Alexander Danilov - a brief historical dictionary. Glossary of concepts and terms in history

Absolute monarchy- autocracy, a state in which the monarch has unlimited power. At the same time, a powerful bureaucratic apparatus, the army and the police are being created, and the activities of the governing bodies are being stopped.
Autocracy- uncontrolled autocracy of one person.
Autonomy- the right to exercise power independently (within certain predetermined limits) for a part public education on its territory.
Authoritarianism- an anti-democratic system of political power, usually combined with elements of personal dictatorship.
Agora- the square where free citizens gathered, - the people's assembly in the ancient Greek city-state.
Aggressor- a state carrying out an armed encroachment on the sovereignty, territory or political system of another state.
Administration- a set of governing bodies.
Administrative-territorial division- division of the country's territory into smaller units with their own governing bodies.
Acropolis- fortified part of the ancient city.
Amnesty- exemption from criminal or other liability.
Anarchy- anarchy, disobedience to laws, permissiveness.
Entente- the alliance of England, Russia and France against Germany in the First World War;
Anti-Hitler coalition- an alliance of countries that fought against Nazi Germany and other Axis powers - the USSR, Great Britain, the USA, France, China, Yugoslavia, Poland, etc.
Aristocracy- tribal nobility, the upper class.
Auto-da-fe- public execution of heretics by the verdict of the Inquisition.
Balance of power (balance, balancing)- Approximate equality of the military potentials of the opposing sides.
Corvee- forced labor of a serf in the household of a feudal lord.
Blockade- a system of political and economic measures aimed at disrupting the external relations of any state. It is used to isolate a blocked object.
Bourgeoisie- the class of owners using hired labor. Income provides the appropriation of surplus value - the difference between the costs of the entrepreneur and his profit.
buffer states- countries located between the warring states, dividing them and thus ensuring the absence of common borders and contact of armies hostile to each other.
Bureaucracy- the dominance of bureaucracy, the power of papers, when the centers of executive power are practically independent of the people. Characterized by formalism and arbitrariness.
vandals- an ancient Germanic tribe that captured and plundered Rome. In a figurative sense - savages, enemies of culture.
Vassal- feudal lord, dependent on his lord. Carried certain duties and fought on the side of the lord.
Great Migration- the movement of Germans, Slavs, Huns, etc. on the territory of the former. Roman Empire in the IV-VII centuries.
verbal note- form of current interstate correspondence.
Veche- National Assembly in Ancient Russia (Novgorod, Pskov)
Vote- an opinion expressed by a vote.
Hague conventions- international agreements on the laws and customs of warfare (adopted in The Hague in 1899 and 1907), on the protection of cultural property (1954), on private international law, etc.
Coat of arms- a distinctive sign of the country, region, noble family.
Hetman- military leader, head of the "registered" Cossacks in the XVI-XVIII centuries. in Ukraine.
Guild- the union of merchants, merchants, artisans in the Middle Ages.
State anthem- a solemn song, the official symbol of the state.
State- an association of people (population) living in the same territory and subject to the same laws and orders of a common authority for all.
Democracy- a form of state and society based on the recognition of the people as a source of power and a participant in governance.
Demonstration- procession, rally or other form of mass expression of sentiment in society.
Denunciation- refusal of one of the parties to continue to comply with previously concluded agreements, contracts, etc.
Depression- the phase of economic development following the crisis of overproduction. Synonym - stagnation. Great Depression - economic and political crisis of 1929-1933 in the USA.
Despot- a ruler who oppresses his subjects autocratically and uncontrollably.
Dictatorship - political regime, meaning the complete domination of an individual or social group.
Dynasty- a succession of relatives - the rulers of the state.
doge- the head of the Venetian and Genoese republics in the Middle Ages.
Druzhina- a permanent armed detachment, the army of the prince,
Heresy- Deviation from religiously prescribed views.
EEC (European Economic Community, Common Market)- an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of eliminating all restrictions on trade between its members.
Iron curtain- so in the West they called the border between the countries of the Warsaw Pact (“communist”) and the rest of the world.
Law- a set of rules, the implementation of which is mandatory for all.
Zaporizhzhya Sich- organization of the Ukrainian Cossacks, a military republic headed by a ataman in the 16th-18th centuries. with the center behind the Dnieper rapids, on the islands.
Insulation- creation of insurmountable barriers between the states or public groups.
Imperialism-. the phase of development of society, when competing financial-industrial groupings, monopolistically owning the market, control all areas of life and merge with state power.
Empire- a monarchy or despotism that has colonial possessions or includes heterogeneous elements.
industrial revolution- transition to a qualitatively new level of engineering and technology, leading to a sharp increase in labor productivity and output.
Inquisition- in the XIII-XIX centuries. court system in catholic church independent of secular power. She persecuted dissidents and heretics, used torture and executions.
Cossacks- the military class in Russia in the XVI-XX centuries. It arose on the Dnieper, Don, Volga, Ural, Terek in the form of free communities, was the main driving force popular uprisings in Ukraine and Russia. In the XVIII century. turned into a privileged military class. At the beginning of the XX century. there were 11 Cossack troops (Don, Kuban, Orenburg, Transbaikal, Terskoe, Semirechenskoe, Ural, Ussuri, Siberian, Astrakhan, Amur), numbering a total of 4.4 million people, over 53 million acres of land. Since 1920, as an estate, it has been abolished. In 1936, Cossack formations were created that took part in the war; in the 40s. disbanded. From the end of the 80s. the revival of the Cossacks began; the total number in the CIS is over 5 million people.
Capitalism- a social formation based on private ownership of the instruments and means of production, a system of free enterprise and hired labor.
Class- large group people whose role in the economic system of society and in relation to property is similar.
Communism- social order rejecting private ownership of the means of production. The theory was developed by K. Marx, f. Engels, V.I. Lenin. An attempt to build such a system was made in 1917-1991. in the USSR.
Conservatism- adherence to the old, established, distrust of everything new and rejection of changes in society.
A constitutional monarchy- a system of government in which the power of the monarch is limited by law (usually the constitution).
Constitution is the fundamental law of the state.
Counterintelligence - activity special services to suppress intelligence (espionage) activities of the relevant bodies of other countries on their own territory.
Confederation- a form of association of countries in which they fully retain their independence, but have common (joint) bodies to coordinate certain actions. As a rule, these are foreign policy, communications, transport, and the armed forces. An example is the Swiss Confederation.
A crisis- a period of acute difficulties in the economy. It is characterized by an increase in unemployment, mass bankruptcies, impoverishment of the population, etc.
Cro-Magnon- primitive; an ancient representative of the modern human species (Homo sapiens, Homo sapiens). He was preceded by a Neanderthal.
Liberal - supporter of individual freedom and freedom of enterprise.
Matriarchy- the structure of society, characterized by the dominant position of women. Kinship and inheritance were considered maternal. Was distributed in initial period tribal structure.
Monarchy - a state headed by a king, tsar, emperor, etc., whose power is usually inherited.
People- the entire population of one country (less often - a part of the population, homogeneous in ethnic composition).
NATO- The North Atlantic Alliance, a military-political bloc of European states, as well as the United States and Canada.
National Socialism - ideology of the German Nazis. It is characterized by blind obedience to the "Fuhrer", a sense of superiority over other peoples, permissiveness in relation to the "lower", the desire for world domination.
National symbols - a set of symbols, images, color combinations inherent in certain national, ethnic or territorial communities. It is used in the coats of arms and flags of states and other entities.
The national liberation movement is the struggle for the independence of an ethnic group or the entire population of a colony, as well as the struggle for the economic and political independence of a part of the population of a multinational country.
Nation - the historical community of people that has developed due to the commonality of their territory, economic ties, literature, language, culture and character.
quitrent - natural or monetary duty of the peasants to the feudal lord.
Common Market - the same as the EEC (an organization founded in 1957 with the aim of removing all restrictions on trade between its members).
Oprichnina - the system of measures taken by Ivan IV the Terrible to combat the boyar opposition (mass repressions, executions, land confiscations, etc.).
Axis (“Axis Berlin-Rome”)- military alliance of aggressive fascist regimes (1936) to prepare and wage war for world domination. Japan soon joined the Axis.
Patriarchy - a society dominated by men. It arose during the period of decomposition of the tribal system.

