In which dictionary can you find the meaning of the word. Russian language. What are dictionaries

The most extensive mass is made up of linguistic dictionaries. By language, these are Russian, English, German, Spanish, etc. dictionaries. The position between them is occupied by translation dictionaries. An example is the "English-Russian Dictionary" edited by V.K. Muller.

Within a particular language, linguistic dictionaries are divided into spelling, orthoepic, explanatory, phraseological, etymological, etc. They carry information about correct pronunciation, spelling, interpretation of words. Linguistic dictionaries contain almost all the words of a particular language.

A prime example serves compiled by Vladimir Dal "Explanatory Dictionary of Living Great Russian language". This is a real treasure for a linguist. However, this dictionary is most valuable as historical monument, which includes the wisdom of the people, expressed in proverbs and, and a large number of archaisms.

Encyclopedic dictionaries

A distinctive feature of encyclopedic dictionaries is their information content. They carry the necessary information about the phenomena and objects of the world around you. Encyclopedic dictionaries are divided into universal and sectoral. Universal contain information from various areas. An example of such a glossary is the Great Soviet.

Industry encyclopedic dictionaries are otherwise called terminological. They are intended for use in professional activity. Almost every industry has its own terminological dictionary. This includes dictionaries of economic, legal, medical, construction terms, etc. These dictionaries are narrowly focused, and their use is limited to specialization. For example, in 1978, edited by N.V. Podolsky released the Dictionary of Russian onomastic terminology.

Encyclopedic dictionaries can also be targeted at a certain age. These are "Children's Encyclopedia", "Encyclopedia of a Preschooler", etc.

Thus, linguistic dictionaries are associated with information about words and expressions and their correct use, and encyclopedic dictionaries - with an explanation of objects and phenomena existing in the world around. Many linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries have an electronic version and are available to Internet users.

Russian lexicography has accumulated significant experience in creating dictionaries and reference books different types. Theoretically, the type of a dictionary is determined by the information about the word that is the main one for this dictionary. Practical classification Dictionaries look a little more complicated. There are two classes of reference books. These are philological dictionaries containing knowledge about the language, and encyclopedic reference books containing knowledge about the world.

The units of language serve as the central object of description of philological (linguistic) dictionaries. Dictionaries of the philological type store knowledge about language means used by people in their speech activity. Such dictionaries provide information that helps the reader to pronounce the word correctly, write his speech in writing and correctly understand the text written by someone. The use of language guides allows a person to perform unmistakable speech actions so that the meaning contained in his statement is understandable to other people.

The central object of the description of encyclopedic reference books are concepts associated with individual words, phrases, and knowledge about the world and people correlated with these concepts. Thus, extralinguistic realities are characterized in encyclopedias and reference books, that is, our knowledge of objects and things, concepts related to natural and social phenomena is stated, biographies of people are given, information is given about important events, are indicated historical dates. Dictionaries of this type are compendiums about the surrounding world.

Within each such class of publications, specific reference books can be characterized by additional properties that determine the type and quality of information contained in dictionary entries.

Handbooks are distinguished by several parameters. These parameters can be combined in one dictionary or be a differentiating feature for dictionaries. Dictionaries are characterized by the object of description, the volume of the dictionary, the principles of selection of the dictionary, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary, the order in which the units of description are located, and the addressing of the dictionary.

The object of description for reference books of the encyclopedic class is knowledge about extralinguistic realities. For example, linguistic encyclopedic Dictionary contains knowledge about the languages ​​of the world, fixed in special concepts and terms that reflect specific properties and phenomena characteristic of a particular language, a group of languages, or all languages.

Dictionaries of the Russian language are also divided into two subclasses according to the object of description: dictionaries that describe the formal (morphological, syntactic) features of the vocabulary, and dictionaries that describe the semantic features of the use of words in the text. In particular, dictionaries that describe the formal side of the use of Russian vocabulary include morpheme dictionaries, spelling, spelling dictionaries, dictionaries of difficulties (correctness), grammatical, syntactic dictionaries. Dictionaries that describe the lexical semantics of the Russian language include explanatory dictionaries, dictionaries foreign words, phraseological, paroemia dictionaries.

The vocabulary size parameter takes into account not so much quantitative composition vocabulary, how much quality its composition. This means that small-volume dictionaries do not contain a small number of words, but only the most necessary, minimally sufficient vocabulary units that can be used to characterize the object of the dictionary description. Dictionaries of medium volume contain such a quantitative composition of the dictionary, with the help of which the bulk of speech cases that correspond to the object of the dictionary description are described. Large dictionaries cover the maximum large composition vocabulary units that make up the object of the dictionary description and describe it with academic completeness.

The principles of dictionary selection for Russian language dictionaries are an important differentiating parameter, which includes the selection of words on the basis of novelty, on the basis of synchrony and diachrony, on the basis of the regional existence of vocabulary, on the basis of the origin of words, on the basis of the fixation of words in the speech of a certain author or in a certain text. According to this parameter, dictionaries are distinguished, formed according to the unity of stylistic characteristics (colloquial vocabulary, swear words, everyday vocabulary), and dictionaries general type. A dictionary formed according to such predetermined principles, as an object of description, can have both grammatical and semantic features of the selected vocabulary.

According to the principles of dictionary selection, reference books of the encyclopedic class are divided into encyclopedias containing a compendium of knowledge, and industry reference books containing special information from any particular area.

