Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism What is journalism, what does it mean and how to spell it correctly. Features of a journalistic work

27.09.2019

concept journalism never received independent development in foreign theories of mass communications. Word journalism appeared in the 19th century. A well-known article by V.G. provides information about its etymology. Berezina 1 . According to the author, the initial interpretation of the word publicist (speaking about public law) was specific. Berezina reveals the meaning of this word, its transformation, draws attention to the importance for the characterization of journalistic works of three aspects: what; how; for whom they are created.

The history of the origin of the term leads to other, no less curious hypotheses. V.G. Berezina, for example, points to the possibility Russian origin of this concept, since it is difficult to find equivalent terms in European languages 2 .

E.P. Prokhorov expresses similar assumptions: “In Anglo-American literature, this term is not accepted at all; in West German studies, it is used to refer to all (except information) works distributed through mass communication channels and designed for mass impact” 3 .

In the works of the 1960-1980s, when characterizing journalism as a subject literary activity accents were placed on the ideological, political meaning of any journalistic work. The work of publicists was regarded as "an area of socio-political activity" with the aim of "active ideological influence" 4 . According to V.M. Gorokhov, journalism is both a type of literature and a type of journalistic creative activity.

M.S.Cherepakhov, considering journalism a special kind of literature, considered it in the genre (in the broad sense of the word) paradigm of literary creativity. The scientist claims that "any topic, problem - philosophical, moral, ethical, economic - receives political understanding in journalism" 5 .

V.V.Uchenova combines in the concept journalism specific type of activity and type of texts 6 . From this definition, the relationship between journalism and journalism as forms of public consciousness and factors of public life becomes obvious.

De-ideologization, which is characteristic of our time, also applies to journalism to a certain extent. Undoubtedly, the ideological aspect remains central in it, the social significance of the moral problems raised in it does not disappear or diminish (moral judgments are one of the most typical features domestic journalism), which at the same time may have nothing to do with politics.

Publicism is subject to all and any events, phenomena, destinies, characters, problems of the present (and even the past and future in connection with the present), provided that they are seen and turned to a wide audience with their social meaning and significance 7 . In journalism, reflections occupy the main place, come to the fore. Understanding the relationship to the world for a publicist is a special and professional task: a person and his being is the main object of publicistic speeches in the press.

Publicism is an intellectual activity, the subject of which is objective reality. It is important to understand that “the subject of activity can be not only things, but also social relations, forms public life, various organizations, management systems, types of activities that regulate their norms and all components of public consciousness, such as: knowledge, opinions, values or ideals, as well as the person himself in the development of his strengths, abilities and needs, i.e. any area of social reality” 8 .

The subject of journalism is the history of modernity. At the same time, we are talking about the knowledge of the historical process in its development, about the assessment of what is happening, about communicative activity. The subject of journalism is transformed when one social system and era is replaced by others.

The essential feature of journalism is polemic. For the formation of a conscious socially active position of people, it is necessary that the controversy be based on objective, convincing and reasonable arguments.

As you know, argumentation is the presentation of arguments (arguments) in order to change the positions or beliefs of the other side. Arguments are built either in the form of connections, associations, or, on the contrary, dissociatively.

The characteristic of the argument is that it

Always expressed in language, in the form of spoken or written statements;

Is a purposeful activity, the task of which is to strengthen or weaken someone's beliefs;

It is a social activity, since it is aimed at another person or people, it is designed for dialogue and an active reaction of the opposite side;

Presupposes the reasonableness of those who perceive the arguments given.

Argumentation techniques are correct and incorrect. With incorrect argumentation, the requirements related to the communication process are not met. The use of incorrect arguments contrary to common sense is a feature of the journalism of the tendentious and extremist press. Incorrect arguments are most often addressed

audience as an attempt to lean on its opinions, feelings and
sentiments instead of substantiating the thesis with objective arguments. This is a manipulative technique with the aim of inflating emotions, electrifying the audience;

A person who is credited with shortcomings, real or imaginary, representing her in a ridiculous light, casting a shadow on her mental abilities, undermining the credibility of her reasoning. In this case, the essence of the controversy fades into the background and the opponent's personality becomes the subject of discussion.

The use of incorrect arguments is a manipulative technique of unscrupulous journalists, whose goal is to create the illusion of objectivity. It is important to remember that the main function of journalism is an objective reflection of the world. Thus, the researcher of the theory of journalism, A.A. Tertychny, argues that in relation to the mass audience, the main function of journalism is the comprehensive social orientation of readers, in the formation of a way of life. In this aspect, it coincides with the functions of analytical journalism. The author addresses his speech to a person of action, i.e., one who manifests his personality, looking for ways to solve problems. The phenomena described in the text are of interest to the reader primarily from the point of view of the role that they can play in his activity. Regarding this role, all objects can be divided into two main groups. The first - objects, phenomena, employees, accompanying the satisfaction of the needs of the subject (they are called goods), the second - objects, phenomena that prevent the satisfaction of his needs, generating new needs. Phenomena of the first group can act as motives, goals, means of activity, and the second group can act as obstacles that stand in the way of achieving the motive of activity, the “price” for satisfying an urgent need in one way or another. "The ability to navigate these phenomena is extremely important for the audience" 9 - emphasizes the researcher.

Publicism is also characterized by informative, directive, phatic, aesthetic, expressive functions. The informative function is manifested in the transfer of information, directive - in influencing the behavior or attitude of the audience, phatic - in maintaining communication links, aesthetic - in creating an artistic effect, expressive - in expressing the emotional and evaluative attitude of the author.

With a directive function, the main emphasis is on the audience (addressee), with an informative one - on the content, with an actual one - on a communication channel, with an aesthetic one - on the form of the message, with an expressive one - on the author (sender).

The directive function is directly related to the topic of the journalistic text, which is born as a direct reaction to problems. Journalism constantly suggests which problems are considered acute and sore, and which ones are not worthy of attention. In other words, journalism sets a set of topics and problems that are considered the most important at the moment. In this sense, journalism acts like a searchlight, “highlighting” first one problem, then another. According to the definition of VV Uchenova, a problem is a reflection in human consciousness of contradictory moments of development, conflict situations of reality 10 . Solving them and developing a specific idea - this is the directive function of journalism.

In Soviet times, journalism through the idea carried the impulse of action, today it only prompts the reader to his role. Imagine such an episode. Thinking, a man walks down the street. A road ahead, a red light came on. But the pedestrian, ignoring the traffic light, tries to cross to the other side of the street. And at that moment he hears a sharp cry: “Machines!” Retreating, he avoided trouble. This episode demonstrates the coercive effect that is caused by extreme circumstances. A passer-by who called out to an inattentive person used a tool that unambiguously dictated a change in behavior.

Similar methods of influence were used in the journalism of the first years of Soviet power, when it was aimed at changing the social, political and economic views of people. Since the early nineties, when it broke up Soviet Union, journalism is no longer aimed at changing, but only seeks to change aesthetic views and behavior of its readers 11 . The authoritarian-managerial function of journalism has been replaced by an orientation towards a search for solutions to complex problems jointly with the audience. At the same time, journalism concentrates the attention of society on some problems, while ignoring others.

The current state of society is such that on a whole series of problems its members cannot form any opinion at all. Moreover, nothing would be known about the existence of some problems if it were not for publicity, which explains how important these problems are. Today, the journalistic idea is addressed to the reader as a social person who is inclined to change behavior on the basis of his own decision, which is always associated with a choice. Accordingly, coercion as a method of influence gave way to suggestion and persuasion.

Suggestion and persuasion are among the main methods of communicative influence developed by the practice of social communication. The impact through suggestion is designed "for the uncritical perception of messages in which something is affirmed or denied without proof" 12 . Persuasive influence is characterized by an appeal primarily to the intellect, critical consciousness, the formation of the necessary mood.

However, the main impact of journalism is not associated with its ability to persuade and suggest, but with its informative function, i.e., the ability to draw public attention to certain problems and determine the criteria underlying evaluation and decision-making. Back in the 20s of the 20th century, Walter Lippmann, a classic of mass communication studies, noted that only “complete idealists can imagine that in modern society a simple citizen is able to “get to the very essence” with his mind and independently make a judgment about the importance of what is happening somewhere far away. events or about the relevance of complex social problems that do not directly affect him” 13 .

In journalistic works, the content of which is criticism of the topic of the day, the informative function is combined with the expressive one. A journalistic work appears as a complexly organized objectification of the author's point of view, his view of reality, a general worldview concept. Criticism bears the imprint of the author's emotions, making the text evaluative and expressive. As you know, expression is understood as the expressive and pictorial qualities of speech that distinguish it from ordinary or stylistically neutral and give it figurativeness and emotionality. The originality of criticism in a journalistic text is that the author here deliberately seeks to increase the expressive effect.

Journalistic (or social) criticism performs two functions: 1) analysis (analysis) of a single phenomenon in order to give an assessment; 2) a negative judgment about something, an indication of shortcomings.

In works on the theory of criticism, evaluation is understood as a determination of the merits and demerits of an object and a general conclusion, and the evaluation of an object is opposed to its characteristics. Speaking about evaluation, first of all, it is necessary to distinguish between two often confused concepts, namely, evaluation as a thought process and its expression by means of language, i.e. verbalization of the assessment.