Parliament - representative (elected) body of power in the state. First formed in the 13th century. in England.
Plebiscite- survey of the population on the most important issues: the integrity of the state, the form of government, reforms, etc. As a rule, it has no legislative force.
Tribe- association of several clans under the control of the leader.
The president- elected head of state or organization.

Policy city-state in the ancient world.
Slave - a person whose life and work belong to the slave owner.
Radical- a supporter of decisive, extreme, cardinal measures in matters of transforming society.
Intelligence service - a set of measures for collecting data on an actual or potential enemy.
Racism- the theory of the original superiority of people with a certain color of skin, eyes and other external differences. In practice, it leads to humiliation, conflicts, pogroms, bloody wars, etc.
Reactionary- resisting social progress, striving to preserve obsolete social orders.
Republic - a form of government in which the highest power belongs to an elected representative body (parliamentary) or an elected president (presidential republic).
Revolution- qualitative leap; violent change in social relations.
referendum - popular vote on the most important issues of the life of the country. Has legislative power.
Genus - a group of people related by blood common ancestor) and shared property.
Free enterprise- a system for encouraging private initiative in the organization of enterprises, banks, trade, etc.
Slavs - the largest group of peoples in Europe: eastern (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians), western (Poles, Czechs, Slovaks, etc.), southern (Bulgarians, Serbs, Croats, etc.).
Smerdy- Peasants in Ancient Russia.
Socialism- a social system based on state or public ownership of tools and means of production and the absence of exploitation of man by man (in accordance with the theory of Marxism-Leninism).
Social protection- support by the state or society of low-income segments of the population (old people, children, etc.).
State sovereignty- his independence in external and supremacy in internal affairs.
Suzerain- feudal lord, to whom other, smaller feudal lords (vassals) are subordinate. The king is always overlord.
Terrorism- criminal encroachment on the lives of innocent people in order to achieve political or other goals.
Fascism- terrorist dictatorship using extreme forms of violence. Combined with nationalism and racism.
Federation- the structure of the state, in which the entire territory is divided into administrative units, and part of the powers of the supreme power is delegated to local authorities (local laws are issued, local taxes are levied, etc.).
Forum- square in ancient Rome, center political life. Currently - a representative assembly, congress.
Tsar- monarch, king. The title comes from the name of Gaius Julius Caesar. The title of sovereigns of all Russia, starting with Ivan IV the Terrible.
Official- an executor of state regulations and laws of the state, a civil servant. Evolution is a gradual, smooth (unlike a revolution) transition to a new quality, a new social formation.

Absolute monarchy, absolutism- a type of government in which the monarch has unlimited supreme power. Under absolutism, highest degree centralization, a standing army and police, an extensive bureaucratic apparatus are being created. The activities of estate-representative bodies, as a rule, cease. The heyday of absolutism in Russia fell on the XVIII-XIX centuries.

Autonomization- a term that arose in connection with the formation of the USSR and Stalin's proposal to include independent Soviet republics in the RSFSR on the basis of autonomy.

Excise tax (lat. trim)- a type of indirect tax on the consumption of goods produced by domestic private enterprises. Included in the price of the item. existed in Russia until 1917.

Anarchism (Greek anarchy)- a socio-political movement advocating the destruction of any state power. In the 19th century the ideas of anarchism were adopted by revolutionary populism. Later, Russian anarchism manifested itself during the revolution of 1905-1907. and during the Civil War.

Annexation (lat. accession)- Forcible seizure by one state of all or part of the territory belonging to another state or nationality.

antisemitism- one of the forms of national and religious intolerance directed against the Semitic people - the Jews.

"Arakcheevshchina"- the internal political course of the autocracy in the last decade (1815-1825) of the reign of Alexander I. Named after the confidant of the emperor -A. A. Arakcheeva. This period is characterized by the desire to introduce bureaucratic orders in all spheres of Russian society: planting military settlements, tightening discipline in the army, intensifying persecution of education and the press. Peter I. Women also took part in the assemblies.

Corvee- gratuitous forced labor of a dependent peasant who worked with his own equipment on the feudal lord's farm for a plot of land received for use. In Russia, the existence of corvée was already recorded in Russkaya Pravda. It became widespread in the European part of Russia in the second half of the 16th - first half of the 19th centuries. It actually existed until 1917 in the form of a labor system.

