A sample of the analysis of a synonymic series and methodological recommendations for it. The use of synonyms in the science fiction novel by A.Yu. Pekhov "Chronicles of Siala"

27.09.2019

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ESSAY

on the topic "Synonyms and synonymic series"

Introduction

1. What are synonyms and their meaning

2. Ranks of synonyms

3. Synonymous rows

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Studying the phenomenon of synonymy in terminology as a special case of semantic changes, many linguists in recent times began to see in it the key to understanding the foundations of thinking and the processes of cognition. Interest in synonymy is explained by the fact that this phenomenon most clearly and comprehensively reflects the conceptual model of the world in language and culture. The word refers to human experience, which forms the basis of knowledge.

Synonyms carry information that complements a person's ideas about various characteristics objects, phenomena of reality. Synonymy is one of the ways of conceptualizing the world by a person, with the help of which he perceives and understands one type of objects in its versatility. The most obvious basis for synonymy is similarity. But on the other hand, synonymy also implies some difference between the properties of referents, because it is designed to create some new meaning. The use of two or more synonyms sometimes, even in the same sentence, is stylistic device disclosure of the expressed concept. A synonym, as a rule, does not repeat the same thought, but clarifies some feature of the concept being expressed.

The essence of synonymy, synonymous relations between words has long attracted and attracts the attention of linguists who develop the problems of semasiology, since the solution of the problems of synonymy is closely related to antonymy and polysemy, and its study is important not only for semasiology, but also for lexicography, literary criticism, language teaching methods. word synonym semantic category

Despite the existence of a relatively large number of studies devoted to the disclosure of various aspects of synonymy, there is still no unity of views regarding the definition of synonyms, methods for studying them, the principles for identifying and classifying synonyms, and the boundaries of the synonymic series.

Most scholars agree that synonymy is a frequent microchip of a language, which is characterized by its own relationships and what is included as an integral part in the lexical system of the language as a whole.

As for the definition of synonymy, there is no unanimity of opinion: some researchers proceed from the commonality of the meaning of the word, others - from the correlation of the semantic and subject-logical beginning in the word, others - from the commonality structural model usage and matching of words.

Synonymy is always a deeply national phenomenon, it is created in different languages in various ways. Synonyms appeared in Russian literary language or as a result of the formation of new words on the basis of an existing building material, or as a result of replenishing the dictionary of the Russian literary language due to the vocabulary of territorial and professional dialects, and partly jargons, or as a result of mastering foreign words from the vocabulary of other languages.

studying foreign languages, and linking your later life and future profession with them, it is very important to learn how to speak competently and stylistically accurately.

The relevance of the chosen topic is the need further development one of critical aspects translation theory - problems of translatability. This study lies in the fact that the translator is faced with the problem of synonymy in the translation of foreign and native languages.

Translation studies as a science, as it develops, covers all large quantity problems and disputes. Trying to answer the question "How to translate?", researchers focus on various objects translation, which are often sources of conflicting opinions.

1 . What are synonyms and their meanings

Synonymy (from the Greek "with, together" and "name, designation"), identity or proximity of meaning (primarily words, as well as morphemes, syntactic constructions, phrases, sentences, etc.). Synonyms are called words (more precisely, words considered in certain value), usually belonging to the same part of speech, with the same or similar meaning. For example, synonyms are the words bold and brave, sadness and sadness, extinguish and extinguish. AT different meanings the word can have different synonyms: heavy - weighty (suitcase) or heavy - difficult (problem). At the same time, although the concept of synonymy is well known, the exact criteria for synonymy are still the subject of controversy.

So, interchangeability is usually considered as a criterion: if two words can be replaced with each other, then they are synonyms. However, on the one hand, interchange is often possible in cases where there is nothing in common between words. Let's say the same person can be described as a blond, a driver or a friend's husband. This does not mean that these expressions are synonymous. One and the same event can be described in a variety of ways: The boy received a deuce; The boy failed the class; The boy disappointed his parents. It has nothing to do with synonymy. On the other hand, words that are naturally considered synonyms are not always interchangeable. As G.O. Vinokur, “in the context of live speech, one cannot find a single situation in which it would be all the same how to say: a horse or a horse, a child or a child, a road or a path, etc.”