For dictionaries that describe the lexical system of the Russian language, the conceptual and thematic composition of the dictionary is an important differentiating parameter. This parameter distinguishes between universal and aspect dictionaries. Dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms, dictionaries on onomastics and toponymy stand out among aspect dictionaries.

The conceptual and thematic composition of the vocabulary of encyclopedic reference books corresponds to the principles of vocabulary selection and differs in terms of universal and specialized.

Alphabetical, reverse, ideographic, semantic, thematic dictionaries are distinguished by the order of units of description.

Dictionary addressing is an important parameter of reference publications. This parameter must be specified in the annotation to any dictionary. Many other dictionary parameters depend on the categories of readers for which the dictionary is intended. Usually reference books are aimed at those who use the dictionary for mastering or deeper study. mother tongue, and those for whom this language is foreign.

The purpose of orthoepic dictionaries is to provide information about the pronunciation, stress and formation of grammatical forms of each word included in the dictionary. Dictionaries of this type interpret pronunciation norms literary language for each vocabulary item. For this, a special system of regulatory guidelines is being developed, and prohibitive marks are being introduced. Depending on the volume of words included in it, such dictionaries can be intended for both specialists and the general reader. For example, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language. Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms (under the editorship of R. I. Avanesov) is the most famous dictionary of this type. It is designed for specialists - philologists, teachers of the Russian language, lecturers, radio and television announcers, etc. For all other readers, the dictionary can be a reliable standard reference tool.

Dictionaries of this type contain information about the origin of words, language sources of entry into our speech. Dictionaries that describe this aspect of the life of a word indicate the original language material, the original sound and meaning in the source language, and provide other additional information about the word that explains the conceptual content of the borrowed word. The direct object of the description of the etymological dictionary is borrowed vocabulary, which is accompanied by reference information about the language source, the original forms of the word and its sound are reconstructed. The completeness of the etymological information about the word varies depending on the intended readership. The reference edition, intended for specialists, is characterized by the maximum completeness of the vocabulary, detailing the history of the life of the word, a broad argumentation of the proposed etymological interpretations. Educational etymological dictionaries aimed at the general reader have a smaller vocabulary, consisting of the most frequent borrowed words of the literary language. Popular dictionaries give one version of the origin of the word and a brief, simplified argument for it. Popular etymological dictionaries of the Russian language are the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by G. P. Tsyganenko, the Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language by V. V. Ivanov, T. V. Shanskaya and N. M. Shansky. The "Historical and Etymological Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language" by P. Ya. Chernykh is intended for the general reader. The most famous scientific publication, of course, is the Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by M. Fasmer.

As examples of dictionaries of a general type, one can point to ordinary explanatory and bilingual (translation) dictionaries, in which the vocabulary that exists in the general literary layer of the language is described with varying degrees of completeness. Speaking of dictionaries of a general type, experts mean dictionaries of varying degrees of completeness, in which, in one way or another, the common folk, general literary vocabulary is interpreted. Dictionaries of this type, of course, include the Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes by D. N. Ushakov, the Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. dictionary Russian language S. A. Kuznetsova, Brief explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, ed. V. V. Rozanova, Small Explanatory Dictionary of V. V. Lopatin, L. E. Lopatina, etc. Dictionaries of a general type can, without a doubt, include all explanatory dictionaries that develop a separate lexical class of a general literary language. These are dictionaries of foreign words, phraseological dictionaries, dictionaries of personal names, etc. General non-linguistic dictionaries include a variety of encyclopedic reference books (for example, Big Soviet Encyclopedia, Encyclopedic Dictionary).

In the practice of writing and oral speech many people face difficulties of various kinds. These include: writing individual words, pronunciation of a word or choosing the place of stress in some word form, word usage corresponding to the specific meaning of the word, grammatical attribution of the word, choosing the correct case form and number in a given speech situation, shaping problems short forms adjectives, personal forms of the verb, syntactic and lexical compatibility words, etc. All these difficulties should be solved in dictionaries of difficulties. However, it is hardly possible to find an objective criterion for the selection of linguistic material in such a dictionary, especially when we are talking about a dictionary intended for an indefinitely wide range of readers. When deciding on the composition of the dictionary for such a publication, the compilers determine the circle of potential readers and those areas of word usage that are most relevant for the intended readers. Dictionaries of difficulties include such cases that are described in orthoepic, grammatical and general philological dictionaries. The compilers of such dictionaries, of course, rely on such sources, in which various spellings, pronunciations and word usages are registered, and recommendations of a normative nature are given. An important role in the preparation of such reference books is played by the authors' own research, supported by the experience of observing speech. educated people, experimental verification of "difficult" cases. This allows you to include in the dictionary words that, as a result of historical changes, exist in our speech in two versions: in the old and new, as well as new words, the pronunciation of which has not yet been established. As examples here you can specify such reference publications as: Kalenchuk M. L., Kasatkina R. F. Dictionary of Russian pronunciation difficulties: Ok. 15000 words. M., 1997; Gorbachevich K.S. Dictionary of difficulties in pronunciation and stress in modern Russian: 1200 words. St. Petersburg, 2000; Verbitskaya L.A. and others. Let's speak correctly! Difficulties of Modern Russian Pronunciation and Stress: A Brief Reference Dictionary. M., 2003.