Baskak- Representative of the Mongol Khan in the conquered lands. Controlled the local authorities. In the Russian principalities in the second half of the 13th - early 14th centuries. - Horde tribute collector.

white guard- military formations that spoke out after the October Revolution against the power of the Bolsheviks. White color was considered a symbol of "legal order". military strength white movement - the White Guard - an association of opponents of the Soviet regime (the opposite of the Red Guard). It consisted mainly of the officers of the Russian army, headed by L.G. Kornilov, M.V. Alekseev, A.V. Kolchak, A.I. Denikin, P.N. Wrangel and others.

white matter- Ideology and politics of the White Guard. It was an independent trend in the anti-Bolshevik movement. The beginning of the movement was in the spring and summer of 1917, when there was a unification of forces that advocated “restoring order” in the country, and then the restoration of the monarchy in Russia. L.G. was nominated for the role of dictator. Kornilov. After the victory of the October Revolution, the white movement formalized its political program, which included the national idea of ​​a "united and indivisible" Russia, the primacy Orthodox Church, fidelity to historical “beginnings”, but without a clear definition of the future state structure. At the first stage, the "democratic counter-revolution" in the person of the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Mensheviks took part in the white movement, but in the future, the monarchist tendency with the idea of ​​​​restoring the monarchy became more and more clearly manifested. The White movement failed to offer a program that would suit all the forces dissatisfied with the Bolshevik regime. The disunity of forces in the whitest movement, the curtailment of foreign aid marked its end.

"Bironovshchina"- the name of the regime established during the reign of Empress Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), named after her favorite E. Biron. Distinctive features“Bironism”: political terror, the omnipotence of the Secret Chancellery, disrespect for Russian customs, strict taxation, drill in the army.

Middle thought- advice close to the Grand Duke, and then to the king. At Basil III the Middle Duma included 8-10 boyars. In the middle of the XVI century. The Near Duma was in fact the government of Ivan IV (the Elected Rada). From the second half of the XVII century. especially trusted persons began to favor “in the room” (hence the name - Secret Thought, Room Thought). At this time, the Middle Duma was the support of the tsar and in many respects opposed the Boyar Duma.

Bolshevism- an ideological and political trend in Russian social democracy (Marxism), which took shape in 1903. Bolshevism was a continuation of the radical line in the revolutionary movement in Russia. The Bolsheviks advocated the transformation of society only with the help of revolution, denying the reformist path of development. At the II Congress of the RSDLP in 1903, during the elections of the governing bodies, supporters of V.I. Lenin received a majority and began to be called Bolsheviks. Their opponents, led by L. Martov, who received a minority of votes, became Mensheviks. Bolshevism advocated the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the construction of socialism and communism. Revolutionary practice of the XX century. rejected many provisions of Bolshevism as utopian.

Boyars- 1) the highest stratum of society in Russia in the X-XVII centuries. They occupied a leading place after the Grand Duke in public administration. 2) From the XV century. - the highest rank among service people "in the fatherland" in the Russian state. The boyars occupied the highest positions, headed the orders, were governors. The rite was abolished by Peter I at the beginning of the 18th century. in connection with the liquidation of the Boyar Duma. The Boyar Duma is in Russia the highest council under the prince (since 1547 under the tsar) in the X-XVIII centuries. Legislative body, discussed important issues of domestic and foreign policy.

"Bulyginskaya Duma"- developed in July 1905 by the Minister of the Interior A.G. Bulygin (hence its name) the law on the establishment of the Duma - the highest legislative advisory body - and the regulation on elections to it, according to which the majority of the population (workers, military personnel, women, etc.) did not have voting rights. The convocation of the "Bulygin Duma" was disrupted by the revolutionary events in October 1905.

Bureaucracy (Greek domination of the office)- 1) The system of control, carried out with the help of the apparatus of power, which had specific functions. 2) A layer of people, officials associated with this system.

Varangians (Normans, Vikings)- so in Russia they called the participants of predatory campaigns - immigrants from Northern Europe (Norwegians, Danes, Swedes).

“Great Menaions” (monthly readings)- Russian church and literary monument of the 30-40s of the 16th century; a monthly collection of biblical books, translated and original Russian hagiographies, writings of the "fathers of the church", as well as literary works, including secular authors. The purpose of this meeting is to centralize the cult of Russian saints and expand the circle of reading church and secular literature.

rope- a territorial community in Ancient Russia and among the southern Slavs.

Supreme Privy Council- the highest state institution of Russia in 1726-1730. Created by decree of Catherine I as an advisory body under the monarch. In fact, he decided all the most important matters of domestic and foreign policy.

Veche (old word Bern - advice)- People's assembly among the Eastern Slavs; body of state administration and self-government in Russia. The first chronicle references to the veche date back to the 10th century. The greatest development was in the Russian cities of the second half of the XI-XII centuries. In Novgorod, Pskov, Vyatka land, it was preserved until the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century. The veche resolved issues of war and peace, summoned princes, adopted laws, concluded agreements with other lands, etc.

Governor- military leader, ruler of the Slavic peoples. In the Russian state, the term "voivode" denoted the head of the princely squad or the head of the people's militia. Mentioned in Russian chronicles from the 10th century. At the end of the XV-XVII centuries. each of the regiments of the Russian army had one or more governors. The regimental governors were liquidated by Peter I. In the middle of the 16th century. the post of city governor appeared, who headed the military and civil administration of the city and county. From the beginning of the 17th century governors were introduced in all cities of Russia instead of city clerks and governors. In 1719. governors were placed at the head of the provinces. In 1775 the post of voivode was abolished.

Courts-martial- emergency military judicial bodies introduced in Russia during the revolution of 1905-1907. and carried out expedited trials and immediate reprisals for anti-state activities. They also operated during the First World War.

Military Industrial Committees - public organizations created in Russia during the First World War to assist the government in mobilizing industry for the war effort.

military settlements - special organization parts of the troops in Russia from 1810 to 1857. The purpose of their creation was to reduce the cost of maintaining the army and creating a reserve of trained troops. Ultimately, the planting of military settlements was supposed to lead to the elimination of recruiting sets. "Settled troops" settled on the state (state) lands of St. Petersburg, Novgorod, Mogilev, Kherson provinces. Those who lived in military settlements were engaged in both military service and agricultural work. In 1817-1826. Count Arakcheev was in charge of the military settlements. Strict regulation of life, drill - all this made the life of the settlers very difficult and was the cause of armed uprisings: Chuguev (1819), Novgorod (1831), etc. In 1857, military settlements were abolished.

"War Communism"- a kind of economic and political system that developed in the Soviet state during the Civil War (1918-1920). It was aimed at concentrating all the resources of the country in the hands of the state. "War Communism" was associated with the elimination of all market relations. Its main features are: the nationalization of industrial enterprises, the transfer of defense plants and transport to martial law, the implementation of the principle of food dictatorship through the introduction of food surplus and the prohibition of free trade, the naturalization of economic relations in the face of the depreciation of money, the introduction of labor service (since 1920 - universal) and the creation labor armies. Some of the features of this policy were reminiscent of the classless, commodity-money-free society dreamed of by Marxists. In 1921, "war communism" showed its inconsistency in the conditions of the country's peaceful development, which led to the abandonment of this policy and the transition to the NEP.

