Words in the same part of speech. Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning. What syntactic role can parts of speech play?
At school, they often give the task to perform morphological or syntactic analysis. And although both morphology and syntax are included in the "grammar" section, they are not the same thing. Let's look into this issue and find out why it is impossible to unequivocally answer the question "How are parts of speech emphasized in Russian?"
What do we know about parts of speech?
Determining what part of speech a particular word is, we rely on various signs.
First of all, we pose the question and determine the general meaning; sometimes it is useful to determine how a word is formed: this will allow you to quickly distinguish between an adjective and a participle.
Secondly, we consider grammatical features (does the word change? how does it change? Etc.)
Finally, pay attention to the syntactic role.
Then we conclude what kind of part of speech it is. Moreover, usually a conclusion can be made after the first paragraph, so we do further analysis (it is called morphological) simply because it is supposed to be so, and in order to demonstrate our knowledge to the teacher.
What is a syntactic role
The syntactic role is the role that the word plays in the sentence, which member of the sentence it is. In debriefing, we usually write out the word along with the one to which it refers, and pose a question, and then underline the word as it should.
for example, there was an offer “How beautiful the forest is in early autumn!” and not interested in the word "early". We are writing: "What autumn? early" and emphasize "early" wavy line.
It is not parts of speech that are underlined, but parts of the sentence.
How and what is emphasized?
In a sentence, two main members (subject and predicate) and three secondary ones are most often distinguished: object, definition and circumstance. They are highlighted like this:
Subject- one dash
Predicate - two lines
Addition- dotted line (dash-dash-dash)
Definition - wavy line
Circumstance - dot-dash
An application is a type of definition, so it is also underlined with a wavy line.
What syntactic role can parts of speech play?
The same member of a sentence can be expressed by different parts of speech; and vice versa, the same part of speech can be different members of the sentence (sometimes any of them).
Consider an example with a noun.
A noun in the nominative case can only be the main member of a sentence.
House stands on the shore. (speaking of a house. What? a house. This is the subject)
In the position of minor members, the noun usually stands in one of the oblique cases.
Exception- an application that most often stands in the same case as the noun being defined, that is, if it refers to the subject, then it also stands in the nominative case.
The Neva River flows through the Leningrad Region. Neva - application (what river? Neva)
I read article . (read what? article; this is an addition)
I have a plaid skirt.(what kind of skirt? in a cage; this is the definition)
We left the city.(left from where? from the city; this circumstance)
Helper table
We offer you a table that can help in performing grammatical analysis. It gives questions and parts of speech by which the specified member of the sentence can be expressed.
|
Member of the proposal |
As emphasized |
Questions |
Parts of speech |
|
subject |
one line |
Who? What? what does the offer say? |
Noun, pronoun, numeral, verb infinitive, syntactically indivisible combination (pansies, Ivan Ivanovich, three girls, etc.) |
|
predicate |
Two features |
What is he doing? what is this? What? what is reported about the subject? |
Personal verb, infinitive, impersonal verb (in impersonal form), noun, adjective, pronoun, numeral, adverb, participle (usually in short form), idiom, syntactically indivisible combination (tall, etc.) |
|
addition |
dotted line |
Questions of indirect cases |
Noun, pronoun, infinitive, syntactically indivisible combination |
|
definition |
wavy line |
Which? whose? which account? |
Adjective, participle (both in full form), pronoun, numeral, infinitive, noun |
|
circumstance |
dot dash |
Where? when? where? where? why? why? as? in what degree? |
Adverb, gerund, noun, pronoun, infinitive |
What have we learned?
Parts of speech are not underlined - parts of the sentence are underlined. Moreover, the same part of speech can be different members of the sentence and, therefore, emphasized in different ways. It is necessary to determine the member of the sentence and then underline the word.
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Word antonym came from the Greek anty- against + onyma- name.
Antonyms allow you to see objects, phenomena, signs in contrast.
Example:
hot ↔ cold, loud ↔ quiet, walk ↔ stand, far ↔ close
Not all words have antonyms. Words that denote specific objects (table, desk, goat) usually do not have antonyms.
Different meanings of a polysemantic word can have different antonyms.
Example:
soft (fresh) bread ↔ stale bread; soft (smooth) movements ↔ sharp movements; mild (warm) climate ↔ harsh climate.