AT late XIX century, dictionaries were first published in Russia, which included the characteristic "complete" in their name. As an example, the following publications can be mentioned: Orlov A.I. Complete philological dictionary of the Russian language with detailed explanation all differences colloquial speech from its written image and indicating the meaning and replacement of all foreign words included in the Russian language with purely Russian words: In 2 volumes. M., 1884-1885; The most complete explanatory dictionary, which contains 200,000 foreign words included in the Russian language of our Russian literature / Comp. Kartashev, Velsky / Ed. Luchinsky. Ed. 9. - M., 1896-1897. - 208 p. In such cases, the word "complete" denoted such a dictionary, which presumably contains all the words found in Russian texts. Asking the question what, in fact, it means: to compile a complete explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, Lev Uspensky wrote: “Try, comparing the old and newer lexicons of the common Russian language with each other, to find out where the countless new words and terms that have been added to it in recent years have come from. a hundred years. You will soon notice: the vast majority of them were not created at the desks of writers, not by the inspiration of poets or linguists. They were born in the tense atmosphere of inventive laboratories, in noisy factory workshops, in the fields where a person works, creating at once both new things and new words necessary for their name. (...) Who can say in advance which of the professional words - whether the word “booty”, which is different from the literary “booty” by the place of stress, or the expression “to the mountain”, used instead of the usual “on the mountain” or “up” - will firmly enter into it tomorrow? Obviously, we need a dictionary and professional, industrial, special words and expressions. AT scientific classifications In dictionaries, the term “complete” denotes the type of edition containing the exhaustive composition of those layers and categories of vocabulary that serve as the object of description of this reference book. In this sense, the dictionary complete type can be considered orthographic dictionary Russian language, ed. V. V. Lopatin, and the Big Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, ed. S. A. Kuznetsova, and Pushkin's Dictionary of Language in 4 volumes, and Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language in 17 volumes. According to the nature of the selection of vocabulary, full-type dictionaries are "Pskov Regional Dictionary", "Dictionary of Bryansk Dialects". They describe all the words (literary language and dialect) recorded in the speech of the indigenous inhabitants of this territory. According to this criterion, such reference publications as the “System Dictionary of Subject-Ordinary Vocabulary of Dialects of the Talitsky District of the Sverdlovsk Region”, as well as the “Complete Dictionary of the Siberian Dialect” or “Vershininsky Dictionary”, describing the vocabulary of one village, can be classified as full-type dictionaries. Dictionaries of full type are opposed to dictionaries of differential type. The dictionary of such dictionaries is selected according to some one differentiating parameter. This may be a sign of difficulty in the speech use of the word, the limited scope of the use of the word on a territorial, temporal, social, professional basis, etc.

Dictionaries of neologisms describe words, meanings of words and phrases that appeared in a certain (described) period. Developed languages ​​are actively replenished with new words. Studies show that the number of neologisms that are used in speech practice is in the tens of thousands. With the advent computer technology, allowing to process huge arrays of unstructured textual information, there is a need for automatic analysis of word forms, including newly formed ones. This made the collection and description of new words especially relevant, which, in turn, led to the emergence of a new lexicographic branch of knowledge - neography. In the USSR, the first dictionary of this type "New words and meanings: Dictionary reference book (based on the materials of the press and literature of the 60s)" ed. N. Z. Kotelova, Yu. S. Sorokin was released in Leningrad in 1971. Since then, work on the collection and analysis of new vocabulary has been carried out on an ongoing basis. As an example, one can point to the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language at the Beginning of the 21st Century: Actual Vocabulary”, ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya.

Grammar dictionaries are dictionaries that contain information about the formal (inflectional and syntactic) properties of a word. The order of words in such dictionaries can be either direct, when the words are arranged in alphabetical order from the first letter that begins the word to the last letter of the word, or in reverse, when the words are arranged alphabetically, starting with the last letter of the word. The reverse order allows readers to present word-formation properties of the word. The principles of selection and the amount of information about a word are different depending on the purpose and addressee of each grammar dictionary. One of the best dictionaries of this type is the Grammar Dictionary of the Russian Language. Inflection” by A. A. Zaliznyak. It contains about 100 thousand words arranged in reverse alphabetical order. For detailed description integrated system inflections, shaping and stress in the dictionary uses a unique system of indexes relating the word to a certain category.

Phraseological dictionaries as headings of dictionary entries contain phrases that are reproduced in speech practice in their entirety, without rearrangements or changes in their parts. Phraseological units are one of the most conservative categories of vocabulary. The specific properties of these language units determined by a number of important distinguishing features: semantic integrity, stability and super-verbal reproducibility. There are many phraseological dictionaries. Among them is the "Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" ed. A. I. Molotkova is by far the most complete dictionary. To educational dictionaries general type include "School phrasebook Russian language "V. P. Zhukov and A. V. Zhukov, Dictionary-reference book on Russian phraseology" R. I. Yarantsev. The most complete bilingual phraseological dictionary is the “French-Russian Phraseological Dictionary” by V. G. Gak and others.

Reference publications, distinguished by the sectoral (i.e. professional) sign of the limited scope of the use of the word, include dictionaries that interpret the meanings of words, and encyclopedic reference books that describe our knowledge of the world. As a dictionary of the first type, you can point to the "Explanatory Dictionary of Selected medical terms. Eponyms and figurative expressions” / Ed. L. P. Churilov, A. V. Kolobov, Yu. I. Stroev. There are many more examples of the second type, for example: "Naval Dictionary" / Ch. ed. V. N. Chernavin. - M.: Military Publishing, 1990; Encyclopedic edition “Political science. Lexicon / Editor A. I. Solovyov. M.: Russian political encyclopedia; Geography. Concepts and terms = Geography. Concepts and Terms: five-language academic dictionary: Russian, English, French, Spanish, German V. M. Kotlyakov, A. I. Komarova. M.: Nauka, 2007 and others.