Volosteli- in the Russian principalities from the 11th century. and in the Russian state until the middle of the XVI century. official in rural areas - volosts. Volostels exercised administrative, financial and judicial power.

"Free Plowmen"- peasants freed from serfdom with the land by mutual agreement with the landowner on the basis of a decree of 1803. The conditions for release could be: a one-time redemption, a redemption with installment payment, working off corvee. The landlords could release the peasants without a ransom. By the middle of the XIX century. about 100 thousand male souls were released. In 1848, the free cultivators were renamed into state peasants, settled on their own lands.

Eastern Question- the name of a group of problems and contradictions in history international relations the last third of the 18th - early 20th centuries, which arose in connection with the weakening Ottoman Empire(Turkey), the rise of the national liberation movement of the Balkan peoples, the struggle of the great powers for the division of spheres of influence in this region. Russia managed to win a number of victories in the Russian-Turkish wars of the 18th - early 19th centuries. England tried to weaken the influence of Russia and France in the Eastern question. The Eastern question escalated during Crimean War(1853-1856). Russia was losing its positions in the division of the Turkish inheritance, and England and France secured the dominant position in Turkey. As for Russia, despite its military successes in the Russian-Turkish war (1877-1878) and the signing of the victorious peace at San Stefano, it was forced to make concessions to the Western powers at the Berlin Congress. From the end of the 19th century and before the participation of Turkey in the First World War on the side of Germany, the Eastern question was integral part international contradictions and the struggle of world powers for the redivision of the world. After the surrender of Turkey in World War I, the Eastern Question entered its final phase. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire took place, the Lausanne Peace Treaty between Turkey and the powers of the Entente established new borders of the Turkish state.

Votchina (fatherland - passed from the father, sometimes from the grandfather) - ancient species feudal land ownership. It arose in the Old Russian state as a hereditary family (princely, boyar) or group (monastic) possession. In the XIV-XV centuries. was the dominant form of land ownership. From the 15th century existed alongside the estate. Differences between patrimony and estate in the 17th century. gradually faded away. The final merger into one type of land ownership - the estate - was formalized by a decree of 1714 on single inheritance. Most of the monastic and church estates were liquidated in the process of secularization in the 18th-19th centuries.

Temporarily liable peasants- a category of former landlord peasants, freed from serfdom as a result of the reform of 1861, but not transferred to redemption. For the use of land, these peasants carried duties (share-cropping or dues) or paid payments established by law. The duration of the temporary relationship has not been established. Having redeemed the allotment, the temporarily liable were transferred to the category of landowners. But until that moment, the landowner was the trustee of the rural society. In 1881, a law was issued on the mandatory redemption of allotments of temporarily liable peasants. In some regions of Russia, temporarily liable relations remained until 1917.

All-Russian market- the economic system that has developed as a result of the specialization of the farms of certain regions of the country in the production of any certain types products and increased trade between them. The All-Russian market began to take shape in the 17th century. a huge role in shaping single market fairs played.

Second front- during the Second World War, the front of the armed struggle against Nazi Germany, opened by the allies of the USSR in the anti-Hitler coalition in June 1944 by landing in Normandy.

Redemption operation- state credit operation, carried out Russian government in connection with the peasant reform of 1861. To buy land plots from the landowners, the peasants were given a loan, which they had to repay in 49 years, paying annually 6% of the amount. The size of the redemption payments depended on the amount of dues that the peasants paid to the landowners before the reform. Collection of payments ceased from 1907.

Guard- privileged (i.e., enjoying exclusive rights) part of the troops. In Russia, the guard was created by Peter I in the late 90s of the 17th century. from the “amusing” troops - the Semenovsky and Preobrazhensky regiments - and first bore the name of the royal, and from 1721 - the imperial guard. After the death of Peter, thanks to its exceptional position in the army, it turned into a political force that played a significant role in the palace coups of the 18th century. Since the beginning of the XIX century. loses its importance as a political force, retaining the status of privileged military units. It existed until the end of 1917. In the Great Patriotic War, from September 1941, the rank of guard units for the Armed Forces of the USSR was introduced.

Hetman- Selected head of the registered Cossacks in the XVI-XVII centuries. Since 1648 - the ruler of Ukraine and the head of the Cossack army. From 1708 the hetman was appointed by the tsarist government. long time there were no such appointments, and from 1764 the hetmanship was abolished.

Vowels- elected deputies of zemstvo assemblies and city dumas in Russia from the second half of XIX in.

City Council- a non-estate body of city self-government in Russia (1785-1917). She was involved in landscaping, health care and other city affairs. Headed by the mayor.

City government- the executive body of city government in Russia (1870-1917). Elected by city council. The mayor headed the council.

living hundred- a corporation of privileged merchants in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries, the second in wealth and nobility after the "guests". With the knowledge of the tsar, merchants from the towns and peasants were enrolled in the Living Hundred. Their number sometimes reached 185, they were exempt from taxes and received other privileges. The hundred usually sent two elected representatives to zemstvo councils.

The State Duma- a representative legislative institution of Russia from 1906 to 1917. Established by the Manifesto of Nicholas II of October 17, 1905. The Duma was in charge of legislative proposals, consideration of the state budget, state control reports on its implementation, and a number of other issues. Bills adopted by the Duma received the force of law after the approval of the State Council and approval by the emperor. Elected for a term of 5 years. In total, during the existence of this authority there were four Duma convocations: I State Duma (April - July 1906); II (February-June 1907); III (November 1907 - June 1912); IV (November 1912 - to October 1917). The Russian Constitution of 1993 revived the State Duma, naming the lower house of the Federal Assembly as such. It highlights the continuity legislatures modern Russia with pre-revolutionary. Since 1999 has been working The State Duma third convocation.

State peasants- a special estate in Russia in the XVIII - first half of the XIX century. Decorated by decrees of Peter I from the black-haired peasants, odnodvortsev, ladles and other peasant categories. State peasants lived on state lands and paid rent to the treasury. Considered personally free. From 1841 they were under the control of the Ministry of State Property. By the middle of the XIX century. they accounted for 45% of the agricultural population of the European part of Russia. In 1886, they received the right to buy out land allotments into their property.

