the ability to omit the subject: Hires Teen-Agers as Scabs, Want No War Hysteria in Toronto Schools, Hits Arrests of Peace Campaigners, etc.
139. Significant differences from other functional styles of modern English are noted in the nature of the use of verb tense forms in headings. English and American newspapers tend to use non-perfect forms of the verb in their headlines. When talking about events that occurred in the recent past, the present historical time is usually used: Russia Condemns West Provocation, Richard Aldington Dies 70, Concorde Lands at Heathrow. This is the most common type of header; the use of present historical time gives them liveliness, brings events closer to the reader, makes him, as it were, a participant
the source of these events and thereby enhances his interest in the published material. The Past Indefinite Tense is used in headings relating to past events, mainly in cases where the heading contains a time adverb, or if the reader knows that the event described happened at a certain point in the past: Husband Disappeared Two Years Ago, Why Rockefeller Couldn't Buy a Landslide Victory?, Wave of Peace Action Swept the Nation, etc.
The infinitive is widely used in headings to indicate the future tense: America To Resume Testing, Laundry Workers To Vote on New Contract, World Unions To Fight Monopoly, etc.
140. An important feature of English newspaper headlines is the prevalence of the elliptical form of the passive voice in them with the omission of the auxiliary verb to be to describe events both in the past and in the present tense: Paris Protest March Staged by Students, 8-Year-Old Boy Kidnapped in Miami , All Piers Paralysed on East Coast, etc.
141. The general features of the newspaper-information style, which have already been mentioned, are clearly manifested in newspaper headlines. Names and political terms, abbreviations and attributive groups, colloquial and slang elements, etc. are widely represented here.
142. As indicated in the previous chapter, the identification of the linguistic specificity of a particular type of speech or functional style is carried out within the framework of a special theory of translation in order to determine the impact of this specificity on the translation process, on the nature and methods of achieving equivalence in the translation of materials of this type. The degree of such impact depends not only on the lexical and grammatical features of the original, but also on their relationship with similar phenomena in the target language. The course and result of the translation process is largely determined by the common and distinctive linguistic features of similar types of materials in FL and TL. Therefore, the description of the characteristic features of materials of scientific-technical and newspaper-informational styles in modern English should be followed by the identification of the language specifics of Russian texts related to these functional styles.
143. Many of the general characteristics of the scientific and technical style, noted by us in English, are necessary 122
are also present in scientific and technical materials in Russian. This primarily refers to the information content of the text and the saturation of terms and their definitions associated with it, to the standard and consistent manner of presentation, its nominal character - the predominance of combinations, the core of which is a noun, especially various types of attributive groups, - the relatively wider use of abstract and general word-concepts, the prevalence of phraseological equivalents of an elephant and semi-terminological clichés, etc. And here the present tense will prevail in verbs, complex sentences will occur much more often than compound sentences, various means of logical connection, etc. will be widely used.
At the same time, a number of features of Russian materials of this type are associated with the specific structures of the Russian language and stand out due to the peculiar use of such structures, in comparison with other styles of Russian speech. First of all, let us point out the prevalence of nominative frame constructions with a word order uncharacteristic for other areas, in which a group of words explaining a participle or an adjective acts together with it as a prepositive definition: “particles released during nuclear decay”, “discovered during this experiment regularities”, “a body motionless relative to the earth”, “internal processes resistant to external influences”, etc.
144. Some structures regularly used in the scientific and technical style can be considered erroneous outside of it, violating the norms of literary speech. In other cases, we can only speak of a greater frequency of use of structures that are quite typical for any style. So, in the scientific and technical style of the Russian language, isolated (so-called “semi-predicative”) members of the sentence are widely used, especially participial and adverbial phrases such as: “property inherent in this element”, “stability of the entire system caused by the repulsion of like-charged particles” , “substituting this value into equation (7), one finds...”, “having obtained a formula corresponding to the experimental results for the radiation of a completely black body, Planck determined...”. Such isolated turns are quite common in other styles of the Russian language. But there the subject of a separate adverbial turnover must necessarily
wives match the subject of the sentence. You can say: “Looking out the window, I thought about the upcoming conversation,” but you can’t say: “Looking out the window, the thought of the upcoming conversation came to my mind,” because I was looking out the window and not a thought. The use of such non-grammatical phrases in "ordinary" speech testifies to the speaker's ignorance of the rules of the Russian language (cf. A.P. Chekhov's humorous phrase: "As I was approaching the station, my hat fell off"). However, in scientific and technical materials, adverbial phrases of this kind are encountered quite often and cannot be considered as a violation of the norm: “In addition, general theorems allow us to study certain practically important aspects of this phenomenon without studying the phenomenon as a whole”, “The results of the experiment can be explained without making use of the above assumptions.