Cognition of reality is accompanied by its evaluation; this means that in the course of cognitive activity in the human mind, on the one hand, objects and phenomena are reflected as they are in themselves, in their natural connections and relationships, on the other hand, a person evaluates these objects and phenomena from the point of view of certain needs, aspirations and attitudes 14 . Naturally, the evaluation is carried out by the subject and cannot take place without his participation.

In the process of cognition, there are two forms: sensual and rational. The forms of evaluation at the sensual level are feelings, at the rational level - evaluative representations and concepts. This is the structure of the assessment in terms of the cognitive aspect.

However, evaluation can be considered in the communicative aspect, when the subject evaluates the reality around him on the basis of his evaluation ideas and concepts. The structure of evaluation as a mental action includes four components: subject, object, nature and basis of evaluation. Let's consider each of them.

The subject of evaluation is a person who attributes value to an object, i.e. the one who evaluates expresses it.

The subject of evaluation is an object or objects to which some values are attributed or, on the contrary, denied, or whose values are compared.

The nature of the evaluation is the evaluation predicate itself. The nature of the assessment includes such predicates as "good", "bad", "good", "evil", etc. By the nature of the evaluation are divided into absolute and comparative.

The basis of evaluation is defined as that position, those arguments that incline the subject to approve, condemn or express indifference in connection with different things 15 .

Estimates are divided into two types depending on what basis they have: intellectual (rational) or emotional (sensual).

However, these two types of assessment have one thing in common - they either approve or discredit the objects of criticism. Feelings of “approval/disapproval” can be taken as basic for creating expressiveness of the text.

Following the modern theory, “a genre can be conditionally considered a group of literary works, in which a common “external” (size, structure) and “internal” (mood, attitude, intention, in other words, theme and audience) form is theoretically revealed” 16. But the genres of journalism are not just literary forms of reflecting reality, but, first of all, ways and methods of influencing the audience, built on the author's understanding and interpretation of the essence of the problems, facts, and phenomena displayed in the text through the analytical and artistic reproduction of specific situations.

The classification of journalistic works is based on the following features of genre differentiation:

1) the nature of the reflection object;

2) purpose;

3) the scale of conclusions and generalizations;

4) the nature of linguistic and stylistic means.

Based on the signs of differentiation, three groups of journalistic genres are identified: informational, analytical, and artistic and journalistic.

Genre is a typological concept: it establishes a type of relationship to reality that is characteristic of all the works included in its orbit. “In the strict terminological sense, the genre does not directly reflect reality in the same way as any work of art and literature,” notes Professor G.Ya. Solganik. - Being a generalized category, the genre does not directly reflect reality, but the nature of the attitude towards it of the works that make up the genre. A genre is always an attitude towards a certain type, a way of depiction, the nature and scale of generalizations, a kind of approach, a relationship to reality” 17 .

Most operational genres that do not pretend to detailed analysis: note - a small message; interview - material made on the basis of a journalist's conversation with an interesting person for the audience; reportage - a record reflecting the course of an event.

Genres involving fact analysis: article- the text in which any problem is raised and resolved; comments- interpretation of the event; review - analytical description events for a certain period, including overall rating; review- Evaluation of a particular work.

These genres have both similar features and distinctive features. Let's name the main differences: in a problematic article, the logical structure is associated with the movement from an idea, from the general to the particular, the text is used mainly not as a subject of critical analysis, but as a proof of the author's views. The review presents patterns and trends in the development of the situation over time. In the works of these genres, with a certain degree of objectivity of analysis, the author's "presence", the subjective author's position, are palpable, elements of figurativeness are allowed.

Genres in which the peculiarity of the narration is precisely an individual approach, subjective assessment, a special angle of view: feature article(problem, travel, "physiological", portrait) - a work of art and journalistic work in which the author's thoughts, observations, impressions, reflections are organized in a certain way; feuilleton - a work in which the means of satire are used to characterize people or situations; pamphlet - a work where the object of criticism is the political system as a whole and its leading representatives.

When defining the genres of artistic journalism, they note their characteristic unity of the logical and figurative, the interaction of "publicistic richness" with elements of artistic, figurative writing 18 . This generic group of journalism is characterized by figurativeness, typification, emotional expressiveness.

In the complex system of journalistic genres, the feuilleton occupies a special place as an artistic and journalistic genre. Thought and image are organically combined in the feuilleton. The feuilleton is formed at the very junction of the fiction and journalism, in the area that V.G. Belinsky once said: “... art, as it approaches one or another of its borders, gradually loses something from its essence and takes into itself from the essence of what what it borders on, so that instead of a dividing line, there is an area that reconciles both sides” 19 . Genres located in areas that “reconcile both sides” naturally and naturally gravitate towards heterogeneous elements. Thus, a feuilleton is unthinkable without a complex interaction with journalistic genres (note, article, reportage, correspondence), with artistic genres (short story, short story) and, finally, with those genres that are also located in the borderline sphere (essay, pamphlet).

In journalism, not only all of the above genres are widely used, but within each type one can observe a variety of methods of communication between the author and the reader, all kinds of options for including a document in the text and the author's commentary on it.

When striving for an accurate characterization of each genre, it should be noted that there is no clear distinction in real works: an ironic commentary can be combined with a review, a satirical remark can be included in a note, a review can be transformed into a feuilleton, an essay can become satirical, and an article can become a pamphlet. “In different genres, different degrees of prevalence of certain phenomena are found,” notes N.Yu. . But such penetrations are not excluded, on the contrary, they are becoming more common. New phenomena are penetrating various genres of the newspaper” 20 .

However, it is not only a matter of interpenetration and mixing of genres. For modern literature and, in particular, journalism as its type is characterized by the blurring of genre boundaries, the emergence of new genre variants and, as a result, the restructuring of the entire system of genres. Against this background, a clear genre definition of journalism is complicated by the diversity of its existence - this is both the means of mass communication and fiction. As you can see, one of the features of journalism is its "intermediateness", hence the difficulties with definitions and genre characteristics.

Essence of journalism

We can say that journalism belongs to the science of society and the state, just like technology to natural science: it draws generalizations from science and turns them into instructions. Whether a publicist popularizes the conclusions of science or communicates the results of his research, he does this not for teaching, but for teaching, not for communicating knowledge, but for influencing that political force that is called public opinion. Therefore, the field of journalism includes only vital issues that are of decisive importance in the direction of current life; this may be at the moment a purely theoretical question, which, under a different combination of circumstances, has an exclusively scientific significance. The accelerated pulse of social life, which always demands from its leaders a definite and ready opinion, leaves no room for doubt and hesitation in journalism. In the struggle for this or that direction of socio-political development, which is only a complicated form of the struggle for existence, there is no way to cope with whether an exact study of a known subject in science has been completed. With often forced self-confidence, journalism is ahead of the conclusions of cautious science and solves questions that, one way or another, must be resolved immediately; always subjective, it proceeds not so much from the study of the past as from the ideal of the future. Arguing with the enemy, she, of necessity, sees in him not so much a misguided theoretician as the bearer and defender of harmful views, the dissemination and approval of which is detrimental to society; on this basis, the transition from the views of the enemy to his personality is easy; therefore, throughout the existence of journalism, we find the most striking examples of it in the form of a pamphlet. According to Igor Dedkov, literary critic,

Story

There are attempts to see the beginning of journalism in the distant past of literature; Ernest Renan even called the biblical prophets the publicists of antiquity. Igor Dedkov supports this idea, adding that "Russian journalistic literature goes back to Hilarion's "Sermon on Law and Grace" and accusatory works of Maxim the Greek". There is no doubt, however, that journalism in its modern form is the creation of a new history, the entire course of which - starting with the forerunners of the reformation - was marked by the powerful development of journalism, which had a prominent part in inciting and organizing the most important social movements. This importance of journalism was further enhanced with the advent of the periodical press. The role of journalism in modern life is enormous. Even in those cases when it follows public opinion, it influences it, giving it a certain expression and modifying it in one direction or another. Most of the prominent politicians of Western Europe began and continue their activities with journalism, resorting to its help and subsequently. Of particular importance is journalism in Russia, where it is almost the only and in any case the main manifestation of private socio-political initiative, and where the leading role of literature is so important; The authoritative position of Russian literary criticism is explained by the fact that it - in the person of its most popular representatives - was mainly engaged in journalism. The absence of other organs for expressing social thought also explains the dominance in our literature of the social novel with a certain, sometimes party coloring, as well as the phenomenon that such bright artistic talents as Saltykov-Shchedrin and Gleb Uspensky, representatives of a special literary genre - the combination of artistic images with journalism.

AT recent times we observe the phenomenon of writing a number of works at the intersection of science and journalism (scientific-journalistic style of literature), the impetus for which was the books of the scientist and writer-publicist Vitaly Tepikin "Culture and Intelligentsia", "Intelligentsia: Cultural Context", "Crystallization of the Intelligentsia".

Sources

The note

We open a newspaper, turn on the radio or sit down at the TV screen, first of all, in order to satisfy our curiosity: what happened today? And we are closely following the thoughts of journalists who are trying to tell us about it. We like one of them more, the other less. And not even so much because of the appearance or manner of dressing, but because of the ability to satisfy our curiosity.