Synonymy is not only a relationship between words, it permeates the entire language. For example, the suffixes -tel and -shchik (driver, welder) are synonymous. They have the same meaning "one who is professionally engaged in something." Units can be synonymous different levels language, for example, the word too and the prefix over- (oversalt, overdo it). However, most often, speaking of synonymy, they mean a series of synonymous words.

Synonyms in linguistics are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, but having the same or very close lexical meaning.

The role of synonyms in speech is exceptionally great: they help to avoid unnecessary repetitions of the same word, more precisely, convey thoughts more clearly, allow expressing the variety of shades of a particular phenomenon, quality, etc.

The so-called full or exact synonyms are rare in the language, mainly among the terms (spelling - spelling). Most often, if you look closely at expressions that at first glance seem to be absolutely equivalent, you can see that they are not quite identical. This even applies to the expression "What's on the forehead, what's on the forehead", which is intended to express the very idea different ways designations for the same. Indeed, on the forehead and on the forehead - this is not quite the same thing. For example, if a person was poked with a sharp stick, then we will say on the forehead, but not on the forehead, if he received a flat blow with the palm of his hand, then here we can say on the forehead, but not on the forehead. Usually, the language seeks to get rid of duplication by developing semantic components that oppose them in close words. For example, recently it was borrowed into Russian English word image. However, in Russian there is already a word with the same meaning - image. Therefore, it is not surprising that Russian word the image developed its own, special meaning - narrower than that of the English prototype.

In the text, synonyms perform two main functions. They allow you to avoid repetition, which is considered a stylistic flaw in the text. For example, if the author scientific article in the previous line he already used the word research, then in the next he can write study, and then analysis. But the main thing is that, since synonyms usually differ in meaning, the presence of synonymous rows allows each time to choose the word that most closely matches what the person wants to say. And playing on several synonyms is a powerful means of semantic nuance: “And then the cat jumped out to the ramp and suddenly barked at the whole theater human voice: - The session is over! Maestro! Cut the march!! The distraught conductor, not realizing what he was doing, waved his baton, and the orchestra did not play, and did not even burst out, and did not even suffice, namely, in the disgusting expression of the cat, he cut down some incredible, unlike anything according to your swagger, march ”(M. Bulgakov). Here, it is the enumeration of the entire series of synonyms that allows the author to focus on a certain semantic feature.

Some linguists use the concept of "contextual synonyms", i.e. words that are similar in a given text because they refer to the same subject. Examples are given of the type: “It was an August day, sultry, languidly boring” (A.P. Chekhov); “I also drank her scarf made of goat down, a gift, the old one, her own, not mine” (F.M. Dostoevsky). At the same time, it is argued that the words august, sultry, etc., donated, former, etc. are in some sense synonymous. However, the concept of "contextual synonyms" has a very distant relation to the generally accepted idea of synonymy.

Sometimes so-called euphemisms are considered as a kind of synonyms - words or expressions that are used instead of others if the latter are too rude or otherwise undesirable. Euphemisms, for example, are the word gratitude in the meaning of "bribe", representative in the meaning of "fat", etc. For example, the famous passage from dead souls» N.V. Gogol: “The ladies of the city of N. were distinguished, like many ladies in St. Petersburg, by unusual caution and decency in words and expressions. They never said: “I blew my nose”, “I sweated”, “I spat”, but they said: “I relieved my nose”, “I managed with a handkerchief”. In no case was it possible to say: "this glass or this plate stinks." And you couldn’t even say anything that would give a hint of this, but instead they said: “this glass is not behaving well” or something like that. However, as a euphemism, both a milder synonym and a word that has a very distant meaning can be used. So, if blowing your nose and lightening your nose can be considered synonymous expressions, then stink and behave badly - hardly.