145. Unacceptable outside the scientific and technical style are also many phrases of a semi-terminological nature. So, in Russian, the verb “time” has, generally speaking, only the temporary meaning “attribute to some date”, but in scientific and technical materials this verb can also be used to designate a place, space: “In this area, dolomite outcrops are dated to the bank of the river." Usually the word "migration" refers only to the movement of living things, but geologists talk about "migration of hydrocarbons" and so on. Compare also such combinations that contradict popular use, such as “ringing an electric circuit”, “in a tropical or arctic version”, etc. To the layman, the statement that "in a p-type material the current is carried by the holes" or "that the holes in zone 1 are heavier than the holes in zone 2" appears to be undeniably meaningless.
146. Sometimes the structures common in the scientific and technical style are not considered outside of it as a violation of the language norm, but are perceived as stylistically unsuccessful, burdening the narrative. This includes, for example, chains of several nouns in the genitive case, which in scientific and technical texts are very long: “the task of determining the change in the direction of movement of particles”, “to understand the principle of the device and the operation of the crank mechanism of an internal combustion engine”.
147. As in English, scientific and technical style
in Russian is characterized not so much by some linguistic features that are absent in other styles, but by a relatively greater frequency of using the same language means. So, short adjectives are found in various styles of the Russian language, but much more often they are noted in scientific and technical materials, denoting both temporary and permanent signs of objects:
This method is suitable only when the registered events are accompanied by light flashes.
The electric force acting on a particle is equal to its charge.
Thermal radiation is extremely uneconomical.
translation journalistic elliptical
Translation of vocabulary: terms, abbreviations, clichés
The influencing function of the journalistic style determines the expressiveness of this style. Expressiveness is manifested primarily in the evaluation of events and phenomena. Evaluation is expressed by the use of adjectives, nouns, adverbs with the meaning of a positive or negative assessment of the type: wonderful, interesting, important, sufficient, grandiose, unprecedented, grandiose, etc. Evaluation is also expressed by the use of high book vocabulary: daring, Fatherland, Fatherland, mission, inspiration, aspirations, feat of arms, etc. On the other hand, the assessment is expressed by colloquial and even colloquial vocabulary, for example: hype, frenzied, renegades, etc.
A sharp, well-aimed, figurative assessment is expressed with the help of metaphors, personifications, for example: the news is in a hurry, spring has raged, slander and hypocrisy go side by side.
Evaluation can be expressed not only by lexical means. It can also be word-building means, for example, superlative suffixes of adjectives, evaluation suffixes of nouns: the highest, the most interesting, the most important, grouping, hazing, assault.
Often the assessment is already expressed in the headings, so the requirements for expressiveness and catchiness are imposed on the title of the articles.
Expressiveness is thus expressed by a variety of linguistic means, including the structure of the sentence.
The informativeness of the journalistic style is achieved:
a) documentary and factual manner of presentation through the use of special terms, special vocabulary, professional words; b) the generalization of the presentation, its analyticity; c) “neutrality” of presentation, which is facilitated by non-expressive vocabulary; complex syntactic constructions are used, especially with a subordinating connection.
A characteristic feature of the journalistic style is the presence of special newspaper standards, a special newspaper phraseology, newspaper clichés arise, for example: make a huge contribution, work with a twinkle, hold sacred, increase martial traditions, universal values, etc.
The journalistic style uses linguistic means of different styles, however, the main style features of the journalistic style stand out very clearly, and the journalistic style is a special phenomenon, combining such features as expressiveness and standard, informativeness and popularization.
In addition to the features characteristic of the language of each genre of media texts and distinguishing, for example, the text of an analytical article from the text of a political commentary or sports news, it is possible to outline a range of features inherent in the language of the media as a whole. Since these features largely determine the specifics of translation in the field of mass communication, the translator must have an idea about them even before he starts the actual translation.