Most antonyms are words of different roots. But they also meet single-root antonyms.
The opposite meaning in such cases is created using negative prefixes not-,without-,anti-,counter- and etc.
Example:
experienced - inexperienced, familiar - unfamiliar, tasty - tasteless, military - anti-war, revolution - counter-revolution
Antonyms are widely used by writers and poets to enhance the expressiveness of speech.
Example:
You are rich, I am very poor;
You are a prose writer, I am a poet;
You are blush, like a poppy color,
I am like death, and thin and pale. (A. Pushkin)
This technique (the use of antonyms in a literary text) is called antithesis.
Phoneme(ancient Greek φώνημα - “sound”) - the minimum semantic-distinctive unit of the language - (Linguistic unit of speech). The phoneme does not have an independent lexical or grammatical meaning, but serves to distinguish and identify significant units of the language (morphemes and words):
When you replace one phoneme with another, you get another word (<д>ohm -<т>ohm);
Changing the order of the phonemes will also result in another word (<сон> - <нос>);
When you remove a phoneme, you will also get another word (t<р>he is the tone).
The term “phoneme” in a close modern sense was introduced by the Polish-Russian linguists N. V. Krushevsky and I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay, who worked in Kazan (after the early death of Krushevsky, Baudouin de Courtenay pointed to its priority).
The phoneme as an abstract unit of language corresponds to the sound of speech as a concrete unit in which the phoneme is materially realized. Strictly speaking, the sounds of speech are infinitely varied; sufficiently accurate physical analysis can show that one person never pronounces the same sound in the same way (for example, shock [а́]). However, while all these pronunciation options allow you to correctly identify and distinguish words, the sound [а́] in all its variants will be a realization of the same phoneme<а>.
The phoneme is the object of study of phonology. This concept plays an important role in solving such practical problems as the development of alphabets, spelling principles, etc.
The minimal unit of sign languages was formerly called the hirema.
1Functional aspect of studying the phoneme
2 Phoneme structure (distinguishing features)
3 Interleaves
4 Rules for highlighting phonemes
5Connection of the phoneme with the meaning
6Phoneme systems of some languages
o 6.1 Russian language
o 6.2 Abkhaz language
o 6.3 English
· 7cm. also
8 Notes
According to the structure of the root, antonyms are distinguished heterogeneous: wealth - poverty, white - black, light - extinguish, early - late and one-root,
when opposite meanings are created by prefixes, sometimes suffixes: underground - aboveground, friend - foe, mediocre - gifted, or when it occurs enantiosemy- polarization of the meanings of the same word: glorify -"give praise by describing the virtues" - "spread defamatory information."
Antonyms are widely used in artistic speech to express antithesis: All this would be funny if it were not so sad (L.); in titles of works: "War and Peace" L.N. Tolstoy, " Thick and thin" A.P. Chekhov. Often antonyms are found in proverbs and sayings: The beginning is not expensive, but the end is laudable.
Sometimes a couple of words enter into antonymous relations only in a given text - this copyright antonyms: They agreed. Wave and stone, poetry and prose, ice and fire are not so different from each other.(L.L. Kasatkin and others) .
Argo(French argot - jargon).
The language of individual social groups, communities, artificially created for the purpose of linguistic isolation (sometimes a "secret" language), distinguished mainly by the presence of words that are incomprehensible to uninitiated people. School slang. Student Argo. Sports Argo. Argo of gamblers. Thieves' Argo.
A social variety of speech, characterized by a narrowly professional or peculiarly mastered (in semantic and derivational terms) common vocabulary, often with elements of conventionality, artificiality and "mystery", as well as borrowings from other languages (Gypsy, German, Polish, Modern Greek, etc.).
In a strictly terminological sense slang- this is the speech of the lower classes of society, declassed groups and the criminal world: beggars, thieves and swindlers, card cheats, etc.
Argo words and expressions used in common speech are called argotism. They, as a rule, are semantically transformed, losing their connection with the source and the natural environment of existence, but at the same time they can retain a bright expressive coloring. Wed, for example, hangout, hang out(about a meeting, about a meeting of "friends"), stand on one's ears(make noise, have fun) for free, freeloader(at someone else's expense, for nothing), etc. Many of the old argotisms have broken away from the argotic soil, and their former connections are restored only as a result of special studies (for example, double-dealer, take on the gun, rub glasses, darken, fake, on ointment etc.). In the language of fiction, argotisms are used as a means of stylistic characteristics, as well as in the author's speech with the so-called. in a fairy tale manner of narration or for a realistic depiction of the corresponding situation, details of camp life, etc. Argotisms are used by translators to adequately convey the colloquial-slang elements of another language. Outside of these functions, argotism clogs and coarsens the speech of speakers (L.I. Skvortsov).