2. Synonym ranks

Based on the differences in semantics and stylistic coloring, it seems legitimate to single out the three most common categories of synonyms:

1) Semantic synonyms are stylistically neutral words that differ from each other in shades of the main, common meaning for each of them. For example, the words "brave" and "brave" are united by a common meaning - "fearless", but "brave" - not only not knowing fear, but also resolute in overcoming obstacles. Examples: You use rather bold and fashionable clothing solutions. You are a brave warrior, you are not driven by fear.

The main purpose of semantic synonyms in the language is to serve as a means of accurate expression of thought in each particular case of speech use. For example, the words get bored and bored have a common meaning - to become unpleasant from frequent repetition, but the word bored has an additional connotation due to its etymological connection with the word boredom: to get bored, causing boredom. It is better to use the word bored with animate objects, and the word bored with inanimate ones. For example: smart and interesting person never gets bored and never gets used to it. No matter how much you look at the sea, you will never get tired of it.

2) Stylistic synonyms- these are words that are identical in meaning and different in stylistic coloring or having a different scope of use. For example: a piece (of a film), an excerpt, a fragment; cancel, abolish, annul.

In each pair of stylistic synonyms or in a row there will certainly be a word stylistically neutral.

Stylistic synonymy is widespread among words of all parts of speech, for example: wolf - biryuk, lips - mouth, forehead - forehead, rooster - cochet, crimson - crimson, naked - naked, love - amorous, real - real, sleep - rest, eat - to eat, cold - cold, this - this, than - rather than, how - exactly, so that - so that, etc.

Among the stylistic synonyms, there is a large number of nouns with a specific meaning, since the same specific subject in various eras in various places its distribution could receive various names.

Among the stylistic subgroups are distinguished:

a) by sphere of use (neutral, bookish, colloquial, colloquial);

b) according to the expressive - stylistic coloring, neutral, commonly used (poetic, vernacular, dialectivisms) are distinguished;

c) according to the activity of use (obsolete (archaisms), active, new).

3) Semantic-stylistic synonyms are words and their equivalents denoting the same phenomenon of objective reality and differing not only in stylistic coloring, but also in shades of common meaning for each of them. For example: “Their well-fed horses, shaking their short cut tails, showered them, splashed them with lumps of snow” (M. Sholokhov); “The horse, an old broken nag, covered in soap, stood as if rooted to the spot” (M. Gorky). The word nag means a skinny, sick horse”; as an emotionally colored word "nag" and stylistically opposed to the neutral word "horse".

Synonyms are the words go - trail. They denote the same action, only the word go is stylistically neutral, the word trail is colloquial and, in addition to general meaning, contains more additional shades: trailing is walking with difficulty, slowly, barely moving your legs.

To work and pore are synonyms, only the word pore, as colloquial, is opposed to the stylistically neutral word work, and differs from it in shades of meaning: pore is to work painstakingly and diligently, overcoming difficulties, mainly performing small, laborious work. For example: “But my father got busy, pored over, traveled around, wrote, and didn’t want to know anything” (Turgenev).

The general meaning of the words to be afraid, to be afraid is to experience a feeling of fear, fear. In the word coward, in addition to indicating a feeling of fear, timidity, there is also a shade of contempt for someone who experiences this feeling. To be afraid is a stylistically neutral word, to be afraid is colloquial. For example: "Don't you think that I'm afraid of you?"; “He didn't seem like himself. With his usual sharpness, he, of course, guessed that Pugachev was dissatisfied with him. He was a coward in front of him, and looked at me with distrust ”(A.S. Pushkin).

4) Contextual synonyms that are close in context. Example: rich, big inner world.

5) Absolute synonyms (doublets) - having no semantic and stylistic differences, but differing in combination. Synonyms are not the same in their sound, structure and origin. However, such synonyms can also be observed in the language system, which, in their meaning and relation to the context, do not currently differ completely. They are called absolute synonyms or lexical doublets. Their existence in a language is justified only by its development and is usually a temporary phenomenon. Most often, such synonyms exist either as parallel scientific terms.