The purpose of language guides of this type is to indicate the normative spelling of the word that corresponds to the rules of spelling. One of the first dictionaries of this type was published in 1813 under the title "Dictionary of Russian Spelling or Spelling". Since then, a wide variety of general, branch, school dictionaries of this type have been published. The most complete dictionary of a general type today is the Russian Spelling Dictionary: about 180 thousand words, resp. ed. V. V. Lopatin. This is an academic dictionary that reflects the Russian vocabulary in its current state by the end of the 20th century - beginning of XXI century. Heading words are given in their normative spelling with indication of stresses and necessary grammatical information.

Dictionaries of this type contain information about the morphemic articulation of the word, its word-formation structure. Such directories provide information about the structure of the word and the elements of which this word consists. In word-building dictionaries, words are collected both by root nests and in alphabetical order. Some school dictionaries of this type provide a description of both the morphemic and word-formation structure of head words. This helps students to better understand the issues that are encountered in the state final exam in the Russian language.

You rarely meet a person who has not looked into the dictionary at least once in his life. With their help, we not only learn the meaning of certain words, select synonyms or antonyms, but also learn a lot of new things.

Let's talk about what dictionaries are, what is their classification and remember the main "linguistic reference books" of the Russian language.

Dictionary Science

Lexicography is one of the branches of linguistics that deals with the problems of studying and compiling dictionaries. It is she who is engaged in the classification, puts forward requirements for the design of articles and their content.

Scholars who compile dictionaries call themselves lexicographers. It is important to note that dictionaries do not have authors, only compilers. This is due to the fact that they are compiled using special cards, on which the meanings of words and their forms are fixed. In this case, the compiler can use both cards collected by him personally, and cards collected by a whole staff of linguists.

Classification of modern dictionaries

All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and philological, or linguistic.

Encyclopedic dictionaries provide information about various events. A striking example of such a dictionary is BES - the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary. The encyclopedia includes

What are linguistic dictionaries? This group of dictionaries deals directly with words and their interpretation. They are also divided into bilingual and monolingual.

Bilingual dictionaries contain the language and their foreign language equivalent.

Monolingual dictionaries are divided into groups depending on their purpose.

The most used types of dictionaries

What are the types of dictionaries? Among the monolingual dictionaries, the following should be distinguished:

Famous dictionaries of the Russian language

Let's now discuss what are the dictionaries of the Russian language.

• The most famous is the Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language, compiled by the famous scientist V. I. Dahl. This guide contains about 200 thousand words. Despite the fact that it is already more than a century old, it is read one of the most complete and used in our time.
• The second no less important "Explanatory Dictionary", compiled by another well-known linguist S.I. Ozhegov.
• The Orthoepic Dictionary was published by two different linguists - R. I. Avanesov and I. L. Reznichenko. Both dictionaries have an impressive list of words and will be useful not only for schoolchildren and students.
• We also note the "Dictionary of Synonyms" by Z. E. Aleksandrova and the "Dictionary of Antonyms" edited by L. A. Vvedenskaya.

What other dictionaries are there? You can find out the history of many words familiar to us by referring to the work of N. M. Shansky “A Brief Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language”, and A. I. Molotkov’s “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language” will help you get acquainted with phraseological units and their meaning.

It is also worth noting the "Dictionary of the difficulties of the Russian language" edited by the famous Russian philologist, author of many monographs and a collection of rules of the Russian language D. E. Rozental and M. A. Telenkova.

The structure of a dictionary entry

In conclusion, I would like to add a few words about the structure of the dictionary entry.

Any dictionary entry begins with a heading word, which is often written in capital letters and highlighted in bold.

We note right away that the words used in dictionaries are always spelled correctly, therefore, if you doubt the correct spelling of a word, it is not necessary to refer to a spelling dictionary. It is enough to open any available at your fingertips.

Most dictionaries also indicate correct stress. Almost all Russian dictionaries will contain this information. What other notes are there?

After the header the words are coming information about what part of speech it belongs to. Then its meaning is described or there is a list of synonyms, antonyms - it all depends on the type of dictionary. The dictionary entry ends with examples of use - quotes from books, magazines. If this word has features in use, this information is also indicated at the end of the article.

conclusions

We have sorted out what lexicography is, what dictionaries are and their meaning, listed the main types, and also provided a list of the most useful for any educated person.

Remember, if you experience difficulties in writing or pronouncing a word, you cannot choose the most successful one, you just need to open one of the books we have listed.

27. Typology of dictionaries

Typology of oppositions

The first in Russian science to address the problem of the typology of dictionaries was L. V. Shcherba. He proposed a classification of dictionaries based on 6 opposites:

Dictionary of academic type - dictionary-reference. The dictionary of the academic type is normative, describing the lexical system of a given language: it should not contain facts that contradict modern usage. In contrast to academic dictionaries, reference dictionaries can contain information about a wider range of words that go beyond the boundaries of the standard literary language.

Encyclopedic Dictionary - General Dictionary. Contrasting encyclopedic (describe a thing, reality) and linguistic dictionaries (describe words)

Thesaurus - ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary. A thesaurus is a dictionary that lists all the words that appear at least once in a given language.

Ordinary (explanatory or translation) dictionary - ideological (ideographic ) dictionary. In the ideological dictionary, words-concepts should be classified in such a way as to show their living relationship.