One of the important features of media texts of almost all genres is the combination of message and impact elements in them. Although the main function of mass communication is considered to be the transfer of information, this transfer is quite rarely completely neutral, i.e. absolutely free from elements of impact on the audience. In most cases, the transmission of information is accompanied by a direct or veiled expression of evaluation, language means and speech techniques that encourage the audience to a certain reaction to the information being transmitted, means of drawing attention to information or to the point of view expressed in the message.
Different genres of media texts are characterized by a different ratio and embodiment of the elements of communication and impact, different proportions of the actual information and expressive means. A truly professional translator must not only be aware of this correlation in every text he translates, but also be able to adequately convey it in translation.
Among the actual linguistic and stylistic features of the media language, the totality of which distinguishes it from the language of other functional styles, we can name:
A high degree of standardization of the means used: a large percentage of stable and cliched expressions, various journalistic clichés, lexicalized metaphors, standard terms and names, etc. (this feature is primarily characteristic of news materials and reflects the desire of their authors to create an impression of absolute objectivity and impartiality).
Significant event; as follows from competent sources: practice shows that; undesirable consequences; the working visit started/ended; during a working visit; summing up the results of the working visit; mutually beneficial cooperation; bilateral agreement; state armament program; Committee for Migration Affairs; significant date etc.
Tangible results; an invitation to visit Moscow I London I etc.; nuclear tension; UN Security Council; restricted information; a statement issued by; talks are underway between; the discussions are still in their early stages; some observers say I according to some observers; backbench pressure; negotiations are expected to begin... etc.
The expressiveness of the language as a way of attracting the reader's attention, expressing the attitude to the transmitted information, placing evaluative accents, etc. (among expressive, i.e., expressions with special connotations, one can also find speech clichés and clichés); the presence of evaluative epithets; direct appeals to the reader (these features most often characterize copyright, subscription materials).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
Sparkling response; fortunately/unfortunately; peacock narcissism; cloudless future; airport "Sheremetyevo", hated by foreigners; bombshell effect; how much time has passed since then!; with bitterness I note that; with the blessing of the Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Air Force; Russian journalism is dead; you probably already know what we're talking about etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
A rather pretentious restaurant devoted to the consumption of caviar; his initial reserve began to disappear; his politeness was extraordinary; keeping marauding publishers at bay; he was hilarious as the title character in...; a speech of valiant lucidity; the Government has decided to weather the storm of business opposition; the volume of complaints is enormous; the business sector will have to swallow the pill of...; So don't be surprised to hear... etc.
Saturation with a wide variety of realities (social, political and cultural life), allusions (to literature, history, cinema, etc.) and quotations (realities are typical for both "anonymous", including news materials, and for copyright, allusions and especially quotes - primarily for copyright journalism).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
All-Russian population census; residents of Zamoskvorechye; panel houses; "Khrushchev's five-story buildings"; Union of Writers; fixed-route taxi; "dormitory area"; Communal apartment; "samizdat"; "revision tales"; "male souls"; land chiefs; "godless five-year plan"; Berne Convention; Lev Tolstoy-a genius, a classic, and something else a mirror; Annushka from a communal apartment who spilled oil...; these are not Manilov projects; "The connection of times was interrupted..."; mission Impossible; Looks like Uncle "Oscar"-yet "the most honest rules" etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
"new universities"; "redbrick universities"; the Ivy League; the Oxbridge colleges; independent I public schools; the Shadow Education Secretary; across-the-board increase; discount outlet; the Grape State[“Grape State” is about California]; the Cuban missile crisis; graduate recruiters; the Premiership; TV showdown/face-to-face; the hunting Bill; the Upper House; Knightsbridge and Mohammed Al Fayed's Harrods; a bright yellow carrier bag (in context: a Selfridges carrier bag); Cromwellian ruthlessness; the Suffragette movement; in the event of war with the Soviet Bloc during early Cold War tensions; Dr Doolittie's Pushme-Pullyu; a new Hadrian's Wall has been erected; the "divide-and-rule" policy; "Business of America is business"; "What's in a name" etc.