For example, linguistic terms:

spelling -- spelling;

nominative - denominative;

fricative - slotted, etc.,

or as one-root formations with synonymous affixes:

slyness - slyness;

wretchedness - wretchedness;

guard - guard, etc.

Over time, absolute synonyms, if they do not disappear, differentiate, diverge either in semantics, or in stylistic qualities, or in use, turning either into synonyms in the full sense of the word (for example: head - head; believe - believe), or into words that are not in synonymous relations (for example: lover - lover - lover). It should be borne in mind that in a number of cases, very slight, subtle differences are observed in synonyms. Example: alphabet - primer; pier - harbor; airplane - airplane. Subsequently, such words may take on a different semantic or stylistic coloring, and pass into other groups of synonyms.

6) Single-root synonyms - having the same root, but acquiring different stylistic colors and combinations of synonyms. For example: battle - slaughter, old - old, fatherland - fatherland.

So, if we compare the synonyms labor - work, then the main difference between them will be in the semantic features of the words. The words labor and work will be synonymized only when they express the concepts of “occupation, labor” or “product of labor, product, product of something”. For example: The work of a janitor is a lot of work. He walked with difficulty moving his legs. The word work has the meaning "activity" (For example: work of the heart), or the meaning "service" (go to work; go to work), etc.

The difference between synonyms to sleep - to sleep - to rest is manifested in the emotionally expressive and stylistic coloring characteristic of each word: the verb "sleep" is an interstyle and neutral designation of the corresponding state, the verb "sleep" is colloquial and disapproving, the verb "rest" -- obsolete and ironic, etc.

In synonymic pairs airplane - plane, macintosh - raincoat, synonyms differ in their use: airplane and macintosh are obsolete words, airplane and raincoat are part of the current vocabulary of the modern Russian language. Synonyms sudden - sudden, brown - dark brown, smash - smash, etc. differ from each other in their ability to interlock with other words: the words “sudden, smash” are attached in their use to the words “death, nose” ( you can’t say “sudden arrival”, “bleed the enemy”, etc.), the word “brown” is used in contrast to the synonymous adjective “dark brown” only to indicate the color of the eyes and horses (in the latter case, as obsolete) (one cannot say "brown pencil", "brown coat", etc.).

3. Synonymous series

A group of words consisting of several synonyms is called a synonymic row (or nest). Synonymic rows can consist of both different-root and single-root synonyms: face - face, overtake - overtake; fisherman - fisherman, fisherman. The first place in the synonymic series is usually taken by the defining and stylistically neutral word - dominant (Latin dominans - dominant) (it is also called the core, main, supporting word). Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values. So, in the last example, the word brave is the dominant of the series, it most capaciously conveys the meaning that unites all synonyms - "fearless" and free from expressive and stylistic shades. The rest of the synonyms are distinguished in the semantic-stylistic sense and in the peculiarities of their use in speech.

For example, fearless is a book word, interpreted as "very brave"; daring - folk poetic, means "full of daring"; dashing - colloquial - "bold, risk-taking".

Synonyms "brave, courageous, fearless, fearless" differ not only in semantic nuances, but also in possibilities lexical compatibility(they are combined only with nouns that name people; you cannot say "brave project", "fearless decision", etc.).

Due to the ambiguity of many words in the Russian language, the same word can have several synonyms that will not be in synonymous relations with each other. For example, synonyms for the word "heavy" in different meanings will be the words difficult (heavy, hard work); gloomy, joyless (heavy, gloomy, joyless thoughts); severe (heavy, severe punishment); dangerous (severe, dangerous disease); incomprehensible (heavy, incomprehensible language); grumpy (heavy, grumpy character). These words are not synonymous with each other.

Members of the synonymic series can be not only individual words, but also stable phrases (phraseological units), as well as prepositional case forms: a lot - over the edge, without counting, chickens do not peck. All of them, as a rule, perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.