State Council- the highest legislative institution of the Russian Empire. It was created from the Indispensable Council in 1810, and in 1906 became the upper legislative chamber. Considered bills submitted by ministers before they were approved by the emperor. Members of the State Council were appointed by the emperor, and since 1906 some members of the Council were elected. Abolished December 1917

GOELRO (State electrification of Russia)- the first single perspective plan restoration and development of the economy of Soviet Russia for 10-15 years, adopted in 1920. It provided for a radical reconstruction of the economy based on electrification. Completed mostly by 1931.

Civil War- most acute form social struggle of the population within the state. Organized armed struggle for power.

Lip- in North-Western Russia, a territorial term corresponding to a volost or city. In the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries. - a territorial district ruled by a provincial headman. The province has been an administrative-territorial unit of Russia since 1708, when Peter I created the first 8 provinces. Each province was divided into counties. Some provinces united into governor-generals. At the head were governors or governors-general. In 1914 Russia was divided into 78 provinces. In the 20s of the XX century. instead of provinces, krais and oblasts were formed.

Gulag- the main directorate of the camps of the NKVD (MVD) of the USSR. The abbreviation GULAG is used to refer to the system of concentration camps that existed under Stalin.

"People Walking"- in Russia in the 16th - early 18th centuries. common name freed serfs, fugitive peasants, townspeople, etc., who did not have any specific occupation and place of residence and lived mainly by robbery or work for hire. Didn't have any duties.

Tribute- natural or monetary collection from the vanquished in favor of the winner, as well as one of the forms of tax from subjects. Known in Russia since the 9th century. In the XIII-XV centuries. a kind of tribute was "exit" - a collection of money in favor of the khans of the Golden Horde. During the formation of the Russian centralized state, tribute became an obligatory state tax from black-haired, palace peasants and townspeople. By the 17th century combined with other fees and was called data money. Data people - in Russia in the 15th-17th centuries. persons from the taxed urban and rural population, given for life military service. From the middle of the XVI century. included in the regiments of the "new system". Under Peter I, they were replaced by recruits.

"Twenty-five thousand"- workers of the industrial centers of the USSR, sent in the 1929-1930s by decision of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks for economic and organizational work on the creation of collective farms in the countryside. In fact, significantly more than 25 thousand left.

Palace peasants- feudal-dependent peasants in Russia, who lived on the lands of the great princes, kings and persons of the royal family and carried duties in their favor. Since 1797, they began to be called appanage peasants.

Palace coups era- the name of the period 1725-1762, adopted in historiography, when in the Russian Empire, after the death of Peter I, who did not appoint an heir, the supreme power passed from hand to hand by palace coups, which were committed by noble groups with the support of the guards regiments.

Nobility- the ruling privileged class, part of the feudal lords. in Russia until the beginning of the 18th century. nobility - these are some class groups of secular feudal lords. Mentioned since the end of the 12th century; was the lowest part of the military service class, which constituted the court of a prince or a major boyar. From the 13th century nobles began to be endowed with land for service. In the XVIII century. changed from a servant to a privileged class.

Decree- a normative act of the highest bodies of the state. In the early years of Soviet power, laws and regulations issued by the Council of People's Commissars, the Congress of Soviets and their executive bodies. Thus, the Decree “On Peace” and the Decree “On Land” were adopted by the II Congress of Soviets on the night of October 27, 1917.

Deportation- during the period of mass repressions of the 20s-40s. expulsion of some peoples of the USSR. During the years of the Great Patriotic War this measure affected many peoples. Eviction in 1941-1945. Balkars, Ingush, Kalmyks, Karachais, Crimean Tatars, Soviet Germans, Meskhetian Turks, Chechens, and others. The Stalinist regime affected the fate of Koreans, Greeks, Kurds, and others. In 1989, the deportation of peoples was declared illegal and condemned as a grave crime.

tithe- tax in favor of the church. It was a tenth of the harvest or other incomes of the population.

"Wild field"- the historical name of the South Russian and Ukrainian steppes between the Don, the upper Oka and the left tributaries of the Dnieper and Desna. Spontaneously mastered in the XVI-XVII centuries. fugitive peasants and serfs, settled by service people to repel the raids of the Crimean khans.

Dictatorship of the proletariat- according to Marxist theory, the political power of the working class, exercised in alliance with other layers of workers. The establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat must take place after the victory of the socialist revolution; its existence is limited to the transitional period from capitalism to socialism. The policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat is connected with the exercise of violence against "foreign" classes and strata of society.

dissidence- disagreement with the official ideology, dissent. In the 50-70s in the USSR, the activities of dissidents were aimed at criticizing Stalinism, protecting human rights and democracy, carrying out fundamental economic reforms, and creating an open, rule-of-law state.

Volunteer army- the white army, created in the south of Russia in 1917 from volunteer officers, cadets, etc. Headed by generals M.V. Alekseev, L.G. Kornilov and A.I. Denikin. In March 1920, the Volunteer Army was defeated by the Red Army under the command of M.V. Frunze. The remaining forces of the Volunteer Army became part of the army of Baron P.N. Wrangel.

Duma ranks- in the Russian state, officials - boyars, roundabouts, duma nobles, duma clerks, who had the right to participate in meetings of the Boyar Duma. In the 17th century led orders. They were governors of the largest cities.

sole inheritance- Established by decree of Peter I in 1714, the procedure for the transfer of land ownership by heredity, directed against the fragmentation of noble estates (they could pass to only one of the heirs) and legally eliminated the differences between estates and estates.

heresy- religious movements in Christianity that deviate from the official church doctrine in the field of dogma and worship. They were most widespread in the Middle Ages.

Gendarmerie, gendarmerie- The police, which has a military organization and performs security functions within the country and in the army. In 1827-1917. in Russia there was a separate corps of gendarmes, which performed the functions of a political police.

Pawnbrokers- dependent peasants and townspeople who entered bondage, “laid down”. Having lost their personal freedom, they were exempted from paying taxes. They existed from the 13th to the 17th centuries.

Procurement- in Ancient Russia, smerds (see Smerdy), who worked on the farm of the feudal lord for a “kupa” - a loan. After paying off the debt, they were released. Unlike serfs (see serfs), they had their own household.

Westerners- representatives of the direction of Russian social thought in the middle of the XIX century. They advocated the Europeanization of Russia, based on the recognition of the commonality of Russia and Western Europe. They were supporters of reforming Russian society “from above”. They constantly argued with the Slavophiles on the problems of the development of Russia. “Reserved Summers” - at the end of the 16th century. this was the name of the years in which the peasants were forbidden to move from one landowner to another on St. George's Day. were milestone enslavement of the peasants.