The use of colloquial, reduced, slang and profanity (the latter is more typical for the written texts of the Russian media and is used to express a certain attitude, for example, ironic, the author of the material, to create a certain image and stylistic (for example, humorous) effect, and in the so-called "tabloid" press" - also to shock the audience and / or attract a certain category of readers).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
It smelled of a sensational defeat of the favorite; you can, of course, snort at the blunders that are in Onegin (about the film); with books now, thank God, there are no problems; if you run your eyes over the shelves, your eyes will ache from the covers of cheerful colors; ... a generation that was brought up for one life, but was thrown into a completely different one; “It’s easy to reproach me: well, you messed around with your favorite journalism, played with words and what happened?”; “Since I sincerely don’t give a damn about politicians, I’ll talk about society”; “Well, what are you, a fucking writer? Did you do something? etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
was jetting off on a holiday and wanted an agreement before he hit the beach; Murdoch's group must juggle these factors while ensuring it does not take its eyes off the main prize; Tony Blair was accused of running scared last night...; Tony Blair has again given us all the slip; for all the media hoo- ha about hunting; he trotted fluffily into the Chamber for Questions yesterday, cocky as you please; Hands up anyone who has ever put the decimal point in the wrong place; Rubbish? Oh, really?; he was something of a heart-throb in the days of silent movies; he was quickly spotted by the passers-by, all of whom gave him the thumbs-up, etc.
Wide use of figurative phraseology and idiomatic vocabulary (both literary and colloquial and colloquial), including "deformed" idioms, wordplay, puns, proverbs and sayings (often also in a "deformed" form) (characterizes both signed and "anonymous" journalism).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
You cannot hide such an awl from the ubiquitous paparazzi; serial directors found untrodden detective trails behind the scenes of the theatre; her new film was pulverized; spice girls(about the Spice Girls group) in full financial order; tulips "new Dutch" were useless; then all three move to the sidelines of the historical process; to “eat” his many fears, Hitchcock needed sweet pills in the form of awards and bonuses; our motto-to every healthy spirit-healthy body" etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
Daniel Bouton is licking his wounds; the human face of globalisation; the minister is barking up the wrong tree; Bush finally gets to follow in his father's footsteps; ENIC(name of company) has fingers in many pies; his son Charles, who cut his teeth opening franchises...; English Heritage took the plunge and bought the lease; not only they were powerful managers, but they played their cards close to their chests; this is one scenario where history is unlikely to repeat itself; the traditional summerhouse is dead, long live the twenty-first century summer-house! etc.
Widespread use of other stylistic means, techniques and figures of speech - such as hyperbole, litotes, figurative comparisons, metaphors (including expanded and "frozen", lexicalized), metonymy, paronymic attraction (especially in advertising texts), allegories, euphemisms, etc. (more often characterizes author's materials, comments, articles and notes on various topics, etc.).
Examples from the Russian-language press:
Bet on fresh faces; this super popular actor is also stunningly handsome; extensive estates went under the hammer; a piece of New York that came to us for next to nothing; a conscientious reader who does not want to break into someone else's life; "documentary" man of his era; hard weaving of music into the fabric of the film; who still opens this window to Europe?(about "Radio Monte Carlo"), the troubled economy of the early nineties; The White House issued a statement; The Kremlin's reaction was not long in coming etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
She is a typical field commander(about a Head Gardener) in this new land army; increasingly porous frontiers; Teflon taoiseach(Irish Prime Minister); out of the shadows; snail-paced consolidation; cabinet reshuffle; golden opportunity; fuelling Russia's economy; the masks will eventually slip; Downing Street insisted that...; Number Ten has not interfered...; now they(the gardeners) are attacking perennials, advancing shoulder to shoulder like police finger-searching the scenes of crime; Frankfurt pushed up too high...while Amsterdam edged forward(on banking policies); Kevin's heaven; crisp and crunchy crackers, etc.
A special feature of written media texts (and a special translation problem) are newspaper and magazine headlines, built on puns, puns, quotes, allusions and deformed idioms.
Examples from the Russian-language press:
The Russians sweetened the pill; Who lives on Rublyovka?; Don't tax me unnecessarily(article about taxes); "Oscar" of bad luck; What a wok(a note about the Chinese wok pan); Creation of sushi(material about Japanese cuisine); Whether in the garden in the garden; Deja vu; Roadside Picnic; Measure for measure; American in Paris; Under King Peas; lion hearts; Who is to blame and what to do? etc.