What do we expect from a journalist? First, the news. Not every message can be called news, but only socially significant or unusual. Secondly, the disclosure of the logic of the fact. That is, the journalist must slightly open the connection of this news with other events of our life. Thirdly, - the utmost brevity. We strive to hear as much news as possible in as little time as possible. Fourthly, - extreme efficiency. Indeed, why should we listen to what has already become a long history.

This is where a note comes to the aid of a journalist - the simplest of information genres. Its purpose is to promptly report socially significant, noteworthy facts, clearly balancing sensationalism with what can help in social orientation. That is why it is characterized, first of all, by novelty and brevity.

In order to correctly judge the event, the journalist in the note answers six main questions: what exactly happened, who, where, when, how and for what reason did the action or was captured by circumstances. These traditional questions formulated in the first century by the Roman orator Marcus Fabius Quintilian. And until now, journalists around the world use this simple but very capacious information formula.

The task of a journalist is to present the news "shock" and understandable. To do this, he cuts off all unnecessary, hiding the essence of what happened. The bare fact becomes the object of its display.

However, the specific purpose of the material allows it to choose between hard and soft feed options.

In the harsh version, an important event or sensation is emphasized promptly. This literary form, compressing the news: makes it extremely striving.

For the most part, these are reports in hot pursuit or a chronicle of a signal type, followed by reports or detailed analytical materials. The journalist, as it were, announces his future journalistic investigations, reveals the secrets of his creative laboratory, showing what he is passionate about now, what events have attracted his attention.

In the soft version of the short message, the moment of intrigue is important: a kind of game with the news, a special tone of the narration. It is important to switch from the total to the detail of the event.

Such messages do not pretend to be further journalistic research, they are self-sufficient and can fully satisfy the reader's interest. The journalist, as if in passing, notes the curious in his opinion in the life of society, sharing his passing discoveries and surprises.

Among such materials, journalistic studies folded up to a brief report are not uncommon. That's why short message it can be clearly monothematic, aimed at revealing one topic, but it can also focus the reader's attention on several moments of the incident that are equally important for interpretation.

The simplest type of notes is a chronicle message - an extremely short text in which the essence of the event is characterized by nominal sentences. This is followed by the actual note and the extended note. A text that accompanies an illustration (photograph, drawing, infographic) has become a kind of genre.

The nature of the literary and stylistic means used in such materials is surprisingly laconic: there are no author's sophistications here - the material seems to be an exact cast of reality. Depending on the emphasis on the importance of the fact, the journalist disposes of the available information. It can be a shock message and its further detailing. This is how hard news is built. Or maybe - an intriguing detail, a detail of the event, and then an indication of the fact itself - this is the principle of presenting the news in a soft version.

These two ways of presenting short news have different goals. By compiling a "pyramid", a journalist demonstrates selectivity, creative activity and his position. He chooses the main element of the news and shows how important this element is to him when planning further creative activity.

But the choice of presentation method also depends on the needs of the readership, on the type of publication for which the journalist selects news: news journalism requires a hard version, and the "yellow" press, on the contrary, is interested in a soft version, since efficiency is not particularly important for it.

Sometimes it becomes necessary to expand the news without going beyond the scope of the note. This happens if the news is a signal type message that has already sounded with details. Attribution of news and details clarify, certify the fact. To do this, the journalist introduces supporting material: links to the source of information, quotes, figures and statistics, visual elements. After all, although the task of the note is not included detailed analysis events and broad generalizations, the note should clearly and unambiguously reflect the attitude of the editors to what is happening and correctly orient the reader.

Here it is important how erudite the journalist is, how deeply he knows the specifics of his publication, how accurately he imagines his audience and whether he is able to form a certain public opinion.

A certain tradition of presenting notes has already developed, which allows them to be typified in a certain way. The fact is that over the years a system has been developed for publishing information messages in compact blocks. This is a targeted selection of notes, united by a common rubric.

Typological features of such blocks can be thematic (for example, sports news, a chronicle of cultural life), regional (geographical), by categories of authors (for example, messages from readers, news agencies) and by time of action (for example, "yesterday", "when the issue was ").

But in any literary setting, with different angles of presenting the fact, the note retains its "face" - it meets the genre-forming features.

Interview

The very word "interview" in translation from English means "conversation". So in journalism they call both the method and the genre. We already spoke about the method when we considered the methodology of journalistic creativity. Now it's time to talk about the genre and its specific features.

In fact, the interview can be not only informational. It may also be necessary to create a portrait of the interlocutor - through his speech, for example, or behavior during the interview. But even this kind of genre can be attributed to the information subgroup. After all, here the journalist himself acts as an informant, reporting new interesting facts about the personality of the interlocutor.

It often happens that the news acquires credibility, weightiness only if it is supported by a link to the source of information. The reader himself determines whether to trust the journalist. Such a reference can be direct speech used in the material.

But communication with the source of information can lead the journalist to the need to report the news through the mouth of the informant. Especially if it is an eyewitness of the event, an expert or an interesting interlocutor for the audience.

Then the journalist turns to the interview genre.

After all, this genre fixes the method of obtaining information in a journalistic text. That is why, in the process of preparing for a conversation, a journalist thinks in advance both its stylistic and linguistic design and the composition of the material.

It is important to remember that a journalist is not a recorder of responses. Often the complexity of the topic, the inconsistency of its interpretation require a clash of opinions, clarification of controversial issues. In this case, the interviewer turns into an active interlocutor, expressing his point of view. Such a conversation can only be conducted by a well-trained journalist who has a sufficient amount of knowledge about the subject of the conversation. Having carefully thought through the questions, he directs the course of the conversation and at the same time sets the nature of the future material.

If all his questions are subordinated to the task of finding out about the fact "who?", "What?", "Where?" and "when?" - the interview turns out to be informational. And if the material helps to find out "why?", "how?" and "what does this mean?" - it goes into the category of analytical. After all, such questions will allow the interlocutor to reveal the causal relationships of the event under discussion.

Thus, the empirical method of interview allows a journalist to create both an information genre and an analytical one. It all depends on the content. Although, according to tradition, interviews are still referred to as an information group.

Recently, all mass media have begun to actively use the opportunity to present the news through the exchange of remarks. As a matter of fact, the journalist brings the reader directly to the source of information. And here the quality of preparation for the conversation is of the utmost importance. After all, the main task of the interviewer is to provide the interlocutor with the opportunity to speak on the issue of interest to everyone. And therefore, the journalist uses every opportunity to stimulate the conversation: questions with a completed, buried end, forcing the interlocutor to agree or refute the statement, and questions with an incomplete, open end, giving him the opportunity to reflect. And at the same time, the journalist should be the leader in the interview, not give his interlocutor the opportunity to get carried away, to get away from the topic of conversation.

This genre attracts the attention of readers by the fact that it is through an interview that you can get to know the person of interest to them. Especially if this person is difficult to access for personal communication: he lives in another country, holds a high position, is extremely busy with work ...

But since the informational interview, first of all, aims to convey the news, the subject of knowledge of the journalist is still a fact, and the interlocutor acts only as a source of information.

There are several types of informational interviews.

The first and most common of them is a conversation with an interlocutor. The role of the interviewer here is reduced to the skillful construction of the conversation. Questions asked by a journalist should be clear, concise, and aimed at obtaining information.

The second type of informational interview is a monologue. The journalist sets out the essence of the conversation in the form of a coherent story of his interlocutor, remaining "behind the scenes". The most important thing here is to build the course of the conversation in such a way that the questions complement each other, helping the interviewee to detail the fact.

The third type is dialogue. The journalist conducts a conversation between two interviewees, helping them to reveal the topic of conversation more deeply and fully. At the same time, the journalist himself may not be present in the text of the interview. The material is a dialogue between two interviewees.

The fourth type is an interview given to a group of journalists: a statement for the press, a press conference, a briefing. The journalist fixes what he heard, receives additional comments, taking into account the specifics of his medium of mass communication, but at the same time does not express a personal opinion about the subject of the conversation.

And, finally, - a collective interview, a recording of the conversation at the "round table". The responsibility of a journalist here is much greater: he needs to create such conditions, to simulate the situation in such a way that the conversation becomes truly businesslike, relevant, able to interest as many readers as possible.

The last of the types we mentioned can also include a "hot line": a dialogue between a correspondent or a guest of the editorial office and readers of a newspaper, listeners of a radio program or viewers of a television program who call the editorial office at specially allocated phone numbers.

Experienced journalists know that the effectiveness of an interview increases many times over if the intended interlocutor is introduced in advance to the mass media for which the material is being prepared. Knowing the socio-political orientation of the publication, its specialization, the specifics of its audience, the features of the presentation of materials, the circulation and frequency of publication, the interviewee will be able to more accurately select facts illustrating his idea.

The frankness of the conversation, the specifics of the coverage of reality, and the scale of the conclusions depend on this. The topic of conversation must meet all the requirements for news.

The literary and stylistic means used in the material depend on its nature. Informational interviews are extremely concise, neutral, do not allow expressive colored vocabulary. Whereas analytical interviews are less stylistically constrained.

The degree of importance of the problem under discussion, the need for detailed detailing of the fact dictate the amount of material. The interview can be short, fixing the event, or it can be a detailed commentary on the fact, expanded. The form of presentation of the conversation and the amount of material completely depend on the tasks that the journalist sets for himself.

Report

This genre has long settled on the pages of Russian newspapers. Even Petrovsky's "Vedomosti" actively used it as a familiar form of reporting on events. Indeed, even before the advent of printing, the report existed in oral form: every morning important messages from the life of society were reported to the king.