Like synonymous words, phraseological synonyms have different ability to combine with other words. So, for example, the phraseological unit “good obscenity” is combined with the words: yell, shout, and the phraseological unit “to the fullest” is combined with the words: yell, shout. roar, sing, croak, etc.; phraseologism "in all Ivanovo" is combined not only with the above words, but also with a number of other words, for example, snore. Phraseologisms differ from each other and the ability to word production; for example, the verb to bawl is formed from the phraseologism "to the fullest". Phraseologisms "in all Ivanovskaya" and "good obscenities" did not serve as the basis for the formation of words.

Conclusion

As you can see, synonyms, naming the same thing, always differ in something. However, these differences necessarily imply their nominative commonality, which determines the main property of synonyms - the possibility of replacing one word with another in certain contexts.

Synonyms are often defined as words with different sounds and similar meanings. Such a definition inaccurately characterizes the essence of synonyms as a phenomenon language system. One might think that among the synonyms there are only such words that necessarily differ from each other in additional shades in meaning, although in fact there are such synonyms, the difference between which lies only in expressive-stylistic coloring or usage, etc. One might also think that there are no synonyms that can replace each other (after all, the meanings of synonyms are only close, not identical), although in fact this is the most important, most characteristic property of synonyms, in contrast to relatively close in meaning, but still not synonymous words.

As already noted, synonyms among the words of significant parts of speech always act as lexical units denoting the same phenomenon of objective reality. This identical nominative function is the core due to which words in the lexical system of the language are combined into open synonymous rows.

The nature of synonyms is dual: on the one hand, these are words that mean the same thing, and on the other hand, these are words that differ in some way.

This dual nature of synonyms underlies their use in speech. In some cases, first of all, their semantic identity (or very close similarity) is used, in others the main attention is paid to the difference. And, finally, in a number of cases, both sides are taken: both semantic closeness and difference.

The presence of synonyms in speech, the very existence of synonymic rows, makes it possible for the author to choose from several very close words in meaning the most necessary, the only possible one for a given case.

Bibliography

1. L.S. Perchik, "Russian language and culture of speech", Chel. 2004.

2. A.M. Chepasova, "Phraseology of the Russian language", Chel. 1993.

3. Goltsova, Zhukov, Modern Russian Literary Language, Moscow 1982.

4. V.I. Kodukhov, "Stories about synonyms", Moscow 1984.

5. Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A., “Modern Russian language”, M.: Airis-Press, 2002.

6. Abramov N., "Dictionary of Russian synonyms and expressions similar in meaning", St. Petersburg, 1904, ed. 4, P., 1915.

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Synonymic series

Two or more synonyms, correlated with each other when denoting the same objects, signs, actions, etc., form a synonymous series (synonymous paradigm) in the language. For example: friendship, partnership, friendship (colloquial); decorate, clean, decorate, decorate, etc.

In the synonymic series, one can always single out any one word that is as capacious as possible in semantics, with rare exceptions, neutral in stylistic coloring (that is, without additional stylistic characteristics) and the most free in use. This basic, pivotal, supporting word is called a dominant (from Latin dominans dominant). In the above synonymous rows, the dominants are the words friendship and decorate, respectively.

According to the number of members, synonymous series are divided into binary and polynomial. The binary series (synonymous pair) includes only two members (for example: lexicographer - dictionary (colloquial), architect - architect (high), artilleryman - gunner (obsolete), etc.), in polynar - more than two members (for example: hero, strongman, hercules, athlete; argument, argument, motive, reason (colloquial), etc.). There are much fewer binary synonymic series in Russian than polynomial ones.

The synonymic series, in addition to individual words, may include phrases and phraseological units. For example: far, far away, far away, at a distance, at a respectful distance, at the end of the world, God knows where (colloquial), etc.

Characteristic synonymous rows in the Russian language - relative openness. They undergo changes and additions due to the development of the entire lexical system of the Russian language.