Examples from the English-language press:
Blinking Sphinx; Green Fingers; Lofty Ambition; Stone Alone; A Knight to Remember; Sitting Pretty; Where the Grass Is Greener; Palace Goes Pop for the Jubilee; 1066 and All That Ignorance of History; Face Values; Lock, Stock and Barrow, Much Ado About Nothing, etc.
It is obvious that such headings, like many other expressive elements presented here, cannot be translated literally. As a translation "response" to a pun in the source text, one would ideally like to see a meaningful pun in the translation text. Sometimes this can be achieved. An example of this kind is the translation into English of a note about contemporary collectors of silent film posters. The title of the original Russian text was: “Cadres decide everything,” a play on both the infamous Stalinist slogan of the 1930s and the two meanings of the word “cadres” (“skilled workers” and “cinema/photo frames”). Although there is a little-used word "cadres" (staff, workers) in English, it does not have a parallel meaning associated with cinema. Therefore, a literal translation of this title would not have any connection with the cinema for the English-speaking reader, nor any meaning at all. In this case, it turned out to be possible to put an English-language pun in the headline, based on a play on completely different words, but having a direct bearing on the subject of the note: “Posters for posterity” (literally “Posters / posters for posterity”).
If such a solution to the problem cannot be found (which happens quite often), it is better to change the title completely, making it neutral, but clear in meaning and related to the topic of the text.
The list of such examples could be continued indefinitely, but the illustrations given are quite enough to understand: from the point of view of a translator, all these features of media texts are problems that require professional solutions. In most such cases, a literal, literal translation is not possible, and in addition to the usual professional qualities, an excellent sense of language, ingenuity and resourcefulness are required to select the best equivalent for the translator.
If clichéd combinations of a neutral nature prevail in the translated text, then similar linguistic means should be used in translation. Moreover, for many journalistic clichés used, for example, in the English-language press (and, possibly, in the press in other European languages), it is not difficult to find semantic and stylistic correspondences among the same kind of expressions in the Russian language, which are just as characteristic of media texts. . For example: a significant event -significant event; as follows from reliable sources -as follows from competent sources; restricted information -information for official use / classified information etc. Where there are no “ready-made” correspondences at the linguistic level, the meaning must be conveyed by other means, without violating the genre, stylistic and communicative nature of the text.
The same principle, if possible, should be applied when translating figurative, idiomatic expressions and other expressive elements of the text. Thus, if it is possible to adequately convey an idiom in the source text using an idiom in the target language (similar in structure / lexical composition or in the communicative function that it performs), there is no reason not to do this - but only if the idioms correspond to each other not only in meaning, but also in stylistic and other parameters. For example: to follow in somebody "s footsteps -follow in someone's footsteps to put the cart before the horse -put the cart before the horse; to burn one's boats/bridges -burn (your) ships / (behind) bridges; shadow cabinet -shadow cabinet; to pull the strings -to use/use connections; to give publicity/to make public to publicize etc. Again, in the absence of close matches at the phraseological level, the translation should be carried out by other means - in compliance with all equivalence parameters.
As for the realities, the names of organizations, positions, etc., here the translator has no or very little room for creativity. The names of international organizations, accepted designations of important historical and political events, geographical names and a number of other realities - that any translator working in the field of mass communication simply must know. Therefore, in most such cases, he either does not have a choice of equivalents at all, or he is limited to two or three alternative options. Thus, the only possible equivalent for UN security Council- This United Nations Security Council; for the Cuban missile crisis -Caribbean crisis(less often Cuban Crisis) for the house of Commons -House of Commons. It is precisely because many young translators lack the necessary knowledge, not to mention general erudition and outlook, that designations that do not correspond to traditional Russian-language names penetrate into the Russian language. Thus, translators of older generations who worked with English have always known that what we call “Central Asia” is called “Central Asia” in English, the Russian name “Middle East” corresponds to the name “Middle East”, and the city, known to all of us as "Beijing", in the English-speaking tradition it is often called "Beijing". This knowledge did not prevent them from conveying realities in translation exactly as they are designated in Russian. How, besides negligence (at best) or illiteracy of some of the translators who came to replace them, can one explain the replacement of traditional Russian designations with obvious tracing papers from English - “Central Asia”, “Middle East” and, quite anecdotally, “Bejing” ?