Archaisms*(Greek archaios - ancient).
Words and expressions displaced from active use by synonymous lexical units (for example, vyya - neck, smooth - hunger).
In modern Russian, archaisms, together with historicisms, form a system of obsolete vocabulary, the nature of which is determined by the degree of obsolescence of this vocabulary, various reasons for archaization and the way it is used. Archaisms, unlike historicisms, are obsolete names for existing realities and phenomena of reality.
There are two types of archaisms - lexical and semantic. Lexical archaisms include: a) proper lexical archaisms - words that are entirely obsolete as certain sound complexes ( right hand -"right hand"); b) lexical and derivational archaisms, which differ from the synonymous word of the modern language only by a word-forming element, most often by the suffix ( fisherman- "fisherman"); c) lexico-phonetic archaisms, which differ from modern variants in only a few sounds ( klob - club, chill- cold). Semantic archaisms - obsolete meanings of words existing in the active dictionary (for example, the meaning of "spectacle" in the word a shame, cf. modern meaning "disgrace").
In modern texts, archaisms are used only for certain stylistic purposes. Archaisms can again enter into active use, acquiring various stylistic shades (cf. the modern use of words decree, voyage, vomit) (A.S. Belousova).
Obsolete for a certain era, obsolete language elements (words, expressions, affixes), replaced by others ...
In terms of stylistic archaisms are used:
a) to recreate the historical flavor of the era (usually in historical novels, short stories);
b) to give speech a shade of solemnity, pathetic excitement (in poetry, in an oratory, in a journalistic speech);
c) to create a comic effect, irony, satire, parody (usually in feuilletons, pamphlets);
d) for the speech characteristics of a character (for example, a person of a clergy) (D.I. Rozental, M.A. Telenkova).
Assonance(French assonance - consonance).
The consonance of vowels in rhyme or the repetition of identical vowels as a stylistic device. I scored a projectile in at shk at t at go and d at small: at goshch at i dr at ha!(M.Yu.Lermontov) (D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova).
Assonance is usually based only on stressed sounds, since in an unstressed position the vowels change significantly. Therefore, sometimes assonance is defined as the repetition of stressed or weakly reduced unstressed vowels. In cases where unstressed vowels do not undergo changes, they can increase the assonance (I.B. Golub).
Aphorism(Greek aphorismos - a short saying).
A stable saying containing a generalized and complete thought about some phenomenon of reality and expressed in a concise (often paradoxical) form. concept aphorism does not have a generally accepted definition: some researchers classify only author's sayings as aphorisms, including winged words in this category, others - all types of generalized statements, including proverbs and sayings.
By origin, aphorisms can be expressions that have arisen in the context of a non-aphoristic character, from which they break away, turning into independently functioning speech works ( And the smoke of the fatherland is sweet and pleasant to us), or expressions specially created as works of the aphoristic genre, having an independent and self-sufficient character ("Maxims and Reflections" by F. Laroshfoucauld) (Yu.E. Prokhorov).
Wealth ( diversity ) speech
The communicative quality of speech is determined primarily by the richness of the dictionary, the semantic richness of the word, which is created by the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, etc. (M.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova).
Barbarism*(Greek barbarismos - foreign, foreign).
A foreign word or expression that is not fully mastered by the borrowing language, most often due to the difficulties of grammatical development. Avenue, dandy, madam, monsieur, missus, mikado, table d'hote, frau, hobby. Usually barbarisms are used in describing foreign customs, life, mores, to create local color (D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova).
A word or expression of a foreign language, built on the model of another language, contrary to the norms of this language, violating the purity of speech (L.P. Krysin).
Foreign words and expressions used in the Russian text, but not included in the Russian language. Barbarisms can be transmitted by graphic means of the source language or Russian graphics: lat. homo sapiens "reasonable person", cito "urgently", etc. . (L.L. Kasatkin and others) .
Vulgarisms (Latin vulgaris - common people).