Such reports consisted of information blocks, the location of which created a certain context for the sound of each piece of news. So, sometimes absolutely without a special plan, an analysis-synthesis arose in information genres. Perhaps that is why today's journalism theorists distinguish two types of reports - informational and analytical.

The purpose of an information report is to inform the audience about the progress of a meeting, conference, forum or some other important event. And that is why the report is classified as information genre, despite the formulation of actual problems of reality and a deep analysis of problem situations. The journalist informs the reader about what issues were discussed or what events took place before his eyes.

He tries to convey to the audience the very atmosphere of the event. Detailing in the description can take a leading place. The journalist tries to preserve the specific features of each speech or fact that make up the structure of the collective event. Most often, such reports appear from major party, state, scientific conferences and holiday shows. This interests everyone. Let's say who refuses to know the details of the presentation of a prestigious award. Or to understand for yourself the essence of an actual political, economic, social or scientific problem.

But it is clear that a detailed retelling of the course of events is far from always required - it is enough to briefly state the essence of the phenomenon. For this purpose, there is the simplest type of report - chronicle. It, as a rule, is given with telegraphic efficiency, and in its purpose it is close to a note.

The volume of such material usually does not exceed half of the newspaper page. Yes, and the style of presentation is concise, the nature of the sentences is nominal. The journalist only states, reserving the right to take a detailed conversation out of the scope of the report. Therefore, when presenting the facts, he may not adhere to the chronological sequence in which the event developed.

If the author of the material adheres to the exact chronology when presenting and introduces the content of each of the many facts, then he gets a detailed panorama of the event. This type of report is called expanded. The volume of such a report can be very large, depending on the duration of the event.

But a long enumeration can tire the reader. And the newspaper can not always sacrifice its pages for the sake of a detailed retelling. In this case, the journalist selects the most significant facts, groups them according to their semantic content, generalizes them and draws his own conclusions. From his pen comes a thematic report. Only here the author allows himself to express his own views on what was happening.

And it also happens that one of the long chain of problems considered is the most important today. And the journalist decides to give preference to her, setting out all the rest in a chronicle.

But the most complex is a report with an in-depth analysis of problems and issues. As if clinging to the event as an occasion for material, the journalist conducts an independent study of the problem, comparing what he heard or saw at a collective event with real life facts.

If in the publications of information reports they mainly state the external course of the event, then analytical reports pay attention to its internal content.

The purpose of the analytical report is to show the relationship of certain judgments, assessments, conclusions, proposals and evaluate them, determine their significance. At the same time, its author, unlike the author of an informational report, may not set himself the task of reporting all the speeches made or fixing all the facts of the described event. Selection can be made, for example, on thematic or problematic grounds. And depending on the direction of the journalist's interest, an analytical report can be an explanation report, an evaluation report or a program report.

Often the editors decide to conduct a raid in order to cover as many events and facts of a problem situation as possible at the same time. Several journalists are involved in the raid. They are equally puzzled. And their goal is to reveal the typical in the phenomenon. After they visit the places and track the state of affairs there, journalists write a report on what they saw. One of them takes on the task of bringing all the materials into a single collective report on the raid, comparing the results obtained, analyzing them, drawing conclusions and bringing the style of presentation to uniformity.

Such journalistic materials are distinguished by a fusion of informational and analytical in the presentation of facts, events and phenomena. Here we can talk about a new subgroup of genres - information-analytical.

Most often, information-analytical genres appear in magazine and television journalism. The chronicle of events here is supplemented by the establishment of a causal relationship.

The requirements for the literary design of the report are extremely high: the use of elements of figurative style, metaphor, emotional reflection of the action, expressive coloring give this genre an effective, journalistic sound.

Reportage

First of all, it must be said that reporting is an information genre that reliably, expressively and dynamically paints a picture of an event through the direct perception of the author, who is always present at the scene and creates a "presence effect" for readers. The basis of the reportage is always the novelty of the event.

This genre has a rich history. Already in the first Russian printed newspaper "Vedomosti" you can find traces of it: a description of the Battle of Poltava, the celebration of the day of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul in the new capital of Russia ... The reportage style with its brightness allows many Russian writers to hone their artistic and journalistic skills. At the beginning of the century, reportage was often compared with documentary cinematography, seeing the commonality in a clear and expressive work through a detail that excludes descriptiveness.

A dynamic picture that seems to be a momentary response to an event that keeps the eyewitness excited - that's what a reportage is.

In fact, it is often not enough just to report a fact - it is necessary to show it, to convey the atmosphere of the event. Visualization is the best assistant in active perception. And the operational reporting just allows you to unfold the general panorama of what is happening. This is an eyewitness account, accurate, documentary, objective, strictly adhering to the natural course of events, somewhat reminiscent of a series of pictures from nature, replacing each other.

To some extent, this is reminiscent of documentary stories or novels, the hero of which is life itself. More precisely, reporting is news in motion.

Here the journalist uses both short interviews in the course of action, and specific forms reporting your feelings. Therefore, we can say that a reportage is a synthetic information genre that most vividly and convexly tells about a certain event, phenomenon, incident. It is characterized by efficiency, immediacy. This is especially evident on radio and television, when the report is conducted directly from the scene of the event at the time of its accomplishment. And, of course, the reporting is dynamic.

The goal of the author of the report - the reporter - is not just to capture a "picture from nature", but to convince the reader of something, to direct his thoughts along a certain channel. Otherwise, the report will lose its meaning, turning into a boastful monologue of a journalist who was lucky enough to be somewhere.

A journalist should not be limited to simply reporting information about an event. In order for readers to understand the essence of the phenomenon, to catch its logical connection with other facts and phenomena, to fully appreciate the significance of what is happening, simple fixation is not enough. To do this, the reporter supplements what he saw and heard with his own commentary, gives an analytical assessment of the event.

Reporting is not only a chain of facts, but also a chain of thoughts. It is possible to recreate the dynamics by recreating the movement of thought, selecting for this the most significant fragments of what is happening, the moments of changes and turns.

In this synthesized genre, techniques and methods of all genre forms are used - informational, analytical, artistic and journalistic, but the text is still based on a through operational reflection of what is happening.

After all, it is events that are limited in time, capacious in their content, captured in an emotional form, and constitute a characteristic feature of the reportage. And since the audience also becomes, as it were, a participant in the event, the journalist needs not only to report on what is happening, but also to visually depict many significant details, becoming the "eyes" and "ears" of the audience.

The reporter is very interested in details and metaphors that convey the nature of the movement, a concise and energetic characterization of the action. For him, it is not a chain of descriptions that is important, but the transfer of a feeling of constant movement, the variability of the situation, its development.

Of course, only one who himself became a direct participant in the event can become the author of a report. By the way, sometimes a journalist has to use the "mask method" to get such a right. For a while, he himself becomes a driver, a salesman, or even a criminal who escaped from prison. This gives him the opportunity to get to know the problem more deeply, to study it from the inside. It is then that he especially needs the ability to be not only an informer, but also a kind of artist, capable of visually, in expressive detail, recreating the depicted reality. The report from beginning to end is permeated with the author's "I" - personal perception allows you to convey all the shades of the event, so necessary for the "effect of presence" to arise.

The main feature of the pictures, as you remember, is work through the detail. A chain of details, skillfully built by a reporter, creates credibility and visibility. An emotionally rich description and replicas of eyewitnesses, as if overheard by a journalist, allow you to look behind the scenes of the event. And in this choice of details, the position of the reporter himself, his attitude to what is happening, is clearly traced.

First of all, the reader needs to convey such specific sensations as color, light, sound, smell, inherent in the event. Hence the nature of the literary and stylistic means used in the material: expressive vocabulary, dynamism of verb forms, vivid images of metaphors.

The reporting style is fast and easy. The desired effect allows you to create rhythmic words and images. And stylistically colored words create a specific characteristic of the rhythm. Among the reporter's vocabulary, colloquial and colloquial words, enlivening newspaper speech, making it more accessible and democratic, occupy not the last place. Therefore, their use is justified not only in dialogue, but also in the author's speech to give the statement simplicity, ease, and the text emotionality and expressiveness.

In order for an event to appear as an exciting action, real details are often transformed into images and the visible becomes spectacular. Such images become leading in the reporting theme, defining the melody of the event. The journalist listens to the melody of the event and tries to recreate it in a word, in the general course of the story.

Reporting is a difficult genre. Working on it requires high professional skill. It's good if a report is being prepared for a long time - say, a report about the work of a taxi driver - but most often a journalist needs to hand over the material to the issue, as they say, right "from the wheels", according to fresh impressions - a report from a rally, for example. Without creative imagination, without a figurative vision of the world, without broad erudition and good knowledge, without a sufficient vocabulary, it is impossible to complete the editorial task in a quality and timely manner.

The reporter is primarily interested in the witnesses and eyewitnesses of the event, its main performers and participants, the initiators of what is happening and the victims involved in the events voluntarily or involuntarily. From this huge number of accomplices, the journalist will choose the hero of his reportage. But the journalist himself can also become a hero, because he also takes on one of the roles of the event.