For the correct transmission of allusions and quotations in translation, background knowledge and at least minimal erudition are also needed. To find the correct equivalent for the title of an article "Much Ado About Nothing" or for a phrase from a magazine note: "What"s in a name, you might ask?", you need to at least recognize them as quotations and refer to the classic translations of the primary sources. And then the equivalents will appear "by themselves". Of course, there are cases much more complicated than the Shakespearean phrases given here, and not always even the most experienced translator can recognize a veiled ("unquoted") quotation in the source text. Where intuition or context suggests that a quote is hidden in the text, English-language quotation dictionaries (for example, the famous Oxford Dictionary of Quotations and Penguin Dictionary of Modern Quotations) can help an English translator. all texts all world literature, titles all films, etc., but the translator must compensate for the lack of such knowledge with intuition, linguistic instinct and constant reference to dictionaries and other reference books (and, of course, by expanding his erudition).
Of course, there are no ready-made recipes and universal techniques suitable for any situation. But if the translator is prepared in advance for such problems, if he is aware of the essence, content, communicative function and stylistic effect of these and other features of the translated text, if he is able to recognize metaphors and allusions, irony and puns, etc., if he has the necessary background knowledge and understanding of the reality to which the text is devoted, there is a hope that its translation will be adequate enough. Of course, provided that the translator has the necessary professional skills and the relevant working languages.
Although the foregoing can be attributed to one degree or another to the translation of other types of texts, nevertheless, outside the sphere of fiction, there is probably nowhere such a variety and richness of expressive means as texts from the sphere of mass communication possess.
Translation newspaper-informational materials
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Peculiarities translation economic texts
Abstract >> Foreign language... writing translators joined the interpreters written, who translated various texts ... , newspaper information... materials – texts informational character - ... features scientific and technical style... period learning appropriate...
Translation transformations in written translation from English into Russian
Abstract >> Foreign languageWill achieve practical informational equivalence translation the original... features compared languages and cultures, the era of creation of the original and translation, way translation, the nature of the translated texts... lessons on learning written translation into Russian...
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Dissertation >> Foreign language... written basis translation ... informational society [ Text] : diss. … cand. philosophy Sciences / E. N. Molchanova. - Stavropol, 2005. - 149 p. Molchanova, N. A. Peculiarities ... learning language of verbal art) [ Text] / V. B. Sosnovskaya // Functional peculiarities ...
As a result of changes in the scientific paradigm that began in the 70s. and expressed in the fact that the language is conceived not as an immanent system, but as a system constituting a constitutive property of a person, the attention of linguists focused on the cognitive aspects of the language, indicated by W. Humboldt, who believed that "to explore the functioning of the language in its widest scope" - it is to investigate it "in relation to the activity of thought and sense perception." This vision of language puts a lot of emphasis on the notion of language communication, of which scientific translation is a part.
There are many definitions of the concept of scientific and technical translation, translation of a scientific and technical text.
So, for example, Z.N. Volkova believes that the main issue of the theory of translation is the problem of translatability. By "translatability" this author understands the possibility of accurately conveying the original author's thoughts with all their shades, emerging associations and preserving the author's style by means of the target language. Many prominent linguists abroad have questioned and still question this possibility.
Indeed, the thesis of untranslatability cannot be completely denied, since in any language there are always such linguistic categories for which there are no correspondences in another language, and this, to one degree or another, is reflected in the invariance of meaning during translation. However, the lack of correspondence is a relatively rare occurrence.
A.V. holds a similar position. Fedorov, who points out that only those individual elements of the original language are untranslatable, which seem to be deviations from the general norm of the language, tangible in relation to this particular language, i.e. mainly dialectisms and those words of social jargons that have a pronounced local coloring. Their function, as local words, disappears in translation. The invariance of meaning can also suffer when translating individual elements of phraseology. But in general, the whole practice of translation speaks in favor of the principle of translatability, and this is especially true in relation to scientific and technical literature.