Land redistribution- in Russia, a method of distributing land within a peasant community. Since 1861, they were carried out by a rural gathering on the basis of leveling land use.

Zemskaya hut- an elected body of local self-government, created as a result of the zemstvo reform of Ivan IV. At the end of the XVI-XVII century. existed along with the voivodeship administration and was actually subordinate to it. In the 20s of the XVIII century. replaced by magistrates and town halls.

Zemsky Sobors- central state-wide class-representative institutions in Russia from the middle of the 16th to the 50s of the 17th century. The core of the zemstvo councils was the Consecrated Cathedral headed by the metropolitan (from 1589 patriarch), the Boyar Duma, as well as persons who had the right of the boyar court by virtue of their position. In addition, zemstvo sobors included representatives of the Sovereign's court, privileged merchants elected from the nobility and the top citizens. They discussed the most important national issues. The last Zemsky Sobor took place in 1653.

Zemstvo movement- liberal opposition socio-political movement of the second half of the 60s of the XIX - early XX centuries. Its participants defended the expansion of the rights of the zemstvo and the spread of the principles of zemstvo self-government to the highest state institutions.

Zemshchina- the main part of the territory of the Russian state with a center in Moscow, not included by Ivan the Terrible in the oprichnina. Zemshchina was governed by the Boyar Duma and territorial orders. It had its own special zemstvo regiments. It existed until the death of Ivan the Terrible.

Zubatovshchina- the policy of "police socialism" implemented by SV. Zubatov - head of the Moscow Security Department (since 1896) and the Special Department of the Police Department (1902-1903). Zubatov created a system of political investigation, legal workers' organizations under the control of the police (for example, the organization of GA. Gapon in St. Petersburg).

Elected Rada- a narrow circle of close associates of Tsar Ivan IV - A.F. Adashev, Sylvester, Makary, A.M. Kurbsky and others, in fact, an unofficial government in 1546-1560. The elected council united supporters of reaching a compromise between various groups and strata of the feudal lords. She advocated the annexation of the Volga region, the fight against the Crimean Khanate. Discussed plans for reforms of the central and local state apparatus and carried them out.

"Chosen Thousand"- included in the Thousand Book of 1550, members of the Sovereign's court (serving princes, boyars, roundabouts, etc.) and provincial boyar children, who were to receive an increment to their land holdings in other counties, as well as estates near Moscow.

Sharecropping- a type of land lease, in which the rent is paid to the owner of the land in shares of the harvest (sometimes up to half or more).

Industrialization- the process of creating large-scale machine production in industry and other sectors of the economy for the growth of productive forces and economic recovery. Carried out in Russia late XIX in. It has been carried out in the USSR since the late 1920s. based on the priority of heavy industry in order to overcome the lag behind the West, create the material and technical base of socialism, and strengthen the defense capability. Unlike other countries of the world, industrialization in the USSR began with heavy industry and was carried out by limiting the consumption of the entire population, expropriating the funds of private owners in the city and robbing the peasantry.

International- the name of a large international association of the working class (International Association of Workers), created to coordinate the movement of the proletariat. The First International was founded with the direct participation of K. Marx and F. Engels in 1864. In 1876, its activities ceased. The Second International was founded in 1889 and existed until 1914, that is, until the First World War. With the outbreak of hostilities, the social democratic parties of the leading Western European countries spoke out in favor of supporting their governments in the war, which predetermined the collapse of the international association. III International ( Communist International, or the Comintern) was formed by V.I. Lenin in 1919 and was a kind of headquarters of the communist movement, located in Moscow. The Comintern became an instrument for realizing the idea of ​​a world revolution. May 15, 1943 I.V. Stalin dissolved this organization, which, as he explained, "had fulfilled its mission." In 1951, the Socialist International (Socintern) was formed, uniting 76 parties and organizations of the social democratic direction.

Josephites- representatives of the church-political movement and the religious trend in the Russian state (end of the 15th - mid-16th centuries). The name was given by the name of the hegumen of the Joseph-Volokolamsk monastery Joseph Volotsky. In the struggle against non-possessors, they defended the dominant position of the church in Russian society, the inviolability of church dogma, and the inviolability of the church's possessions. They were supported by the grand ducal authorities, and the Josephite Philotheus created the theory “Moscow is the third Rome”. In the second half of the XVI century. lost their influence in ecclesiastical and political affairs.

Usefulness- a kind of sharecropping, in which the rent for the land is half the crop.

Historical dictionary

Dictionary-reference linguistic terms. Ed. 2nd. - M.: Enlightenment. Rosenthal D. E., Telenkova M. A.. 1976 .

See what the "historical dictionary" is in other dictionaries:

historical dictionary- a dictionary containing the history of words (their appearance, development of meanings, changes in the word-formation structure, etc.) ... Explanatory Translation Dictionary

A lexicographic publication that aims to reflect the history of the words of one language throughout their existence in a given language from the time of its formation of the first written monuments) to the present, or limited to a certain ... ... Handbook of etymology and historical lexicology

German Historisches Lexikon der Schweiz fr. Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse Italian. Dizionario storico della Svizzera ... Wikipedia

- (German Historisches Wörterbuch der Philosophie) a multi-volume German-language dictionary of philosophical concepts (terms). This ... Wikipedia

A dictionary that explains the meaning and use of words (as opposed to an encyclopedic dictionary that provides information about the relevant realities of objects, phenomena, events). Dialect (regional) dictionary. Dictionary containing ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms

- "The Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language" (SSRLA; Big Academic Dictionary, BAS) is an academic normative explanatory historical dictionary of the Russian literary language in 17 volumes, published from 1948 to 1965. Reflects ... ... Wikipedia

Or the materialistic understanding of history, the Marxist philosophy of history and sociology. In the 20th century Them. turned into an ideological doctrine. The very term "I.m." first used by F. Engels in letters of the 1890s. The main ideas were developed by K. ... ... Philosophical Encyclopedia

Significant, epochal, important, meaningful, historical, epochal, responsible, significant Dictionary of Russian synonyms. historical, see the important Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language. Practical guide. M.: Russian language ... Synonym dictionary

HISTORICAL, historical, historical. 1. adj. to history in all meanings except 7 and 8. The historical process. Historical science. historical data. Historical information. 2. Located within history, documented ... ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

- (from the word history). Relating to or based on history; of great importance. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. HISTORICAL from the word history. Relating to or based on history. Explanation… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Books

• Historical dictionary. More than 2000 articles on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, Georgiev Natalya Georgievna, Orlov Alexander Sergeevich, Georgiev Vladimir Anatolyevich. The publication continues a series of educational books on the history of Russia from ancient times to the present day, written by the authors of the dictionary ("History of Russia", "Anthology on the history of Russia", "History of Russia in ...