Dictionary - translation dictionary

Non-historical dictionary - historical dictionary

Linguistic and encyclopedic dictionaries

Of particular note is the distinction linguistic(primarily sensible) and encyclopedic dictionaries, which, first of all, lies in the fact that encyclopedic dictionaries describe concepts (depending on the volume and addressee of the dictionary, more or less detailed scientific information is given), in explanatory dictionaries - linguistic meanings. There are many entries in encyclopedic dictionaries in which proper names are the heading word.

An example of a dictionary entry from a linguistic dictionary:

MARMOT, -r to a, m. A small rodent of the fam. squirrel, living in burrows and hibernating in winter.

An example of a dictionary entry from an encyclopedic dictionary:

Marmots, a genus of mammals of this family. squirrels. Body length up to 60 cm, tail less than 1/2 body length. 13 species, in the North. hemispheres (excluding deserts and tundras); in Russia several types. Object of trade (fur, fat, meat). They may be carriers of the plague pathogen. Some species are rare and protected.

encyclopedias

The point of view is expressed: The encyclopedia is not a dictionary and has nothing to do with lexicography. The only reason to consider it a dictionary is the arrangement of the designations of the described realities in alphabetical order».

Today, however, lexicographers are increasingly inclined to a different point of view: The main "hero" of the linguistic dictionary is the word, the main " actor» encyclopedic dictionary - a thing, a reality with its parameters. Linguists describebeing words , their forms and meanings, the authors of encyclopedias systematizebeing of reality with its things that have spatio-temporal and other characteristics. But these two beings are not isolated from each other, and in fact linguists are always forced to deal with the problems of things, and "encyclopedists" with the problems of words. The boundary between "words" and "things", passing in our minds, is conditional, and sometimes elusive»

Typological features

There are dictionaries:

From point of view selection vocabulary.

• Thesaurus Dictionaries

  Dictionaries in which vocabulary is selected according to certain parameters

  • by area of ​​use

    • colloquial

      colloquial

      dialectal

      terminological

      poetic vocabulary

  historical perspective

  • archaisms

    historicism

    neologisms

  origin

  • foreign words

    internationalisms

  characterization of word types

  • cuts

    onomastic

    occasionalisms

  source

In terms of disclosure of individual aspects(parameters) words

• etymological

  grammatical

  spelling

  orthoepic

  service word dictionaries

In terms of disclosure systemic relations between words

• nesting

  derivational

  homonymous

  paronymic dictionaries (plan of expressions)

  synonymous, antonymous dictionaries (content plan).

in terms of choice units of description

• morphemes

• combinations

  phraseological units

  quotes

In terms of describing a particular diachronic cut

• historical

  different eras of modern language

From point of view functional aspect

• by frequency

  • frequency

    rare words

by stylistic use

• metaphors

  epithets

  comparisons

  expressive vocabulary

according to the normative characteristic

• difficulties

  correctness

By direction presentation of the material

• based on form

  • reverse

• ideographic

  thematic

Modern dictionaries of the Russian language

explanatory dictionaries

terminological dictionaries

dictionaries of neologisms

dynamic dictionaries

dictionaries of foreign words

glossary of translation terms

synonym dictionaries

antonym dictionaries

homonym dictionaries

paronym dictionaries

dictionaries of new words

dictionaries "New in Russian vocabulary"

phraseological dictionaries

ideographic dictionaries

associative dictionaries

grammar dictionaries

illustrated dictionaries

compatibility dictionaries

dictionaries "winged words"

epithet dictionaries

dictionaries of obscene vocabulary (vulgar, profanity, rude vernacular)

slang dictionaries

word-building dictionaries

spelling dictionaries

spelling dictionaries

rhyming dictionaries

translator's dictionary

dictionary of commonly used words and phrases in scientific and technical literature

compatibility dictionaries

dictionaries of difficulties of the Russian language

dictionaries of rare and obsolete words

abbreviation dictionaries

writers' language dictionaries

etymological dictionaries

historical dictionaries

dialect dictionaries

children's speech dictionaries

anthroponymic dictionaries

toponymic dictionaries

linguistic and cultural dictionaries

linguistic and cultural dictionaries

frequency dictionaries

complex educational dictionaries

dictionaries of linguistic terms

stress dictionaries

monolingual dictionaries

bilingual dictionaries

multilingual dictionaries

consolidated dictionary of Russian vocabulary

youth jargon dictionaries

jargon dictionaries

dictionaries of regional dialects

thematic dictionaries

special dictionaries

dictionaries marked chipboard (for official use)

End of the 20th century marked by an unprecedented rise in vocabulary. Various fragments of the language picture of the world, levels language system, various aspects scientific knowledge embodied in dictionary form. Modern domestic lexicography provides the recipient of dictionary information with a wide range of a wide variety of dictionaries. The variety of aspects of dictionary information often does not allow giving a lexicographic publication an unambiguous description, which can make it difficult to search for it. Even in bibliographic reference books and catalogs, finding the right dictionaries can be difficult. It is even more difficult to determine what is the volume and nature of the information contained in a particular dictionary, what lexicographic publications it is advisable to refer to when solving emerging linguistic, methodological and other issues. Thus, the task of creating a typology of dictionaries is dictated by the practical needs of generalizing and systematizing the available lexicographic products. At the same time, the problem of dictionary typology is one of the most important in the theory of lexicography, since it allows not only to comprehend what has already been done, but also to predict the creation of new types of dictionaries, determine the nature of lexicographic projects, and stimulate the efforts of lexicographers in different directions.