Any scientific and technical text, regardless of its content and nature, can be accurately translated from one language to another, even if the original interprets such a branch of knowledge for which there is no corresponding terminology in the target language. In such cases, the translator most often resorts to interpretation, and the formation of the necessary terminology is carried out in the field of production or those scientific circles that deal with these issues. The appearance of new terms does not introduce dissonance into the general structure of the language; new terms are quickly assimilated, because terminology by its very nature is the most mobile and changeable sub-language of any language.
In this work, we will adhere to the position of L.M. Alekseeva and E.A. Kharitonova, who believe that the translation of a scientific text is a special type of communication, and the model of the translator's speech activity is one of the components of cognitive activity. It should be noted that despite the development of a general methodology for translation, the features and difficulties of translating the terms of a scientific text have been little studied, while they play a fundamental role in conceptualization.
Most clearly, the features of the scientific and technical text were singled out by V.N. Komissarov. He points out that the language of scientific and technical literature is characterized by the following features:
Lack of emotional coloring. This feature basically determines the absolute translatability of scientific and technical texts, since the reader should not have any extraneous associations, he should not read between the lines, admire the play on words and Puns, take the side of one hero and blaze with anger towards another. The goal of the author of a scientific and technical text is to accurately describe this or that phenomenon or action, this or that object or process; he must convince the reader of the correctness of his views and conclusions, appealing not to feelings, but to reason. True, when translating polemical speeches, one can encounter some emotional saturation of the text, however, in this case, the style of the original must be conveyed with caution, taking into account the norms of the Russian scientific and technical language.
Striving for clarity, clarity and brevity. The desire for clarity finds expression in the use of clear grammatical structures and lexical units, as well as in the wide use of terminology. As a rule, generally accepted, established terms are used, although there are also so-called terminoids (terms that are in circulation in a narrow sphere, such as local and company names, etc.), which greatly complicate translation, because are often missing even in industry dictionaries. The desire for brevity is expressed, in particular, in the wide use of infinitive, gerundial and participial constructions, abbreviations and symbols.
The special semantic load of some words of ordinary colloquial speech. Rethinking the words of everyday speech is one of the productive methods for constructing new terms. Therefore, there are many words that belong to the vocabulary of everyday speech and have the nominative function of the term. For example: put out - in everyday speech - "put out the fire", and for sailors - "go to sea", stroke - in everyday speech - "blow", and for mechanics - "piston stroke", hoe - generally "hoe", and for the builder - "backhoe", etc. This property of words is a particularly dangerous source of difficulties and errors for a novice translator.
The frequency of the use of words of the main vocabulary fund is different from the general literary language. The vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is much poorer than the vocabulary of works of art. Therefore, the frequency of individual elements of the general vocabulary of scientific and technical literature is higher than the frequency of individual elements of the vocabulary of works of art, while the characteristic features of the scientific and technical style include literary and bookish words and expressions, foreign borrowings, the predominance of subject-logical meanings and the rarity of figurative and contextual meanings.
The frequency of use and the relative importance of certain grammatical forms and constructions differ from the general literary language. In accordance with the statistical data of Kaufman S.I. the frequency of the use of active and passive structures in fiction is 98% and 2%, respectively, while for technical literature the ratio of the use of these structures is 67% and 33%. Therefore, Passive Voice is used 15 times more often in technical literature than in fiction. The definition in technical literature is used 3 times more often than in fiction. The prepositional position of a noun as a definition in fiction accounts for 37%, and for other cases - 63%. In the technical literature, the opposite picture is observed, namely, 62% and 38%, respectively.
According to the research of Nosenko I.A. and samples of 100,000 word usages, impersonal forms are used more often in technical literature than in fiction (-4800 = 260 and -3850=210, respectively, without taking into account combinations of the infinitive with modal verbs). A particularly significant discrepancy is observed for the definition of 2300 for technical texts and ~1090 for fiction. However, the frequency of impersonal verb forms combined with transitive verbs is higher for fiction (~700) than for technical literature (~160).
Rare use of idioms. Idiomatic phrases are peculiar indecomposable expressions that have a certain meaning, often independent of their constituent elements. Idioms almost always have some emotional coloring and therefore do not fit into scientific and technical texts. Quite often, idioms also have a not entirely clear meaning, which fundamentally contradicts the spirit of the scientific and technical language.
The use of abbreviations and symbols. This and the following characteristic is a consequence of the desire for brevity and clarity.