There is often no time left either for eyewitness accounts of other events preceding the observed event, or for telephone interviews, or for searching for reference materials when preparing a report. And it is not always possible to prepare for an event in advance, read the relevant literature, or secure yourself by talking to a specialist. After all, the reportage is designed for a momentary, improvisational reflection of what is happening. Therefore, there is a specialization among reporters: there are scientific reporters, there are forensic reporters, there are economist reporters... Having a good knowledge of the situation in the field of his specialization, such a reporter will quickly find his bearings in what is happening.

The size of the material on the newspaper strip, as a rule, is not limited. Everything depends on the scale of the event, on the depth of penetration into the problem and the journalistic skills of the reporter. Reporting can do a lot. For example, to increase the conflict nature of the action, to clearly explain the current problem situation. It can stimulate interest in a phenomenon or even an act. Therefore, a journalist must remember his responsibility when creating a report.

Article

The article is an analytical genre. Analytical journalism, as we remember, presents the facts in their causal relationship, gives them a detailed interpretation, assessment, substantiates the forecast for the development of phenomena, draws an action plan related to the displayed subject. Therefore, the article is of a large-scale, scientific and theoretical nature. It usually summarizes broad factual material over a wide time frame. This genre is characterized by a scientific formulation of the topic, the solution of important social problems of our time, and deep reasoning.

The name "article" comes from the Latin word for "part of a whole". Therefore, in journalistic practice, a separate publication, part of the entire text of a newspaper issue, is also called an article. Although the genre of this publication may not fit the definition of the article at all.

After all, an article is defined by researchers as a genre of journalism based on the clear development of a strictly defined thought, which is supported by a system of arguments and typical facts and is finally expressed in generalizations and conclusions directed through the author's recommendations to achieve specific results. Thus, the object of knowledge of the article is a group of facts, a number of specific situations, the creative task facing the journalist is the actual statement of the problem, its development and analysis, therefore, the article is characterized by the breadth and depth of generalizations and conclusions.

Understanding the situation in the article begins with specific factual material. The author's thought, arising from a well-defined fact, determines the topic of the article. To prove it, arguments are put forward - logical arguments, the result of the analysis of a number of typical facts. By the way, they are also given by the author in order to confirm the correctness of the system of author's judgments. The article ends with a conclusion that gives the reader a new vision of the life situation and development prospects. The strength of the article is not in facts, but in generalizations based on detailed argumentation. After all, the article presents the results of a study conducted by a journalist-analyst.

Now researchers of the genre features of journalism distinguish such forms of articles as a general research article, a practical-analytical article, a polemical article and an editorial.

General research article analyzes generally significant, broad issues. The author of such an article can talk about political-economic or moral issues with a high level of generalization. The main thing for him is the study of various patterns, trends, and prospects for the development of modern society.

The practical-analytical article already by its very name shows that the journalist's thought is directed to topical practical issues. Her interests are focused on specific problems. The main thing is to identify the causes of the situation that has developed in this or that sphere of social relations, assess this situation, determine development trends, show ways of its possible solution, and submit constructive proposals on this matter to the public.

A polemical article appears in the course of a collision of two or more points of view on the solution of a specific problem situation. The author sets himself the task of substantiating his own position on the controversial issue, showing his vision of the problem and, at the same time, refuting the position of his opponent. Therefore, such an article is filled only with those facts that do not contradict each other. The author cannot afford to show life as a unity and struggle of opposites.

Leading article - an editorial or author's speech on the topic of the day, on the most significant issue of the current moment. Its specificity lies in the special relevance of the topic, the political understanding of the tasks put forward, the specificity of generalizations and conclusions. Therefore, the place of publication is important for her - the most striking on the first page of the issue. Sometimes such a speech can be reduced to a slogan delivered to a full house or Spiegel. The editorial is always momentary, dynamic in thought and has a specific attachment to the region of distribution.

While working on an article, a journalist acts as a theoretical scientist. It is important for him to obtain the necessary facts, to identify causal relationships, to generalize the material received and to draw global conclusions that apply to the entire situation as a whole.

Any article should have a clear conceptual line. The reader should understand the methods that the journalist uses in evaluating phenomena, and the argumentation used in the article should help the audience correctly perceive the significance of common events for themselves and develop their own line of behavior. At the very beginning of the article, the journalist clarifies why he chose this situation for analysis and how important it is for society. Since any situation contains internal contradictions, it is important to show all the nuances and place the necessary accents. Of course, the development of events in a problematic situation is often quite complex, a journalist can only confuse the reader by describing them sequentially - the main thing is that the logic of reasoning remains clear and convincing.

The journalist seeks to find the most effective means of enhancing the emotionality of the article. Special terms, definitions, and general formulations are natural for this genre. But all of them should be clear to the general reader from the context. The strict sequence and organization of the article is given by repetitions. These can be enumerations, a question-answer method of presenting the material associated with repetitions, an anaphora that makes up the beginning of paragraphs, refrains that create a variant development of the topic of the article.

The breadth and versatility of comparisons, associations, comparisons, vivid journalistic and literary images, references to mythological and fairy-tale characters, sayings, proverbs, aphorisms, catchwords and expressions, precise and sharp epithets, metaphors, detailed comparisons, hyperbole and allegories - in a word , a vivid and expressive dictionary of a publicist helps to give a comprehensive description of the described phenomenon. And this, in turn, favorably distinguishes a journalistic article from a strict scientific style academic study of the problem situation by scientists.

Now not only reporters, but also publicists-analysts are actively using the reporting genre. Elements of reportage give dynamism and visibility to any journalistic work. This article is no exception in this sense. Reportage, as you remember, gives a living reflection of reality through the direct perception of the author. The personality of a journalist is one of the main components of the article, because this genre should affect not only the mind, but also the feelings of a person. Therefore, the logical monologue here is combined with the expressive and visual elements of emotional journalism.

Clarity, dynamism, strict simplicity and compositional harmony complement the basic laws of journalistic reflection of reality in analytical journalism - theoretical argumentation, analysis of facts, events, phenomena, conclusions based on scientific generalizations. Developing the theoretical achievements of science in accordance with real life, creatively applying them to specific social processes, the publicist creates an article as a specific genre of journalism.

Here the position of the author plays an exceptional role, which ensures the selection, comprehension, systematization and interpretation of facts. She, ultimately, determines the size of the material on the newspaper page. In order to present the reader with a holistic, logically consistent system of knowledge about society itself and various forms of relations in society, progressive and negative trends in their development, the journalist makes the most of his creative abilities.

Correspondence

This is one of the oldest newspaper genres. Its very name, translated from Latin, means "to inform" and exactly corresponds to the main purpose of correspondence.

Already in the 18th century, the concept of "correspondence" was well known to Russian journalists, but only a century later it began to be associated with a particular genre. First of all, it was by no means a message, not a folded retelling of what was happening. The main purpose of correspondence is the interpretation, clarification of the causes of the event, determining its significance, value, forecasting development, and so on. Therefore, this genre is classified as analytical.

However, researchers distinguish two types of correspondence.

In information correspondence, the author talks in detail about the ongoing processes, trying to group the facts, unite them with a common theme. Its task is to draw attention to the event and show the trends of its development. Of course, there is also an analysis of ongoing events in informational correspondence, but much less than in analytical correspondence, which is distinguished by journalism theorists as the second type.

Here the author no longer draws attention to the event so much as determines its place in a series of other events. Analytical correspondence, starting from a given topic, presents an analysis of the situation, reveals the causal relationship of events and facts. A journalist, as a real researcher, studies the processes taking place in society, using specific examples of individual fragments of life. In such correspondences, as it were, there is an accumulation of facts that can be generalized, systematized and deduced general patterns for the whole society.

But both types of correspondence have in common - deep content, vivid presentation of material, clear conclusions. Thought in correspondence moves from real facts and represents their analysis. Yes, and the subject of display in both types of correspondence are both situations and processes, and information phenomena.

In a word, the main thing for correspondence is the development of a relevant topic on a specific material on a relatively small scale. And it all depends on the nature of the situation. The central subject of correspondence is one significant fact, all other details, examples, judgments serve as auxiliary material for its comprehensive coverage.

Correspondence has a number of specific features.

Firstly, the authors of the correspondence draw conclusions and generalizations of a local nature, that is, not extending beyond the analyzed phenomenon, event, fact. Studying the problematic situation that has developed in a separate team, the author from the scene reports on what happened and tries to draw preliminary conclusions based on his analysis.

Secondly, the facts in the correspondence only suggest the most important, priority problems, but the main thing for the author is the analysis of the current situation. This means that a journalist, relying on specific events, does not aim to retell them in more or less detail. Explaining them, he seeks to establish a connection between phenomena and the general law to which they all, without exception, obey.

Therefore, when finding out the cause of a phenomenon, the author of the correspondence aims at a thorough check of the data received, at clarifying the internal connection between the facts under study, which, in the end, will help him avoid errors in the logic of building cause-and-effect relationships.

Of course, the journalist does not use all the facts he has revealed. He selects those that will help him develop a clear concept of the topic. After all, in order to properly analyze the situation, he needs to do a number of operations.

First, establish what it is, fix this representation in the text.

Secondly, to identify the main social task that arose in this situation, and additional tasks.

Thirdly, to find out the main causes of this situation and the corresponding tasks related to it.

Fourthly, to formulate the main problem with which the solution of the main problem is connected.

Fifth, to formulate the main prerequisites for solving the main problem associated with this situation, outlining ways to create these prerequisites.