HISTORICAL

HISTORICAL

HISTORICAL, historical, historical.

2. Located within history, documented facts about the past; ant. prehistoric. historical period. Historical time in the life of peoples.

3. Existing in history, being in reality, reliable, not fictional. The novel depicts historical figures. Historical fact.

4. With a plot from history; describing, depicting what was in reality (lit.). Historical novel. historical songs.

5. Based on history as a method of knowledge, research. historical materialism. Historical School of Law.

6. Important for history, significant. historical date. historical year.

Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935-1940.

See what "HISTORICAL" is in other dictionaries:

- (from the word history). Relating to or based on history; of great importance. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Chudinov A.N., 1910. HISTORICAL from the word history. Relating to or based on history. Explanation… … Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Significant, epochal, important, meaningful, historical, epochal, responsible, significant Dictionary of Russian synonyms. historical, see the important Dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian Language. Practical guide. M.: Russian language ... Synonym dictionary

HISTORICAL, oh, oh. 1. see history. 2. Relating to the period from which material monuments of everyday life, writing, and culture have been preserved. historical era. 3. Existing in reality, not fictional. I. fact. Historical persons. four.… … Explanatory dictionary of Ozhegov

App., use. often Morphology: ad. historically 1. Events, objects, phenomena, etc. are called historical if they existed in the past, were part of the life, life, culture, etc. of former times. Historical figure of the past. |… … Dictionary of Dmitriev

historical- restore the historical justice of existence / creation, repetition shows the historical experience of the subject, demonstration ... Verbal compatibility of non-objective names

App. 1. ratio with noun. history I 1., 2., 4., 5., 6. associated with it 2. Characteristic of history [history I 1., 2., 4., 5., 6.], characteristic of it. ott. Depicting, describing people or events of the past. 3. Based on history [history ... ... Modern dictionary Russian language Efremova

Historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, historical, ... ... Word forms

See storico … Five-language dictionary of linguistic terms

historical- historical ... Russian spelling dictionary

historical - … Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language

Books

• , . The "Historical Atlas of the Jewish People" edited by E. Barnavi describes the main events of more than three thousand years of the history of the Jewish people. Richly illustrated edition by...
• Historical Atlas of the Jewish People from the Time of the Forefathers to the Present Day, Barnavi Eli. The "Historical Atlas of the Jewish People" edited by E. Barnavi describes the main events of more than three thousand years of the history of the Jewish people. Richly illustrated edition by...

Abaza Alexander Ageevich (1821–1895)

one of the prominent statesmen era of "great reforms". Since 1865, member of the Council of Ministries of Finance. In 1874–1881 Chairman of the Department of State Economy of the State Council. In 1880–1881 Minister of Finance. One of the closest associates of M.-T. Loris-Melikova. With the accession of Alexander III, he was retired. In 1884–1893 Chairman of the Department of State Economy.

Abaza Nikolai Savvich (1831–1901)

senator, member of the State Council. Since 1891, Chairman of the Commission on measures to maintain noble land ownership.

a political crisis caused by an attempt by a group of members of the top leadership of the USSR to disrupt the process of signing a new Union Treaty. The GKChP (State Committee for state of emergency) headed by Vice President G.I. Yanaev, who decided to ban a number of political parties and movements, opposition newspapers. Troops were sent to Moscow. Resistance to the actions of the State Emergency Committee was led by the leadership of the RSFSR, headed by President B.N. Yeltsin. On August 22, the performance of the GKChP was liquidated.

Avelon Fedor Karlovich (1839-?)

naval figure, commander of a number of warships. From 1891 admiral. Since 1893, commander of the Mediterranean squadron. Since 1896, the head of the Main naval headquarters. In 1903–1905 Minister of Marine, member of the State Council. Retired after the Tsushima disaster.

Avksentiev Nikolai Dmitrievich (1878–1943)

one of the founders and ideologists of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. After February Revolution returned to Russia, entered the governing bodies of the AKP and from it to the executive committee of the Petrograd Soviet. He was a supporter of the participation of the Social Revolutionaries in the coalition government. On July 24, in the second coalition government, he became Minister of the Interior. Since September 2 - retired. Active participant in the Democratic Conference (All-Russian) (September 14–22). Chairman of the Provisional Council of the Russian Republic (Pre-Parliament). Elected Deputy of the Constituent Assembly from the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. In December he was arrested and imprisoned in the Peter and Paul Fortress. In 1918, chairman of the Ufa directory. Then - in exile.

Adashev Alexey Fedorovich (? -1561)

statesman, duma nobleman, okolnichiy, bed-keeper. From the end of the 1540s. leader of the Chosen Council. Initiator of a series of reforms in the field of state building. For a number of years he was the closest associate of Tsar Ivan IV, who combined government posts with court positions. He was the keeper of the sovereign's treasury, his seal. He headed the Petition Order, which directed the activities of almost all public institutions. A supporter of Russia's active foreign policy in the east and south. In 1560 he fell into disgrace and died in Yuriev.

Adashev Daniil Fedorovich (? -1562/63)

military leader, stalker. Member of the siege and capture of Kazan in 1552. Distinguished himself in the suppression of uprisings in the Volga region. In 1559, at the head of a Russian military detachment, he undertook a campaign to the south, during which he landed troops in the Crimea, freed Russian captives and returned to Moscow. In 1560 he was appointed chief of artillery in the Livonian army of Tsar Ivan IV. Soon he was arrested and executed.

Adlerberg Alexander Vladimirovich (1818–1888)

adjutant general (since 1855), member of the State Council (since 1866). Minister of the Imperial Court (1872–1881). As a person close to Alexander II, he took part in the development of a number of reforms.

Adlerberg Vladimir Fedorovich (1790-1884)

participant in the war of 1812, adjutant of the Grand Duke Nikolai Pavlovich and his confidant. In 1826, he was assistant to the governor of the affairs of the Commission of Inquiry in the case of the Decembrists. In 1841 he was the head of the post office. Since 1842, a member of the State Council. From 1852 to 1872 he was the minister of the imperial court and destinies. Since 1857 he was a member of the Secret Committee on the Peasant Question.