The type of a dictionary is determined by the basic information it contains, its general purpose. L. V. Shcherba was the first in Russian science to address the problem of the typology of dictionaries. In his article "Experience general theory lexicography" (Shcherba 1974), he proposed a classification of dictionaries based on six opposites.

Special attention deserves the distinction between linguistic (primarily explanatory) and encyclopedic dictionaries, which primarily consists in the fact that concepts are described in encyclopedic dictionaries (depending on the volume and addressee of the dictionary, more or less detailed scientific information is given), in explanatory dictionaries - lexical meanings . Let's compare the interpretations in the Dictionary of the Russian Language (MAC) and the Soviet Encyclopedic Dictionary (SES) (M, 1986):

<…>ANTIMONY (lat. Stibium), Sb, chem. element of group V periodic. Mendeleev systems, at. n. 51, at. m. 121.75. Name from tour. surme. Forms several modifications. Normal S. (so-called gray) - bluish-white crystals. Density 6.69 g / cm 3, t pl. 630.5°C. It does not change in air. The most important mineral is antimonite (antimony shine). Component of alloys based on lead and tin (battery, printing, bearing, etc.), semiconductor. materials (SES).

ANTIMONY, -s, w. 1. Chemical element, silver brittle metal (used in engineering and medicine). 2. Paint for blackening hair, eyebrows, eyelashes [from pers. surma - metal] (MAC).

A significant place in encyclopedic dictionaries is occupied by dictionary entries, the headword in which are proper names.

Here it is appropriate to recall the controversial remark of N. Z. Kotelova: "The encyclopedia is not a dictionary and has nothing to do with lexicography. The only reason to consider it a dictionary is the arrangement of the designations of the described realities in alphabetical order" (Kotelova 1976: 30). Today, lexicographers are increasingly inclined to a different point of view: "The main "character" of a linguistic dictionary is a word, the main" character "of an encyclopedic dictionary is a thing, a reality with its parameters. Linguists describe the existence of words, their forms and meanings, the authors of encyclopedias systematize the existence of reality with its things that have spatio-temporal and other characteristics.But these two beings are not isolated from each other, and in fact, linguists are always forced to deal with the problems of things, and "encyclopedists" with the problems of words. The boundary between "words" and "things", passing through our consciousness is conditional, transparent, and sometimes elusive" (Elistratov 1997: 7). Reflection in the explanatory dictionary of the necessary extralinguistic information only increases the information potential of the dictionary entry, allows you to more fully show different aspects of the existence of the word. Such an approach meets the actual tasks of modern lexicography (see: Gak 1998; Kalakutskaya 1991; Kalakutskaya 1995; Krysin 1990; Sklyarevskaya 1994). This position is fully consistent with modern ideas about the constant interaction of linguistic and encyclopedic knowledge in the psychological structure of the meaning of a word: "The individual lexicon stores word forms and meanings of words, which together act as a means of access to a person's information base, which, in turn, ensures the formation of a psychological structure of the meaning of a word at the junction of the system-wide meaning and the whole complex of knowledge and experiences, without which the word form remains just a certain sequence of sounds or graphemes, and the system-wide meaning does not give access to some fragment of the individual picture of the world" (Zalevskaya 1999: 167).

R. M. Frumkina correlates the typology of dictionaries with the model of linguistic consciousness, noting that practical lexicography "is ultimately oriented toward a more or less naive perception. With the difference that general dictionaries should be a kind of model of a truly naive linguistic consciousness, i. that is, the linguistic consciousness of a non-reflective individual, and scientific dictionaries - to be adequate both to the naive layer of the linguistic consciousness of a professional, and to the deeper part of this consciousness, i.e., to a special professional instinct" (Frumkina 1989: 45).

Modern researchers, developing the ideas of L. V. Shcherba, proceed from the fact that the typology of dictionaries, on the one hand, allows you to determine the status of each dictionary, and on the other hand, it has a predictive power, opens up a perspective for lexicographers. Thus, V. V. Morkovkin emphasizes that the typology of dictionaries should give rise to free ("Mendeleev") places in the classification, which make it possible to predict and create new types of dictionaries. Given the impossibility of reducing the typology of dictionaries to a classification on a single basis, he suggests three types of bases for classification: "what"-grounds, "how"-grounds and "for whom"-grounds. The former determine the object of the dictionary description, the latter determine the nature of the material arrangement, the way information is found, the third determine the specifics of the dictionary in connection with the image of the addressee, his national, age, professional and other capabilities (Morkovkin 1983: 130-132).

P. N. Denisov believes that the typology of dictionaries is determined by four main coordinates: 1) linguistic (explanatory, ideographic and aspect - synonymous, antonymic, homonymous, etc. - dictionaries are distinguished along this coordinate); 2) psychological, associated with the properties and characteristics of the user (on this coordinate, dictionaries for native speakers, for foreigners, for computers are allocated); 3) semiotic (this coordinate sets the symbolic specifics of the dictionary, the originality of the metalanguage, the set of means of fixing information - fonts, highlights, colors, tables, symbols); 4) sociological (this coordinate involves taking into account the characteristics of a given culture, this society, native speaker of the given language; for example, linguocultural dictionaries, dictionaries for works of Russian classical literature of the 19th century are specially oriented towards this) (Denisov 1980: 210-211).