And sixthly, to find out the role of the interests of the main participants in the situation in creating these prerequisites for a favorable development of the situation and solving the problem.

Any analytical text consists of a fact and a commentary. A fact is a message about the subject of interest of the author of the speech: a separate event, phenomenon, phenomenon, process or situation. Comment - an assessment of the subject of display, its cause-and-effect analysis, a development forecast or an action program that, in the opinion of the author, should be implemented.

Correspondence is, as a rule, a logical-emotional monologue of the author. But recently, such forms as correspondence-interviews have begun to appear, combining the features of information genres. Or, say, in other cases, it is required to develop a theme through the prism of morality. And here the journalist resorts to elements of artistic and journalistic creativity, including in the correspondence signs of an essay or a feuilleton.

But in any case, when creating materials in the genre of correspondence, a journalist uses neutral set phrases, foreign borrowings, homogeneous epithets, synonymic series, idiomatic phrases, metaphors and rhetorical questions. And, it goes without saying, the journalist willingly uses scientific terms, thereby raising the status of his speech to scientific and journalistic.

Correspondence, as we have already found out, has its own “architecture”: first, a narration about the central event, then analysis and commentary to convince the reader that the author of the material is right, and finally, a description of the consequences of the central event. Of course, it often happens that the message of a fact is dispersed throughout the text, with factual passages interspersed with commentary ones. It all depends on the intention of the journalist.

If a journalist likens himself to a scientist, then the structure of the text arises involuntarily, as a result of an objective description of the course of cognition of reality. It sequentially groups data according to some criteria, not paying attention to chronology. Or he is looking for stable cumulative features of the properties of actual situations, phenomena, events, phenomena studied by a journalist in order to typify the data he has received.

But a journalist can build a text taking into account the reader's adequate perception of his research findings. He sets himself the task not to describe, but to explain. And then the correspondence can be built according to the laws more inherent in artistic and journalistic genres.

All this affects the volume of the material. Thus, correspondence can take from one hundred to one hundred and twenty lines to a whole newspaper page.

The signs of a journalist's skill here are the ability to select facts, to separate the main from the secondary, the ability to analyze facts and phenomena. Everyday life, generalize them, draw conclusions and offer their own solution to the problem.

Version

The version belongs to a specific genre, which at the same time includes the features of analytical journalism and literary and artistic creativity. It is based on incomplete evidence, on the assumptions of the author, excluding the categorical conclusions and conclusions. Her main method of studying reality is conjecture.

Often journalists confuse the concepts of "speculation" and "fiction", putting them in a single synonymous series. In fact, there is a huge gap between them.

Fiction - the writer's ability to imagine, to imagine what could be in life, but could not be. Based on his life experience, the writer imagines a hero who embodies the features of the time, and imagines such circumstances in which the character of his hero can best manifest itself. This is one of the most important features of artistic creativity. Drawing the phenomena of life, the writer always correlates them with the reality of a certain historical era, but by no means strives for documentaryism. Therefore, even speaking about what really happened in life, he seems to say - "could be", and not just - "it was."

Conjecture, on the contrary, is documentary, as it is based on strict, well-verified facts. He - a kind of hypothesis, subject to the general laws of development. And the creation of conjecture must be treated in the same way as the creation of a hypothesis. For example, if it is known that the fact had a repeated repetition under similar circumstances, we can assume that at this particular moment it could be. But that doesn't mean that he was. The journalist conjectures the situation, based on careful research of such situations, but has no right to claim without evidence that he is expressing the truth in the final instance.

Nevertheless, such conjecture is acceptable when creating a version, since rumors, scandalous stories, sensations become the subject of journalistic research. However, the version, building probabilistic assumptions about the causes or perpetrators of the identified situation, does not confirm anything definitively. It only draws the attention of the audience to the described phenomenon, without placing the final assessment: "good" - "bad". Moreover, one of the most characteristic features of the version is a very wide, panoramic coverage of reality, which remains, as it were, beyond the scope of the text. It is only thanks to this coverage that the journalist puts forward new, topical problems.

Works based on conjecture strive to get as close as possible to the truth of life, to give the illusion of reproducing true reality, here observation takes precedence over imagination. Having made a real fact of the hero’s life out of the document, the author brings it to life, invents the background, restoring the landscape, the internal monologue, a conversation with another character, a situation in which the hero could not actually be, even entire scenes with several characters.

Since a journalist is far from always able to quickly and reliably analyze the current situation due to limited access to the necessary information, he tries to logically connect the facts he has and make the reader think with him about what happened. Speculation, in this case, becomes an integral part of his analysis.

A journalist reconstructs unknown details of some generally reliable event, phenomenon, resorting to vivid artistic images. Of course, the author must distinguish between truth and assumptions, stipulating this in the text and, thereby, protecting himself from accusations of slander. After all, the document is accepted and presented as reality itself, while it is just a kind of information about it.

In general, the problem of the correlation of fact, conjecture and fiction becomes paramount for a journalist, regardless of the scheme according to which he builds his version: developing the current fact in the length of temporal and causal relationships or, on the contrary, in an experimental study of the very break of its extreme poles as a second a reality in which signs of the beginning of the end are open, the future results of present events. It is the isolation and exclusivity of a fact, its simultaneous isolation and interdependence with other facts as a sense of the current chaos of life, a rethinking of accumulated historical experience that becomes a specific feature of this genre.

The purpose of creating and publishing a version is the desire to acquaint the audience with the course of studying the phenomenon, event and offer the author's interpretation of the accumulated facts.

Recently, journalists have begun to turn to this genre more often. Freed from the shackles of censorship, the mass media began talking more frankly about events and phenomena that belong to the sphere of closed access to the public. For example, journalists are more courageous in their analysis of "screaming" events around space exploration, the activities of intelligence agencies or experiments on people in the field of medicine. The principle of identifying a document with a real fact becomes the leading one in the versification of events. The editing of documents creates the impression of ultimate reliability, objective accuracy of the content of the material. It is clear that the authors of such materials, limiting themselves to the incompleteness of information, make certain assumptions.

This is not about the dubiousness of some separate evidence, but about the individuality of the idea, interpretive interpretation, subjectivity of the attitude, the author's position, evaluative transformation - about everything that is connected with the place and role of the author in the work.

Of course, elements of this are present in any version of events. However, a journalist should strive for the greatest objectivity in presenting the facts. Hence the frequent use of the subjunctive mood.

One of the main features of the visual and expressive means of this genre is their specific expressiveness. Let's say the trails here have value not in themselves, but in connection with a certain journalistic idea. From these positions, all linguistic means are expressively significant. The journalist, as it were, sticks out his own author's vision of the problem, emphasizes his attitude towards it with the help of an expressive and emotional presentation.

This is doubly appropriate if we recall that the publication of the version also sets itself the following task: to induce specialists or direct participants in the events being analyzed to make a remark that refutes or confirms the conclusions of the journalist. This is how new facts appear, allowing you to build new versions that bring the audience much closer to the truth.

Naturally, the breadth of coverage of reality and the scale of the conclusions here are small. After all, the author of the version sets himself the task of considering only a single phenomenon, event, without extending the conclusions to the entire spectrum of such problematic situations. This genre usually acts as an anticipation of the emergence of other analytical genres, based only on reliable facts.

The volume of the version is from one hundred and fifty lines to the size of a newspaper page. This is dictated by the need to consider in detail all possible options for the development of an event.

Comment

As a genre, the commentary was finally determined only in our century. Although even in the last century it appears on the pages of the press in the form of a brief analytical message. Comments interpret the motives of individual events, phenomena, situations, speeches. Actually, when translated from Latin, this word means - "explanation".

For modern mass media, operational commentary is a traditional form of reaction to any event in social, political and economic life.

In terms of efficiency, journalism researchers are even more inclined to classify this genre as informational, but in terms of its content it is still an analytical genre. With its help, the author expresses his attitude to current events, analyzes what is happening and tries to predict the further development of the situation.

Forecasting is a complex multi-stage process of scientific foresight. First, search and forecasting activities are needed, when a journalist-researcher is engaged in creating a scientifically based idea of the emerging trends in the development of a phenomenon. Then - normative and predictive activities, taking into account the subordination and interconnectedness of the revealed facts. After that, the research journalist tries to identify all possible options for the development of the situation. And, finally, he proposes the only, in his opinion, plan for further action.

Thus, forecasting always begins with the development of a research program. The journalist first gets acquainted with the results of studies conducted earlier. He determines the object and subject of his observation, identifies problems and outlines the goals of the study.

A distinctive feature of journalistic research, however, is that the journalist does not set himself the task of a comprehensive study of the phenomenon. It only shows its most relevant aspects for today. The forecast here is only a first approximation to the truth. After all, the primary task still remains the desire to somewhat advance the analysis of events, adding your point of view, your opinion to others.

When creating a commentary, a journalist, first of all, seeks to direct the audience's attention to important new facts, show their causal relationships and suggest possible solutions to the problem. Sometimes a comment can anticipate events, prepare society for their inevitability.

The basis of knowledge about society and its activities are facts. These are, firstly, the actions of individuals or large social groups. Second, the material or spiritual products of human activity. Thirdly, - opinions, judgments and estimates.