Synonym classifications

1. By structure:

a) heterogeneous;

b) single root

Different-root synonyms are synonyms that have different roots. For example: literal, literal, textual (book); loud, sonorous, deafening, booming, etc.

One-root (grammatical, lexico-grammatical) synonyms are synonyms that have one root. For example: paint, paint, tint; throw, throw, toss, etc.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is dominated by synonyms with different roots.

2. By value:

a) partial (approximate);

b) full (absolute)

Partial (approximate) synonyms are words that do not completely match in their meanings and usage.

Partial synonyms can be divided into the following subgroups:

1) semantic (conceptual, ideographic) synonyms - synonyms that differ in shades of meaning. For example: speak, express, explain, explain; company, society, team, etc.;

2) stylistic synonyms - synonyms that differ in the scope of use and stylistic coloring. For example: repeat, repeat, babble, go on; bring, drag, drag, etc.

Stylistic synonyms differ in the following features:

a) by area of use (neutral - bookish - colloquial and vernacular; commonly used - dialect, professional, jargon);

b) by expressive-stylistic coloring (neutral, commonly used - poetic, folk poetic, vernacular);

c) according to the degree of activity of use (active - obsolete, new);

3) semantic-stylistic synonyms - synonyms that differ lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: find, search, dig up (colloquial), acquire (bookish); catch, catch (colloquial), lasso (simple), etc.

4) a special group includes the so-called contextual (contextual-author's, situational) synonyms - words that become synonyms only in a certain context. Contextual synonyms, as a rule, are expressively colored, since their task is to characterize a phenomenon, and not to name it. For example: And in everything ... there was some kind of sweet and bitter sadness (I. Bunin).

Full (absolute) synonyms are words that do not differ either semantically or stylistically. For example: ending, inflection; linguistics, linguistics, linguistics, etc. This group in the Russian language is not numerous, and, as a rule, in the process of language development, such synonyms pass into the group of ideographic synonyms.

Partial synonyms predominate in Russian.

Quasi-synonyms (imaginary synonyms) should be distinguished from synonyms - words that have a common component of meaning (the seme), but are not interchangeable in contexts (unlike synonyms).

There are the following types of quasi-synonyms: genus-species (for example: aluminum - metal) and species-species (for example: aluminum - iron). The common element of meaning is metal.

Some linguists, as one of the varieties of synonyms, also consider euphemisms (Greek euphemia - “preachery”) - words (or expressions) that in certain situations replace unwanted, harsh, according to the speaker or writer, designations. For example: leave life instead of dying, evade the truth instead of lying, etc.

Synonym functions

In speech, synonyms perform three main functions: the function of substitution, the function of clarification, and the expressive-stylistic function.

1. The substitution function is associated with the desire of the speaker or writer to avoid unwanted repetitions.

2. The clarification function is associated with the desire of the speaker or writer to more clearly convey the idea.

3. The expressive-stylistic function is associated with the expression of a variety of assessments based on the different stylistic affiliation of synonyms.

So, having decided on the terminology, we can begin to study specific lexical units.

Synonyms are combined into synonymic series, different in composition - from minimal, two-term, to extended series, sometimes including more than two dozen words.

Binary synonymic rows minimal in composition are of interest for identifying the relationship of identity and difference in the characteristics of synonymic relationships. Due to the minimality of their composition, they turn out to be precisely the type of synonymous series that most often demonstrates the relationship of semantic identity. So, according to the "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" ed. A. P. Evgenieva, the members of the synonymic series completely coincide in meaning: practice-experience, Ivan-tea-fireweed, to be deceived-to make a mistake, rocking-to lull.

Often, members of synonymous pairs differ only in the degree of usage ( strike-strike, corn-maize, address-address).

Binary synonymic series, characterized by maximum semantic similarity, often include a common word, on the one hand, and a word that is predominantly characteristic of special or official speech, on the other. Semantic duplicity is often emphasized by the fact that one of the members of a synonymous pair is a borrowed word: simultaneous-synchronous, export-export, approve-ratify, adapt-adapt etc.