Emphasizing the targeted orientation of lexicographic products, Yu. A. Belchikov and G. Ya. Solganik propose a grouping of dictionaries, determined by the requests of potential users, among which the following main groups stand out: native speakers, non-native language learners, linguists. Thus, different categories of native speakers (a special place among them belongs to students) are in dire need of "first aid lexicographic" dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, spelling, orthoepic). Those who read texts for different purposes (literary editor, student, teacher-philologist, researcher-philologist) need dictionaries that provide information about the paradigmatic relationships of words. Those who work on the creation of texts need dictionaries that provide information about the compatibility of words. At the same time, the task of creating a comprehensive explanatory normative-stylistic dictionary remains relevant (Belchikov, Solganik 1997).

V. G. Gak, bearing in mind the variety of already created dictionaries and the possibility of new types of lexicographic publications, notes the presence of more or less wide dictionary series within the same type. The central type of lexicographic publications is an explanatory monolingual dictionary. In other dictionaries, as a rule, there is a combination of several typological features.

From the point of view of vocabulary selection, thesaurus-type dictionaries (the most complete ones) are opposed to those in which vocabulary is selected according to certain parameters: a) according to the area of ​​​​use (dictionaries of colloquial, colloquial vocabulary, dialect; slang; terminological; poetic, etc.); b) according to the historical perspective (dictionaries of archaisms, historicisms, neologisms); c) by origin (dictionaries of foreign words, internationalisms); d) according to the characteristics of certain types of words (abbreviations, onomastic, occasionalisms); e) by source (dictionaries of individual authors).

From the point of view of revealing certain aspects of the word (parameters), etymological, grammatical, spelling, orthoepic dictionaries, dictionaries of function words, etc. are distinguished.

In terms of disclosure systemic relations nested, derivational, homonymous, paronymic dictionaries (expression plan) are distinguished between words; synonymous, antonymic dictionaries (content plan).

From the point of view of choosing a unit of description, the following are distinguished: a) dictionaries of morphemes, roots (a unit of description is less than a word); b) dictionaries of phrases, phraseological units, quotations, etc. (a unit of description is more than a word).

From the point of view of describing a certain diachronic section, historical dictionaries, dictionaries of different eras of the modern language are distinguished.

From the point of view of the functional aspect, words are distinguished: a) by frequency - frequency dictionaries, dictionaries of rare words; b) by stylistic use - dictionaries of metaphors, epithets, comparisons, expressive vocabulary; c) by normative characteristics - dictionaries of difficulties, correctness.

According to the direction of the presentation of the material (with a deviation from the usual alphabetic), the following are distinguished: a) based on the form, reverse dictionaries, dictionaries of rhymes; b) based on the content, ideographic, thematic dictionaries. Each type of dictionary, which has its own central task, implies its own set of lexicographic solutions (Gak 1988: 44-46).

An attempt to build a universal, deep and promising classification scheme of dictionaries was made by A. M. Tsyvin (Tsyvin 1978). Each object of classification (dictionary) is proposed to be determined by eight features, in connection with which eight classification schemes are built. The elementary features on which the dictionary classification is based are head vocabulary block(left side of the dictionary) and development of the head vocabulary block(right side of the dictionary). Their combination forms a dictionary entry.

The first classification scheme is based on the ratio of the right and left sides of the dictionary. All dictionaries are divided into unilateral(having only the left part, for example, spelling, reverse) and bilateral. Bilateral (having a left and right side) are divided into transferable and non-transferable. Bilateral non-translatable dictionaries either explain the meaning of a word or explain its form and function, with the left and right parts being in the same language. Explanatory dictionaries are all explanatory dictionaries. Explanatory are divided into functional (frequency, stylistic, dictionaries of difficulties, etc.) and form-explaining, giving a complete grammatical description of the word (grammar dictionaries).

It should be borne in mind that there are no purely explanatory explanatory dictionaries, they necessarily contain information of an explanatory nature (about pronunciation, stylistic use, grammatical characteristics).

The second classification scheme is based on the way the head vocabulary block is positioned. On this basis, all dictionaries are divided into alphabetic and non-alphabetic. Alphabetical dictionaries are divided into strictly alphabetic (direct and reverse) and nesting(cf., for example, the dictionary of V. I. Dahl). Non-alphabetic dictionaries are divided into thematic(the words in them are arranged according to conceptual groups denoting certain fragments of the linguistic picture of the world) and statistical(the words in them are arranged in decreasing or increasing frequency).

The third classification scheme is based on the attribute of the composition of the head vocabulary block. It contrasts lexicon(on the left side of the dictionary are words or parts of words) and phrase-monger(word combinations or sentences are presented on the left side of the dictionary). Lexicons are divided into glossaries(the head vocabulary block is equal to the word) and morphemaria(the head vocabulary block is equal to the morpheme).

The fourth classification scheme is based on the nature of the selection of the head vocabulary block (left part of the dictionary). Contrasted in this scheme thesauri and atezaurus. Thesauri reflect the entire vocabulary of a particular object without any selection. At the same time, general thesauri register in general all the words of a given language (which is practically impossible), branch thesauri register the words of a certain system (a separate dialect, a separate science or industry) without selecting. Atezaurus are based on a certain sequential system of selection.

Fifth classification scheme. In it, the main distinguishing feature is the display object. From this point of view, all dictionaries are divided into general and private. General dictionaries are divided into dictionaries of the national language and dictionaries of the literary language, however, there is no clear distinction between these two types in Russian lexicography. Private dictionaries, in turn, subdivided into dictionaries of the bookish language and dictionaries of the non-bookish language, are represented by dictionaries of the language of the newspaper, dictionaries of the language of individual writers and individual works, and regional dictionaries.