It is clear that actual facts, phenomena, events, situations that can change the motivation for further actions of the audience become the subject of the commentary. After all, a journalist aims at understanding the essence of a fact, phenomenon, event, situation, at showing the causes, conditions, prerequisites for their existence and development. And having identified these trends, he models the patterns of development of society as a whole, showing typical contradictions within the commented fact.

The meaning of modeling lies in the word itself, translated from Latin as "sample". The journalist looks for facts and phenomena in the world around him that, in his opinion, serve as a kind of model, model, copy of facts and events that for some reason are inaccessible to journalistic analysis. And on the example of the facts and phenomena selected by him, he traces possible trends in the development of facts and phenomena similar to them. But, it goes without saying, the replacement of the object of journalistic research with a model presupposes the existence of a commonality between them, based on the principles of unity and interconnection of objects and phenomena of reality.

In a word, modeling is a method of studying various phenomena and processes based on reproducing the properties, relationships, and trends of the processes under study in order to assess their state, predict and develop sound decisions.

To create a full-fledged commentary, its author seeks to answer the questions "what is happening?", "who is acting?", "under what circumstances?", "why?", "who benefits from this?", "what is the current situation?", " what to do?", "what is the best thing to do?", "what are the contradictions?", "what is the development trend?", "what strategy and tactics to prefer?".

First of all, a journalist sums up the facts under some scientific concept, selects the most significant of them, tracing the diverse connections between the facts. And besides, he must foresee possible objections in advance and stock up on the necessary arguments in favor of his conclusions. Having clearly formulated for himself the tasks of the commentary, the journalist focuses on his reader, who is far from always being kind to him. The more accurately he presents the main motives of his speech in this genre, the more purposefully he collects information and more deeply thinks through the internal logical connections between facts and convincing conclusions.

Thus, the journalist builds the structure of evidence-based reasoning about any one topical issue. And since the point of a commentary is to clarify and explain, it is very important not to allow the reader to lose the thread of reasoning.

Comments can be given a different stylistic coloring, up to a humorous or satirical tone. It all depends on the nature of the comment. But in any case, the journalist clearly develops the relationship between the initial and commenting facts, details the phenomena being commented on, looks for analogies in the background of the event, draws parallels and contrasts, and finally interprets the documents used as argumentation, explaining their meaning to the widest audience.

There are also mandatory components of the "architecture" of the commentary. First of all, this is the original commented fact. The message about the event and the statement of the task of the comment set up the reader for an effective perception of the topic of the conversation. If the fact is unknown to the audience, then its interest in the author's reflections and interpretations will be low.

Then it is necessary to formulate the questions that have arisen in connection with the main commented event. Their quality, relevance, problematic nature and accuracy play a special role. The subject of the conversation and the position of the author of the commentary should be clear to the reader.

This is facilitated by the presentation of commenting facts and thoughts, detailing the main commented event. The journalist reasonably presents theses to the audience, reflecting the author's attitude to the topical issue being stated.

The conclusion proposed as a result of the reasoning should be clear and as short as possible. Based on the logic of the facts proposed in the material, it contains hidden or explicit recommendations for further action. The evaluation of an event is closely related to the properties of the facts being studied, to their correlation with other facts and to the establishment of the significance of the phenomenon under study for oneself and for society as a whole.

A journalist faces a sort of triune task: firstly, to see the problem in a broad social context, secondly, to see it through the eyes of all interested parties, and thirdly, to determine its place in a number of social priorities. But even with an extreme richness of facts and arguments, the volume of a comment, as a rule, does not exceed two hundred lines.

If we recall the efficiency of this genre, it becomes clear that a journalist must have high professionalism, including extensive knowledge on the issue being commented on, strict logic of thinking and no less strict logic of action, the talent to convince oneself that one is right in order to create a high-quality scientific and journalistic commentary. .

We also note that a commentary, like an interview, can be not only a genre, but also a method of journalism. As a method it is applied in all forms of publications.

Journalistic investigation

This genre is closely related to the version genre. Putting forward assumptions about the causes of what is happening, comparing the facts, the journalist tries to determine the truth. And for this, he uses many sources of information: people, documents, personal observation, and much more - when collecting facts, thoroughness, accuracy, and discretion are extremely important. Because carelessness in investigative journalism contributes to the spread of disinformation, which, in turn, can lead to incorrect forecasts and further actions.

Damaged reputation of heroes journalistic investigation far from the worst of the consequences of a poor-quality approach to the collection and interpretation of facts. Society as a whole can suffer.

Perhaps that is why the genre of investigative journalism has not become the property of many - only those journalists who are ready to take responsibility for the social, moral, economic and political consequences of their materials undertake it. However, in modern conditions of freedom of speech, the external spectacular side of exposing other people's secrets is increasingly captivating representatives of the mass media. The rapid popularity of journalists working in this genre, on the one hand, and their frequent orders to neutralize rivals, on the other, cause the temptation to fill the mass media with scandalous stories and cheap sensations. Moreover, the most striking, scandalous in its essence, sensational phenomenon becomes the subject of a journalistic investigation.

The subjectivism of journalists, their excessive vehemence, categoricalness and meeting-like nature only split the society, not only preventing them from soberly and judiciously finding ways to solve urgent problems, but even exacerbating the situation.

It is important to remember that the goal of a journalistic investigation is the author's desire to unfailingly establish the hidden causes of a certain phenomenon, process, situation. Therefore, the material also answers the questions "why" and "how".

This is such a specific analytical genre that makes it an indispensable condition for the presence of the author among the acting heroes: he himself follows in the footsteps of the event, revealing more and more details. The reader follows the course of the investigation through the eyes of a journalist, learns from him what obstacles stood in his way, what discoveries he made, what emotions he experienced at the same time - in a word, the investigation process becomes visual, similar to a reportage.

By the way, among the various types of journalistic investigation, researchers of genres first of all single out investigation-reporting.

The name itself tells us that it combines the specific features of reportage (an information genre that, as we remember, reliably, expressively and dynamically paints a picture of an event through the direct perception of the author, who is always present at the scene and creates a "presence effect" for readers) and analytical research (a specific process of cognitive activity, in which a journalist combines factual documentation with the author's opinion, commenting on facts, posing and forecasting a solution to a problem). The investigation-reportage clearly shows the search for revealing facts and documents, the results of a journalistic search, and the behavior of the participants in the situation. In general, the material with its plot resembles a detective story.

But unlike a literary and artistic detective story, where more and more participants of the described event are introduced into the plot and more and more details are put into their mouths, in a journalistic investigation it is often not even mentioned where this or that information came to the journalist. The confidentiality of conversations makes it necessary to classify sources of information.

Panorama investigation is another type of journalistic investigation. Its basis is the author's reflection, comparison of the discovered facts, findings, testimonies, documents. Comprehending the reasons for what is happening before his eyes, the journalist expresses his guesses, often leaving the conclusions unfinished. Having drawn a picture of events, he creates the illusion of a real surrounding space, relying on the personal life experience of readers, and therefore giving them the right to make a final judgment on the subject of a journalistic investigation.

Here the journalist resorts to methods of obtaining information that make him related to a research scientist: he just as scrupulously studies the connection of phenomena, paying close attention to every little thing. And at the same time, the ability to separate the main, relevant from the secondary, clarified in the course of the investigation, is very important. Often, journalists, forgetting about the subject of their research, are carried away by no less vivid, scandalous details from the lives of their heroes, turning a panorama investigation into a collection of all kinds of sensational revelations.

The task of a journalist is to give a comprehensive analysis of the phenomenon or situation under study. But, of course, before starting to study the phenomenon, situation, he builds a certain hypothesis for himself, which can also be interpreted as a special case of a preconceived notion. Awareness, making the hypothesis an object of attention, sharply enhances its influence on the perception of observations.

The correct hypothesis helps to make any, even the weakest signal, as informative as possible. Conversely, the absence of a correct hypothesis makes it difficult to see even obvious facts. So the construction of hypotheses and their testing for viability is a serious thing that can lead to serious consequences. Therefore, in a judicial investigation, for example, a principle worked out for centuries has developed, according to which at least two parties should be involved in the interpretation of the facts obtained during the investigation - the prosecution and the defense, interested in confirming directly opposite hypotheses. Without this interest, important facts may escape attention or be falsely, one-sidedly, subjectively interpreted.

The journalist, unfortunately, is left alone with his hypothesis, it is difficult for him to maintain objectivity, impartiality in the interpretation of the collected facts. He builds a version, this version seems to be confirmed at the first stage, and the journalist begins to believe in it. From that moment on, it is difficult for him to remain objective. Any facts are interpreted in favor of this version, and details that do not fit into it are easily discarded by him. And the so-called circumstantial evidence, that is, those that have the greatest uncertainty, are especially insidious here.

In a word, the hypothesis selects the facts that confirm it, and these confirmations further strengthen its selectivity. There is a vicious circle, which is difficult to break.

Meanwhile, the breadth of coverage of reality and the scope of the conclusions of a journalistic investigation should go beyond narrow, local situations, and therefore false hypothetical assumptions and the conclusions arising from them become extremely dangerous for society. The desire to avoid this is the goal of an investigative journalist.

How can objectivity be achieved? First of all, through a clear distinction between fact and opinion, accuracy and balance, through the presentation of competing possible points of view on the subject of a journalistic investigation, through a detailed presentation of evidence and evidence. The author should not hesitate to offer all possible ways to solve the problems covered, analyze the reality of their implementation and predict the possible result.