A rude word or expression that is outside the literary vocabulary. Instead of face - muzzle, mug, snout, mug; instead of eat - eat, eat
(D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova).
Expressiveness of speech
The communicative quality of speech, such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener or reader.
One of the foundations of expressiveness is the situation of communication. The second basis is the structural areas of the language: there can be pronunciation expressiveness, accentological expressiveness, lexical and word-building expressiveness, morphological and syntactic expressiveness, intonational and stylistic (or stylistic) expressiveness. The quality of expressiveness can be communicated to speech by means of language, which are included in different areas of the language structure. Expressive in speech is everything that stands out semantically or formally against the general habitual speech background or another typical situation of communication.
The main conditions on which the expressiveness of the speech of a particular person depends:
Independence of thinking;
Good knowledge of the language, its expressive capabilities;
Good knowledge of the properties and features of language styles;
Systematic and conscious training of speech skills;
The presence in the language of means capable of communicating the quality of expressiveness to speech (B.N. Golovin).
Hyperbole * (Greek hyperbole - exaggeration).
A figurative expression containing an exorbitant exaggeration of size, strength, value, etc. any object or phenomenon. In a hundred and forty suns the sunset burned(Mayakovsky) (D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova).
A technique of expressiveness of speech used by speakers (writers) in order to create an exaggerated idea of the subject of speech among listeners (readers). For example: They have strawberries - with a fist; I told you this a hundred times.
Hyperbole is characteristic mainly of live colloquial and artistic speech, as well as journalism ... Hyperbolic statements are concentrated in the field of human assessments and human activity; at the same time, hyperbole is possible due to the fact that in the minds of the speakers there is an idea of a certain norm of properties, states, actions, etc. If, in the opinion of the speaker, this situation deviates from normal, he may resort to hyperbole.
Hyperbole as a technique of expressiveness correlates with litotes and meiosis (L.P. Krysin).
The effectiveness of speech
lies in the fact that speech, capturing various areas of consciousness of the reader (listener), subordinates it to the author.
The effectiveness of speech is strengthened or weakened not only depending on what language means and how they were used, but also depending on what information they were used to express - whether that layer of information was sufficient in this information, which was not created by the influence of objective world, but by responding to this impact, its emotional and aesthetic perception and evaluation (B.N. Golovin).
Dialect(Greek dialektos - conversation, dialect, dialect).
A kind of language that is a means of communication for a team united territorially or socially, in particular professionally. The dialect is part of a more general language education and is opposed to other dialects.
There are territorial and social dialects. Territorial dialects, along with the literary language, are the main variety of the language. Unlike the literary language, the dialect is limited territorially and functionally, exists only in oral form, the norms of the dialect are not strict ... When distinguishing a dialect, not only linguistic, but also extralinguistic factors are taken into account. In particular, of paramount importance is the commonality of the territory in which dialects are common, coinciding in a complex of linguistic features that are important for distinguishing a dialect. Of all the linguistic features that have a close distribution, the most important for distinguishing a dialect are those whose areas are consistent with the essential facts of the history and culture of the speakers of the dialect in the respective territories.
Thus, dialects are distinguished as a group of dialects, united by a common language features, accepted as essential for dialect division, as well as by a common territory in which these dialects are common ...
Social dialect is a means of communication of a collective united professionally or socially. For example, the language of potters, ofenes, hunters, athletes, schoolchildren, etc. Unlike territorial dialects, social dialects are differentiated mainly in the field of vocabulary, semantics, and phraseology; in terms of phonetic and grammatical structure, they do not differ or differ very little from the system of the literary language (see slang, jargon, secret languages) (N.N. Pshenichnova).
A variety of a national language used by a relatively limited number of people connected by a territorial, social, and professional community.
Territorial dialects reflect the linguistic divergences of the period of the tribal system, the era of feudalism, they are also associated with the movement of the population in a particular territory. Dialects can form the basis of a national language. At the present time there is a convergence of Russian dialects with the literary language.
A dialect usually differs from a dialect in the size of the territory they cover (a dialect can be distributed within even one village, and a dialect can form a set of homogeneous dialects) and in the nature of the community that connects people who are in constant and direct linguistic contact (dialect is associated only with the concept of territory) .
professional dialect- a kind of social dialect that unites in linguistic terms people of the same profession or one occupation.