Application of special expressions and lexicographic constructions (such as: centers, and/or, on/off, etc.).
Based on the foregoing, we can conclude that the listed characteristics of the scientific and technical language should serve as a kind of program for improving his qualifications for a novice translator, because they indicate those moments that require, in comparison with others, a more thorough assimilation.
As already mentioned, in cases of difficulties in translating a scientific text, the translator must resort to interpretation, and this is possible only if he is familiar with the subject of the text. Therefore, not only knowledge of the peculiarities of the language of the translated text helps in translation, it is also necessary to be a specialist in this field.
According to A.V. Fedorov, a necessary condition for achieving the accuracy of a translation is a good acquaintance with the subject treated in the original. The translator must know the subject so completely that, in any form of presentation in the original, he must be able to correctly convey the content of the presentation without loss of information. This is not always easy. For example, in the sentence - "High strength to size and cost are basic factors in the evaluation of materials."
it is necessary to reveal the meaning of the combination of the words "High strength to size", which is possible only with an understanding of the essence of the matter:
"High strength-to-dimension ratio and cost are the main criteria when evaluating materials."
The highlighted words compensate for the loss of information contained in the original, which would occur in a literal translation.
Only ignorance of the subject can push the translator to preserve the word order of the original when translating the following sentence:
"In this case one curve passes through each point of the plane."
"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."
It turns out that one curve covers the entire plane, since it passes through all its points. In fact, the original refers to a family of curves" only rearranging the word order gives the correct translation:
"In this case, one curve passes through each point of the plane."
If some of the author's thoughts are not clearly stated, the translator is obliged to state these passages in a clear literary language. However, in no case should one embark on the path of interpretation or development of the author's thoughts. This may lead the translator along a line that does not correspond to the author's intention.
It is also impossible to rely only on the theory and practice that are well known to the translator: the original author can talk about something completely new, often contradicting existing views. In other words, the translator must be able to independently reason on this subject, correctly understand even the vaguely expressed thoughts of the original author, express these thoughts in good Russian, without distorting the author’s thoughts one iota and without going over to interpretation. When faced with difficulties, the translator should never allow himself to make a "more or less correct" translation. He must either overcome difficulties or have the courage to admit his inability to translate a given word, expression or even sentence and leave it untranslated.
In this paragraph, the problem of acquaintance with the subject of the translated text was considered. In the course of the presentation, we came to the conclusion that familiarity with the subject is so important that it should be placed before a point that requires a good knowledge of the language of the source being translated and, if you have to make a choice between two possible translators, one of whom is perfectly familiar with the subject, but knows less language, and the other knows the subject less well, but is fluent in the original language, then the choice usually falls on the first candidate: dictionaries do not replace a good knowledge of the subject.
However, even despite the knowledge of the subject of the text being translated, in order to translate a scientific and technical text, it is necessary to understand that the basis of any scientific text is terminology. Therefore, in the next paragraph, we will consider the general concept of a term in translation theory.
Thus, revealing the specifics of a particular subspecies of translation, the special theory of translation studies three series of factors that should be taken into account when describing translations of this type. First, the mere fact that the original belongs to a particular functional style can influence the nature of the translation process and require the translator to use special methods and techniques. Secondly, the focus on a similar original can predetermine the stylistic characteristics of the translation text, and, consequently, the need to choose such language means that characterize a similar functional style already in the TL. And, finally, as a result of the interaction of these two factors, translation features proper can be found, associated both with common features and differences between the linguistic features of similar functional styles in FL and TL, and with the special conditions and tasks of this type of translation process. In other words, the special theory of translation studies the impact on the process of translation of the linguistic features of a certain functional style in the FL, the functional style similar to it in the TL, and the interaction of these two series of linguistic phenomena.
Within each functional style, some linguistic features can be distinguished, the influence of which on the course and result of the translation process is very significant. For example, in the scientific and technical style, these are the lexical and grammatical features of scientific and technical materials and, first of all, the leading role of terminology and special vocabulary. In the newspaper-information style, along with the important role of political terms, names and titles, this is the special nature of the headlines, the widespread use of newspaper clichés, the presence of elements of colloquial style and jargon, etc. In addition to these common features, in each language a similar functional style has specific linguistic features.