The sixth classification scheme is based on the reflection in the dictionary of historical processes. From this point of view, all dictionaries are divided into synchronous and diachronic. In synchronous dictionaries, vocabulary is considered outside the movement of the vocabulary. The diachronic dictionary reflects the dynamics of the vocabulary of a certain time slice. Diachronic dictionaries are divided into promising, marking new words and meanings, and retrospective, which, in turn, are divided into etymological and historical.

The seventh classification scheme is built on the basis of the purpose and purpose of the dictionary. The main opposition here is the opposition educational dictionaries and reference dictionaries. educational dictionaries, monolingual and bilingual, designed for language learners. A reference dictionary is seen as a type of dictionary where the reader can find help for any words whose meaning or usage is not clear to him. Reference dictionaries are divided into normative, which determine the exemplary use of linguistic means, and descriptive, describing as fully as possible the existing word usage of the entire language or its fragment.

The eighth classification scheme is related to what words are presented on the left side of the dictionary - proper names or common nouns. The main opposition is here:

onomasticons are appellatives. Onomasticons are divided into anthroponymic and non-anthroponymic(for example, toponymic) dictionaries.

The presented classification makes it possible to give a three-dimensional characteristic to all dictionaries of the Russian language, to compare them according to the same type of differential features. For example, D.N. Ushakov's "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" is characterized as explanatory direct strictly alphabetic ordinary glossary athesaurus of the literary language of the synchronous type and scientific and normative reference dictionary (appellative). Such a characteristic of each dictionary accurately determines its place in the system of lexicographic publications, adequately reflects the specifics of its structure, information potential. The predictive possibilities of the proposed classification are also obvious.

The multidimensionality and multilayer nature of the presented scientific typologies of lexicographic publications does not allow using them for the purpose of practical arrangement of the material.

A purely practical character is the typology of philological dictionaries, developed by the publishing house "Russian language" (Modern state and development trends of domestic lexicography 1988: 214-218). It is based on the subject, the addressee of the dictionary and the volume of the dictionary:

I. Dictionaries describing the lexical system of the Russian language. 1. Explanatory dictionaries of various sizes for various categories of readers. 2. Dictionaries of new words. 3. Dictionaries of foreign words. 4. Dictionaries that reflect the systematic nature of relationships between words (aspect dictionaries): dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms. 5. Dictionaries of phraseology and proverbs. 6. Dictionaries on onomastics and toponymy. II. Dictionaries describing the grammatical system of the Russian language. III. Compatibility dictionaries. IV. Word formation dictionaries. V. Dictionaries of orthoepy. VI. Spelling dictionaries. VII. Difficulty dictionaries. VIII. Dictionaries on etymology. IX. Historical dictionaries. X. Dictionaries of the language of writers. XI. Reference books on vocabulary literature. XII. Dictionaries of terms in linguistics. XIII. Monuments of Russian lexicography. XIV. Dictionaries on linguistic statistics<…>.

Obviously, to create a voluminous lexicographic portrait of a word or a group of words, it is necessary to access dictionaries of various types, to various databases, which is not easy to implement in practice. Computer lexicography of the XXI century. should change this situation: "The possibilities of computer lexicography should lead to the fact that in the future the difference between a dictionary card index and a ready-made dictionary should decrease and eventually disappear: an innumerable number of different types of dictionaries should be programmatically generated from a lexicographically processed automated dictionary file" (Andryushchenko 1986 : 40). Undoubtedly, there will be new types of dictionaries that meet the ever-increasing needs of users.

ASPECTS OF THE LEXICOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF A WORD

IN VARIOUS TYPES OF DICTIONARIES

I think that every person, at least once in his life, opened a dictionary. Let's find out what they are.

A dictionary is a collection of words with explanations and interpretations. The words that are given in the collection are located in alphabetical order, that's why those who know the alphabet using a dictionary is much easier.

Many people know that there are many dictionaries. There are dictionaries for specialists, for a wide range of readers, for schoolchildren. Depending on the tasks of the dictionary, the composition of words will be different, they will be located and explained differently.

• If you are interested in what this or that word means, in what cases it is appropriate to use it, please contact explanatory dictionary. One can guess that since it is named INTELLIGENT, means, explain everything about the word that interests you, including information about the stress in the word, its spelling, the most typical phrases.

The most famous "Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language" by S.I. Ozhegov.

• If you have difficulty with stress and pronunciation, contact orthoepic dictionary.

The most famous pronouncing dictionary Russian Literary Pronunciation and Stress, ed. R. I. Avanesova and S. I. Ozhegov.

• To understand the meaning of a particular phraseological expression will help phrasebook.

The most famous "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" by V.P. Zhukov in collaboration with A.V. Zhukov (under the editorship of G.V. Karpyuk).

• An explanation of proverbs and sayings, winged words and figurative expressions will give dictionaries of proverbs, sayings and winged words.

Known dictionaries:

1) V. P. Zhukov. Dictionary of Russian Proverbs and Sayings.

2)C. N. Zigunenko, A. F. Istomin. "A unique illustrated explanatory dictionary of aphorisms and winged words for children".

• Choosing the right synonym from synonymous series prompt synonym dictionary.

The most famous "Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language" 3. E. Alexandrova.

• You can learn how to spell words correctly from spelling dictionary.

The most famous "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language" by D.N. Ushakov, S.E. Kryuchkov.