Social dialect - dialect of a particular social group.
dialect territorial(local dialect, regional dialect) - a dialect common in a certain area (D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova).
Dialog(Greek dialogos - conversation).
A form of speech in which there is a direct exchange of statements between two or more persons. The conditions in which dialogical speech proceeds determine a number of its features, which include: brevity of statements (especially in the question-answer form of dialogue, to a lesser extent when changing sentences-replicas), the widespread use of extra-speech means (facial expressions, gestures), a large role intonation, a variety of special sentences of incomplete composition (which is facilitated not only by the natural reliance on the interlocutor's remarks, but also by the atmosphere of the conversation), the syntactic design of the statement, which is not prepared in advance, is free from the strict norms of book speech, the predominance of simple sentences, which is characteristic of colloquial speech in general, etc. .P. (D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova).
Discussion(lat. discussio - research, consideration, analysis).
A public dispute, the purpose of which is to clarify and compare different points of view, search, reveal the true opinion, find the right solution to the controversial issue.
The discussion is considered an effective way of persuasion, since its participants themselves come to one or another conclusion (M.A. Vvedenskaya, L.G. Pavlova).
Correct in form public discussion of some controversial, usually scientific issue; it is characterized by the clarity of the formulation of the topic, the desire to come to a common opinion, find a common solution, establish the truth, which allows us to classify the discussion as the highest category of polemical dialogue (see also controversy, controversy, quarrel, debate) (D.Kh. Vagapova).
Old Russian language
The language of the Eastern Slavs - the ancestors of Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians, i.e. predecessor of Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. It was formed on the basis of closely related dialects of the East Slavic tribes and existed in the 6th-7th - 14th centuries. Like other ancient Slavic languages, the Old Russian language goes back to the Proto-Slavic language and is the result of its decay and division into different Slavic language groups ... (M.V. Ivanova).
Jargon * (French jargon).
The same as slang, but with a touch of humiliation (D.I. Rozental, M.A. Telenkova).
A social variety of speech, characterized, in contrast to the common language, by specific (often expressively rethought) vocabulary and phraseology, as well as by the special use of word-building means.
Jargon belongs to relatively open social and professional groups of people united by common interests, habits, occupations, social status, etc. (for example, the jargon of sailors, pilots, athletes, musicians, students, actors) ... Unlike slang, with its elements of cryptography, the function of a "password" and a narrowed social base, jargon in its design as a whole repels from the general literary language, being like would be a social dialect of a certain age community of people or a "professional" corporation.
Words and expressions of jargon used outside of jargon are called jargon. Jargons as elements of social and stylistic varieties of speech are used in the language of fiction for a realistic depiction of various groups and categories of people ... (L.I. Skvortsov).
Irony(Greek eironeia - pretense, mockery).
A kind of trope, consisting in the use of a word in the opposite sense of the literal, with the aim of subtle or hidden ridicule; mockery is deliberately dressed in the form of a positive characterization or praise, for example: " Look at Samson!"(about a weak, frail person); " Where, smart, are you wandering, head?(disdainful attitude towards a person) (D.Kh. Vagapova).
Historicisms*
Outdated words. obsolete due to the disappearance of the realities that they denoted. Boyar, clerk, oprichnik, bailiff, constable, crossbow, shishak. Historicisms are used as a nominative means in scientific and historical literature, where they serve as the names of the realities of past eras, and as a pictorial means in works of fiction, where they contribute to the reconstruction of a particular historical era (D.I.Rozental, M.A.Telenkova) .
Words denoting objects that have disappeared from modern life, phenomena that have become irrelevant concepts: boots, bursa, veche, Budenovets, Nepman.Semantic(or partial) historicisms are currently irrelevant meanings of polysemantic words: helmet"ancient metal military headdress", shield"weapons of the ancient warrior" . (L.L. Kasatkin and others) .
Pun*(French calembour)
The use of different meanings of the same word or two similar-sounding words in order to achieve a comic effect; play on words; e.g.: " I am able to take a wife without a fortune, but I am not able to go into debt for her rags.(Pushkin) (D.Kh. Vagapova).
A paronymic figure, consisting in comparing words that are similar or approximately similar only in sound and extending this comparison to their meanings in order to create a comic effect. Words that are part of idioms (or other phraseological units) and free phrases can also be compared. In a pun, it is possible to implement both of the matched components, or just one.