Soviet legislation was applied from the early 1920s to the 1980s. against the "enemies of the Soviet regime". Provided for the expulsion from the capitals and major cities and a ban on entry into them, in some cases - a settlement in a city without the right to leave it (for example, the exile of A.D. Sakharov to Gorky).

Azef Evno Fishelevich (1869–1918)

politician, provocateur. Secret police officer. One of the founders and leaders of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, a member of its Central Committee, head of the Combat Organization. In 1901–1908 handed over many members of the party to the police. After being exposed, he fled abroad. Later he was hunted down and killed.

Alexander I (1777–1825)

Russian emperor (1801–1825), son of Paul I and Empress Maria Feodorovna. He was brought up and educated at the court of Catherine II's grandmother. The teachers were N.I. Saltykov and F. Laharpe. Teachers - P.-S. Padlas ( natural Sciences), M.N. Muravyov (Russian literature and history), A.A. Samborsky (the law of God), etc. Since 1793, married to Louise-Maria Augusta of Baden (Elizaveta Alekseevna). According to some evidence, Catherine II made a will in favor of Alexander, bypassing Paul. However, the executor appointed by her handed over the text of the will to Paul. In any case, the change in the order of succession to the throne established by Peter I (according to which each time the heir was appointed by the reigning monarch himself), was changed by Paul I, who approved the principle of male succession (in order of seniority of the reigning monarch's sons and brothers). Catherine's will (or a rumor about it) greatly complicated the already tense relationship between father and son. Under Paul I, Alexander was only the St. Petersburg military governor-general. Only in November 1799 did he become a senator and then chairman of the War Department. Already in the 1790s. under Alexander, a circle of young like-minded people formed, who immediately after his accession became part of the Unspoken Committee, which became the de facto government of the country. Upon accession to the throne, he announced the revival of Catherine's traditions of government and restored the action of the letters of commendation canceled by his father to the nobility and cities. He returned from disgrace and exile about 12 thousand repressed persons. He reopened the borders for the exit of nobles, allowed subscriptions to foreign publications, abolished the Secret Expedition, and declared freedom of trade. Upon accession to the throne, he announced the termination of grants from state-owned peasants to private hands. In 1803 he signed the Decree on free cultivators, and then began the peasant reform in the Baltic states. Approved the idea of ​​opening new universities and granting university autonomy. In 1811 he opened the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum. Particular attention was paid to the reform of bodies central control. In 1801 he created the Permanent Council, which was replaced in 1810 by the State Council. In 1802–1811 the college system was replaced by ministries. Alexander's foreign policy was unusually active and fruitful. Under him, Georgia, a significant part of Azerbaijan, Bessarabia, and Finland were included in Russia. At the Congress of Vienna, the kingdom of Poland was included in Russia. With the beginning of the Patriotic War, he was in the army, only at the beginning of July he left for St. Petersburg. At the final stage of the war with Napoleon, he led the Russian army in Europe and entered at the head of it in Paris, receiving the honorary title of Winner in his homeland. The authority of Alexander in Russia contributed to the creation of the "Holy Alliance" (1815). At the same time, Alexander's post-war policy also carried new motives. Fearing a revolutionary impact on Russian society ideas french revolution, a more progressive political system established in the West, the emperor forbids secret societies in Russia (1822), creates military settlements (1812), creates a secret police in the army (1821), increases ideological pressure on the university community. Nevertheless, during this period, he does not depart from the ideas of reforming Russia - he signs the Constitution of the Kingdom of Poland, declares his intention to introduce a constitutional system throughout Russia. On his behalf, N.N. Novoseltsev developed the State charter, which contained certain elements of constitutionalism. With his knowledge, A.A. Arakcheev prepared special projects for the gradual emancipation of the serfs. True, all this did not change the general nature of the political course pursued by Alexander I. In September 1825, during a trip to the Crimea, he fell ill and died in Taganrog. With his death, a dynastic crisis arose, caused by the secret addition (during the life of Alexander I) from his duties as heir to the throne, Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich.

Alexander II (1818–1881)

Russian emperor (1855–1881), eldest son of Nicholas I and Alexandra Feodorovna. Since 1825, heir to the throne, since 1831, crown prince. His main tutor was P.P. Ushakov, teachers - M.M. Speransky (legislation), K.I. Arseniev (statistics, history), E.F. Kankrin (finance), F.I. Brunov (foreign policy). V.A. became the mentor of the young heir to the throne. Zhukovsky. From 1834 he was a senator, from 1835 he was a member of the Synod. Since 1836 he was a major general and a member of the imperial retinue. In 1837 he visited 29 provinces of Russia, including Transcaucasia and Siberia. In 1841, he was married to Maximilian Wilhelmina Augusta Sophia Maria of Hesse-Darmstadt (Maria Alexandrovna), and after her death in 1880 he was in a morganatic marriage with E.M. Dolgoruky (Princess Yurievskaya). Since 1841, a member of the State Council, since 1842, the Cabinet of Ministers. Since 1842, during the absence of the emperor, Alexander was entrusted with the decision of all state affairs. Chairman of the Secret Committees on Peasant Affairs in 1846 and 1848 During the Crimean War, he commanded all the troops of the capital. Upon accession to the throne, he granted amnesty to the Decembrists, Petrashevists, participants in the Polish uprising of 1830-1831. and announced the beginning of an era of reform. In 1856 he personally headed the Special Secret Committee for the abolition of serfdom. In 1857 he liquidated military settlements. The major acts of the era of the reign of Alexander II were a series of legislative documents aimed at the abolition of serfdom (1861), the adoption of a university charter (1863); zemstvo and judicial (1864), urban (1870), military (1864) and other reforms. For these radical steps to reform the country, he was unofficially called the Tsar-Liberator. Under Alexander, the Caucasian War was completed (1864), Turkestan became part of Russia (1865–1881), and the borders of Russia and China along the Amur were fixed. Continuing his father's attempts to solve the "Eastern question", in 1877-1878. waged war with Turkey. In matters of foreign policy, he was guided by Germany. In 1873 he concluded with Germany and Austria the "Union of the Three Emperors". Under the conditions of strengthening revolutionary terror, in 1880 he created the Supreme Administrative Commission. In the last years of his life, leading positions under the tsar were taken by M.T. Loris-Melikov, who proposed the continuation of reforms. On March 1, 1881, Alexander II was mortally wounded on the embankment of the Ekaterininsky Canal in St. Petersburg by a bomb from Narodnaya Volya I.I. Grinevitsky.