Fundamentally different relationships are observed in polynomial synonymous paradigms. A synonymous series is a group of words consisting of several synonyms ( doctor-doctor-physician-esculapius). Synonymic words can have both one root ( fisherman-fisherman-fisherman) and different ( house-dwelling, overtake-overtake).

Synonyms always consist of one part of speech. The composition of synonymic series may include phraseological units, archaisms, neologisms, dialectisms, professionalisms, clericalisms, etc. Such words perform the same syntactic function in a sentence.

The synonymic series has a dominant - the main word with the most voluminous, neutral meaning, which is a simple name, without emotional connotations. Other members of the series clarify, expand its semantic structure, supplement it with evaluative values.

In the Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language, the maximum in terms of the number of members are synonymous series with such a dominant as deceive(29 members) die(29 members) kill(24 members) get tired(24 members) get drunk(18 members) abyss(17 members) bump(16 members).

For example, a synonymic series with a dominant die :

Die - to shuffle - to fall asleep forever - to rest - to pass away from life - to fade away - to descend into the grave - to close one's eyes - to hobble - to cut off - to part with one's life - to lose one's life - to stretch out one's legs - to die - to stand before God - to rest - to decide - to get rid of - to get rid of - to give the ends - give your soul to God - turn around - end your life - stab - grunt - die - give the oak - bend over - embed the dubar - throw back the hooves.

Synonym types

By meaning, the following types of synonyms are distinguished: complete (absolute) and incomplete. Absolute (full) synonyms, or doublets that do not reveal any semantic differences, are a rather rare phenomenon in the language: linguistics - linguistics, spelling - spelling, hippopotamus - hippopotamus, throw - throw, everywhere - everywhere.

Usually, synonyms always differ in something: stylistic or expressive coloring (connotations), shades of lexical (denotative) meaning (peripheral seme), compatibility, etc. In this case, we can already talk about incomplete synonymy. Incomplete synonyms, in turn, are divided into subtypes depending on how they differ.

Stylistic synonyms. They differ only in stylistic coloring and are therefore used in different styles speech. Examples:

wife(common) - spouse(official); young(colloquial) - newlyweds(book); eyes(neutral) - eyes(vyc.); face(neutral) - muzzle(reduced) - face(vyc.)

Stylistic synonymy is widespread among words of all parts of speech, for example: wolf - biryuk, lips - mouth, forehead - forehead, rooster - kochet, crimson - crimson, naked - naked, love - amorous, real - real, sleep - rest, eat - to eat, it's cold - it's cold, this one - this one, than - rather than, so that - so that, etc.

Ideographic synonyms(semantic, semantic). They differ in shades of meaning. Examples:

wet-wet, die-die, youth-youth

Nowadaysyouth can be extended to forty years and older(young, fresh state of the body).

Here it is overyouth my(the period of life between childhood and adulthood).

Semantic-stylistic synonyms. They differ both in shades of meaning and stylistically. Examples:

go trail(these words mean the same action, only the word go stylistically neutral, word trail- colloquial and, in addition to the general meaning, contains additional shades: trail- is to walk with difficulty, slowly, barely moving the legs).

work-pore(synonyms, only word pore as a vernacular opposed to a stylistically neutral word work and differs from it in shades of meaning: pore- is to work painstakingly and diligently, overcoming difficulties, mainly performing small, laborious work).

The language is dominated by semantic-stylistic synonyms. This is explained by the fact that the functional affiliation and stylistic coloring of the word often complement each other.

The concept of synonyms

Synonyms (gr. synonimos- eponymous) - words of the same part of speech, denoting the same concept, close or identical in meaning, differing (or not having differences) from each other in shades of meaning, or stylistic coloring and scope of use, or both of these features .

The phenomenon of synonymy is closely related to the polysemy of the word (polysemy). In different meanings, the same word can have different synonyms. For example: two - in pairs and together - alone, delay - slow down and detain - arrest.