The circle of acquaintances is not always a lifeline(from "Crocodile") (T.G.Khazagerov, L.S.Shirina).
Chancellery
Set phrases, grammatical forms and constructions, the use of which in the literary language is traditionally assigned to the official business style, especially to its stationery business substyle, for example. notification, incoming - outgoing, due, assist, is hereby brought to your attention, according to which and etc.
It is necessary to distinguish between the traditional use of these means of the literary language within the framework of official business style, in documentation and business letters, and their inappropriate use outside the framework of official business style. In the latter case, the stylistic coloring of clericalism comes into conflict with its verbal environment (context), and such use is usually considered as a violation of stylistic norms ... The use of clericalism as a conscious stylistic device, as a means of characterizing a character, is reflected in fiction (B.S. Schwartzkorf) .
Cyrillic
One of the first two alphabets of the Old Slavonic script (the second was Glagolitic), which got its name from the name Cyril, adopted by the Byzantine missionary Constantine the Philosopher during his tonsure as a monk. The Cyrillic alphabet differed from the Glagolitic alphabet in a simpler and clearer form of letters. On the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet, the modern Russian alphabet was created (D.I. Rozental, M.A. Telenkova).
… the creation of the Cyrillic alphabet dates back to the era of the Bulgarian king Simeon (893-927), it was probably compiled by the students and followers of Cyril and Methodius on the basis of the Greek (Byzantine) solemn unicial letter. The letter composition of the ancient Cyrillic alphabet generally corresponded to the ancient Bulgarian speech. For the transfer of other Bulgarian. sounds, the unique letter was supplemented by a number of letters. The graphic appearance of Slavic letters is stylized according to the Byzantine model. In Cyrillic, according to the rules of unicial writing, superscripts were used: aspirations, stress, abbreviations of words with titles and extension letters. Aspiration signs (from the 11th to the 18th centuries) changed functionally and graphically. Cyrillic letters were used in a numerical sense, in this case a title sign was placed above the letter, and two dots or one on its sides ... In the 14-17 centuries. Cyrillic and Slavic spelling were used by the population of modern Romania. On the basis of the Cyrillic alphabet, the modern Bulgarian and Serbian alphabets, the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian alphabets have historically developed, and through the Russian alphabet, the alphabets of many other peoples (O.A. Knyazevskaya).
Norm codification*
Statement (formulation) of a set of rules that ensure the regular reproduction in speech of an exemplary variant of the language (O.S. Akhmanova).
Reflection of an objectively existing modern literary norm, formulated in the form of rules and regulations in textbooks, dictionaries, reference books; during codification, there is a conscious selection of what is prescribed to be used as correct (L.A. Verbitskaya).
Koine(Greek koine from koine dialektos - common dialect).
The national language that arose in ancient Greece in the 3rd-1st centuries. BC. based on the Attic dialect and displaced other dialects of the country. Koine formed the basis for the development of the Middle Greek and Modern Greek languages.
There is the use of the term "Koine" in the sense of "a language that arose on the basis of one or several dialects and serves as a means of inter-dialect communication of multilingual groups of the population of the country" (D.I. Rozental, M.A. Telenkova).
... in modern sociolinguistics, the understanding of the term "Koine" has expanded significantly. It refers to any "common" language with a wide range of communicative spheres, serving as a means of communication in a particular region. One of the related dialects or languages can be used as Koine, less often a mixed dialect or language, a normalized literary form of a language or an archaic form common to all dialects or languages, as well as one of the languages most common in a given area. Koine has a social specialization and its native speaker: if a dialect is the language of rural residents, the language of the village, then Koine is the "petty-bourgeois" (urban) language, the language of the city. Thus, a distinction is made between the urban (mainly metropolitan) Koine and the Koine of the area (country). Koine serves as an important prerequisite, and often the basis for the formation of a literary language (especially urban, metropolitan Koine). Oral Koine occupy an intermediate position between the so-called lingua franca (a functional type of language used as a means of communication between speakers of different languages in limited areas of social contact) and a national literary language. These intermediate forms of linguistic existence are observed in many countries with developed national languages. In Russian studies, it is noted that the majority of the modern rural population in Russia speaks either a national literary language, or a kind of "transitional Koine", which are intermediate forms between the former dialect systems and the national literary language ... (M.V. Oreshkina).
1. All words of the Russian language can be divided into groups called parts of speech.
Together with syntax, morphology constitutes a branch of the science of language called grammar.
2. Each part of speech has signs that can be grouped into three groups:
3. All parts of speech are divided into two groups - independent (significant) and official. Interjections occupy a special position in the system of parts of speech.
4. Independent (significant) parts of speech include words that name objects, their actions and signs. You can ask questions to independent words, and in a sentence, significant words are members of a sentence.
The independent parts of speech in Russian include the following:
| Part of speech | Questions | Examples | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Noun | who? what? | Boy, uncle, table, wall, window. |
| 2 | Verb | what to do? what to do? | Saw, saw, know, learn. |
| 3 | Adjective | which? whose? | Good, blue, mother's, door. |
| 4 | Numeral | how many? which? | Five, five, fifth. |
| 5 | Adverb | as? when? where? and etc. | Fun, yesterday, close. |
| 6 | Pronoun | who? which? how many? as? and etc. | I, he, such, mine, so much, so, there. |
| 7 | Participle | which? (what does he do? what did he do? etc.) | Dreaming, dreaming. |
| 8 | gerund | as? (doing what? doing what?) | Dreaming, deciding |
Notes.
1) As already noted, in linguistics there is no single point of view on the position in the system of parts of speech of participles and participles. Some researchers attribute them to independent parts of speech, others consider them to be special forms of the verb. Participle and participle really occupy an intermediate position between independent parts of speech and verb forms. In this manual, we adhere to the point of view reflected, for example, in the textbook: Babaitseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades. M., 2001.
2) In linguistics, there is no single point of view on the composition of such a part of speech as numerals. In particular, in "academic grammar" it is customary to consider ordinal numbers as a special category of adjectives. However, school tradition classifies them as numerals. We will adhere to this position in this manual.
3) In different manuals, the composition of pronouns is characterized differently. In particular, the words there, there, nowhere and others in some school textbooks are classified as adverbs, in others - as pronouns. In this manual, we consider such words as pronouns, adhering to the point of view reflected in the "academic grammar" and in the textbook: Babaitseva V.V., Chesnokova L.L. Russian language. Theory. 5-9 grades. M., 2001.
5. Service parts of speech- these are words that do not name either objects, or actions, or signs, but express only the relationship between them.
It is impossible to put a question to official words.
Service words are not members of the sentence.
Functional words serve independent words, helping them to connect with each other as part of phrases and sentences.
The official parts of speech in Russian include the following:
pretext (in, on, about, from, because of);
union (and, but, but, however, because, in order to, if);
particle (would, whether, same, not, even, precisely, only).
6. occupy a special position among the parts of speech.
Interjections do not name objects, actions, or signs (as independent parts of speech), do not express relationships between independent words, and do not serve to link words (as auxiliary parts of speech).
Interjections convey our feelings. To express amazement, delight, fear, etc., we use such interjections as ah, ooh, ooh; to express feelings of cold - brr, to express fear or pain - oh etc.
7. As noted, some words in Russian can change, others cannot.
To immutable include all service parts of speech, interjections, as well as such significant parts of speech as:
adverbs ( forward, always);
gerunds ( leaving, leaving, taking).
Also some of them don't change:
nouns ( coat, taxi, blinds);
adjectives ( beige coat, electric blue suit);
pronouns ( then, there).
via graduation;
Wed: sister - sisters; read - read.
via endings and prepositions;
Sister - to the sister, with the sister, with the sister.
via auxiliary words.
Are the underlined words homonyms? Why? A glass of glass is water of glass. A glass of glass is water of glass. Mow oblique - oblique look. Mow oblique - oblique look. Warm oven - bake pies. Warm oven - bake pies. To breed pigeons - the sky became pigeons. To breed pigeons - the sky became pigeons. Whitewash the ceiling - the ceiling is potatoes. Whitewash the ceiling - the ceiling is potatoes.
Homonyms are words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but completely different in lexical meaning. Homonyms are words of the same part of speech, identical in sound and spelling, but completely different in lexical meaning. Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that mean the same thing, but may differ from each other in shades of lexical meaning and use in speech. Synonyms are words of the same part of speech that mean the same thing, but may differ from each other in shades of lexical meaning and use in speech. Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning. Antonyms are words of the same part of speech with the opposite lexical meaning.