Synonymic series

Two or more synonyms, correlated with each other when denoting the same objects, signs, actions, etc., form in the language synonymic series (synonymous with the paradigm ). For example: friendship, camaraderie, fellowship(colloquial); decorate, decorate, decorate, decorate etc.

In the synonymic series, one can always single out any one word that is as capacious as possible in semantics, with rare exceptions, neutral in stylistic coloring (that is, without additional stylistic characteristics) and the most free in use. This basic, pivotal, supporting word is called domina´ntoy (from lat. dominants - dominant). In the above synonymous rows, the dominants are, respectively, the words friendship and decorate.

According to the number of members, synonymic series are divided into binary and polynomial. AT binary series (synonymous pair) only two members are included (for example: lexicographer - dictionary(colloquial), architect - architect(high) gunner - gunner(obsolete) etc.), in polylinear – more than two members (for example: hero, strongman, hercules, athlete; argument, argument, motive, reason(colloquial), etc.). There are much fewer binary synonymic series in Russian than polynomial ones.

The synonymic series, in addition to individual words, may include phrases and phraseological units. For example: far away(colloquial), etc.

A characteristic feature of synonymic rows in the Russian language is relative openness. They undergo changes and additions due to the development of the entire lexical system of the Russian language.

Synonym classifications

By structure

heteroroot	single root

Different root synonyms are synonyms with different roots. For example: literal, literal, textual(book); loud, sonorous, deafening, resonant etc.

One-root (grammatical, lexico-grammatical) synonyms are synonyms that have the same root. For example: paint, paint, tint; toss, toss, toss etc.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is dominated by synonyms with different roots.

Partial (approximate) synonyms- these are words that do not completely coincide in their meanings and use.

Partial synonyms can be divided into the following subgroups:

1) semantic (conceptual, ideographic) synonyms - synonyms that differ in shades of meaning. For example: to speak, to express, to explain, to explain; company, society, team etc.

2) stylistic synonyms - synonyms that differ in the scope of use and stylistic coloring. For example: to repeat, to repeat, to babble, to repeat; to bring, to drag, to drag etc.

Stylistic synonyms differ in the following ways:

a) by area of use (neutral - bookish - colloquial and vernacular; commonly used - dialect, professional, jargon);

b) by expressive-stylistic coloring (neutral, commonly used - poetic, folk poetic, colloquial);

c) according to the degree of activity of use (active - obsolete, new);

3) semantic-stylistic synonyms - synonyms that differ in lexical meanings and stylistic coloring: find, search, dig(colloquial), acquire(book); catch, catch(colloquial), lasso(simple) etc.

4) a special group includes the so-called contextual (contextual-a´author, situational) synonyms - words that become synonymous only in a certain context. Contextual synonyms, as a rule, are expressively colored, since their task is to characterize the phenomenon, and not to name it. For example: And in everything ... there was some kind of sweet and bitter sadness(I. Bunin).

Full (absolute) synonyms are words that do not differ either semantically or stylistically. For example: ending, flexion; linguistics, linguistics, linguistics etc. This group in the Russian language is not numerous, and, as a rule, in the process of language development, such synonyms pass into the group of ideographic synonyms.

Partial synonyms predominate in Russian.

should be distinguished from synonyms. quasi-synonyms (imaginary synonyms) - words that have a common component of meaning (the seme), but are not interchangeable in contexts (unlike synonyms).

There are the following types of quasi-synonyms: ro´do-species´e (For example: aluminum - metal) and vi´do-species´e (For example: aluminum - iron). Common Value Element − metal.

Some linguists, as one of the varieties of synonyms, also consider euphemisms (gr. euphemia- "Glory") - words (or expressions) that in certain situations replace unwanted, harsh, in the opinion of the speaker or writer, designations. For example: to die instead of to die, evade the truth instead of lie etc.

A sample of the analysis of a synonymic series and methodological recommendations for it. The use of synonyms in the science fiction novel by A.Yu. Pekhov "Chronicles of Siala"

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