The presentation of the accumulated material must be subject to the principle of reasonable sufficiency: are all the critical questions posed by the journalist received reliable answers. A journalist must always be ready to defend the principle of the reasonable sufficiency of his material before the court.

It is clear that when a publicist is at his desk, he turns on his imagination, interpreting the facts. Interpretation, in turn, is not always subject to verification. Nevertheless, a journalist, recreating intonations in words and modeling the complexity of the perception of events, phenomena, selects such figurative and expressive means that will distinguish the author's impressions from pure facts.

Letter

The epistolary genre has been used in journalism for a long time. This is a specific speech, the author's appeal to the addressee with an appeal, suggestions, thoughts and feelings. It arose as a result of the saturation of the forms of personal and business correspondence with elements of socio-political literature. And the introduction of ideas that are significant for society as a whole into business or personal correspondence played a role in the formation of writing as an independent genre of journalism.

All sorts of proclamations, leaflets, appeals, distributed among the population during periods of uprisings, riots, and revolutions, had a significant impact on the nature of the genre. Such appeals, proclamations, leaflets were also published in newspapers, which did not pass without a trace for journalism.

And if we remember that Russian journalism was born during a period of social explosions, when medieval fragmented Russia exchanged letters between cities engulfed in the flames of civil war, it becomes clear that the epistolary genre is one of the oldest in Russian journalism.

The expression of ideas that are significant for society as a whole, and the desire to induce the addressee to urgent, active actions in connection with the subject of the speech determined the essence of its genre features. Epistolary journalism always contains the form of the author's direct appeal to the reader or listener.

The use of writing in the mass media must be strictly motivated by the need to immediately intervene in the course of the case, to deal with this or that situation, process, problem, which otherwise may lead to undesirable consequences for individuals, their groups or society as a whole.

The number of varieties of the genre is small.

An open letter is a publicistic speech addressed to a specific person, but at the same time having general interest. It is distinguished by a pronounced personal character, emotionality, a direct appeal to the possibilities that the addressee has, to his actions, decisions, and reactions to events.

The subject of discussion in an open letter are the most important socio-political, economic and moral issues, the solution of which is in the hands of persons in power. Therefore, the addressees of open letters are most often state leaders, major public and political figures. An open letter is the shortest way to solve an urgent problem.

A letter without an address is a publicistic speech addressed to a group of readers not named by the author of the message.

This form of the epistolary genre makes it possible to bring an urgent issue, an urgent problem for public discussion. At the same time, the author of an unaddressed letter understands that the direct decision of the fate of the situation under discussion does not depend directly on the addressee, so the degree of emotionality here is somewhat lower than in an open letter.

A letter to the editor is a publicistic speech, which is either a response to material on a topical issue or draws the attention of the editorial board and society to a problematic situation.

Each letter to the editor is the result of individual or collective creativity of readers, a response to positive or negative trends in the economic, political or spiritual spheres of activity. Fixing a fact, event or phenomenon, the author of the letter, by virtue of his educational and intellectual capabilities, analyzes it, expresses his own judgment and suggests ways to solve the crisis situation. Thus, editorial mail provides journalists and higher social structures with factual material and a reason for raising important problematic issues that have arisen in the life of society.

The main task of the epistolary-journalistic genre is to convince the addressee of the correctness of the author's position, of the need to resolve the problem identified in the letter as soon as possible. This requires the ability of a journalist to convince, understanding the psychology of his addressee, knowledge of practical and theoretical developments on issues of information impact. In addition, the author sets out the problem based on logically verified arguments, therefore, he needs knowledge of the history of the issue, the ability to analyze the steps already taken in solving the situation, and an understanding of the real possibilities to change something for the better.

The use of colloquial and slang words in this genre is quite acceptable, since it characterizes the personality of the person who wrote the letter, and actively forms an attitude towards the described event, phenomenon, fact. The metaphorical language of jargon wants to hide everything and say everything at the same time. Over time, certain jargon becomes normative, as, for example, happened with such words as "party", "roof", "disassembly".

By the way, the emotionally expressive side of jargon is poor: two main emotions dominate - positive and negative. This property limits the possibilities of using jargon in fiction, but as for the journalistic text, it is not at all afraid of it. To make the text expressive, the journalist enhances the impact on the reader with various "special effects", including jargon. And in the epistolary genre, in order for him to easily explain his point of view on the event being described, the very two emotional characteristics - positive and negative - are quite enough.

When it comes to events with clearly criminal overtones, which can only be discussed in a letter without naming specific figures and names, the journalist even more so relies on the appropriate vocabulary, trying to give a more accurate idea of his own position. It is no longer a rarity on the pages of the press such jargon as "children of lawlessness", "godfathers" or "sixes". And sometimes the authors create the effect of an antonym, using phrases that evoke certain associations with jargon: "the limit of power" - "lawlessness".

Thus, many words go from jargon to vernacular and come into wide use. Vernacular includes words that are characteristic of the speech of the uncultured strata of the urban population, words that are outside the literary norm. Colloquial colloquial vocabulary is included in journalism as publicly accessible for understanding, carrying a sharp evaluative coloring. See for yourself: sbatsat, goofy, cool, mess (mess), cash (cash), bucks, chop (cheat) and many others. After all, these are, basically, jargonisms, firmly entrenched in colloquial colloquial vocabulary.

Of course, the frequent use of these words leads to a decrease in the general level of the culture of the word, the culture of speech behavior, the culture of communication. Therefore, a journalist needs to be doubly, triply careful when he refers to this vocabulary. Before including jargon or colloquial words in your material, you should honestly answer yourself the question: how necessary is their use, is it possible to convey your emotions in another way?

As for the size of the letter on the newspaper page, there are no restrictions. It all depends on the significance of the issue raised. There are letters in five newspaper lines, there are - for a full spread.

review

This genre appeared long before the advent of periodicals: its elements can be found in the texts of a number of philosophers already in the first century AD. Journalists only adapted the review to their needs.

Russian journalism in the 19th century willingly accepted this genre. Literary reviews, reviews of foreign political life, internal reviews. Their authors were distinguished by their encyclopedic knowledge, they were not only writers, publicists, but also scientists. Public life was gaining momentum, significant processes were taking place in political life, economics and science were developing. Already the second half of the 19th century showed the flowering of this philosophical literary and journalistic form, convenient for reporting on what is happening in various spheres of life and at the same time generalizing factual material: a motley panorama of events required comprehension and qualified explanation.

Review is the simultaneous observation, analysis and identification of the essence of events, processes, phenomena of social life. The main, defining feature of the review is the unity of visual coverage of social events and the observer's thought, deeply penetrating into the essence of the process, the situation. And, accordingly, general questions of politics, economics, characteristic social phenomena and trends in their development, as well as ideas drawn from philosophy, history, and literature.

The spatio-temporal or thematic connection of the observed phenomena is important here. Therefore, journalistic reviews have a strict periodicity of publication. The observer first of all reveals the essence of the processes taking place in society, the existing situations, the problems that have arisen, tracing the totality of facts united by time and space. And at the same time, it is not events, phenomena, processes, situations in themselves that are valuable for him, but their symptomatic nature for modern social relations.

The observer refers to the facts both directly taken from the surrounding reality and reflected in the works of literature, art and science. Therefore, among thematic types of reviews there are economic, international, sports, literary, theatrical, scientific, film reviews and many, many others. There is no such branch of human activity that this genre would ignore.

But there is a need for a wider, panoramic coverage of the development of events over a certain period of time. Such reviews are called general. They trace the dynamics of the development of events, analyze their course, and make broad generalizations.

It is clear that the browser works all the time, and not only when it prepares a specific text. He constantly monitors the events taking place in the area of interest to him, accumulating factual material. Some facts force him to create operational thematic reviews, in hot pursuit, others become material for less operational analytical general reviews. In order to track the course of events, the browser creates file cabinets and dossiers - thematic, personalized, regional and others.

In each of the facts put aside in the dossier, there are many different facets and shades. Therefore, the browser puts them aside in raw form, as they came to him. Its task is to single out and emphasize the facet of the fact necessary in this review in each specific case, to highlight the necessary meaning, in order to then include the obtained information in the panorama of events, shading it publicistically.

A journalist will be able to reveal the internal connections of facts, phenomena, events, processes only in the process of working on specific material. The observer, analyzing and synthesizing the facts known to him, is likened to a scientist investigating social phenomena, but, relying on the obtained material, he creates a journalistic, rather than scientific, study. He interprets the facts from the standpoint of their relevance to today's social life, and by no means comprehends the objective laws of development.

The journalist himself is included in life and in his professional activity as a representative, spokesman, defender of the interests and values of a certain social group. That is why it is extremely important for him to understand the correlation of the personal, social-group and universal in their complex connections and relationships. The observer must rise above the processes under consideration, solving for himself the problem of the accuracy and completeness of the facts, the correctness of their interpretation, the argumentation and persuasiveness of the conclusions.

Achieving an objective approach to creating a review is even more difficult than achieving the veracity of the reported facts. Errors occur both at the level of selection of facts and at the level of their interpretation. The journalist knows the "answer" in advance and adjusts the "solution" to it. Transmitting moments of current history, considering developing, unfinished events, it is extremely difficult to reveal their underlying causes, show the significant connections of some events with others, and determine the possible consequences of what is happening. The observer is trying to present the reader with worldview concepts, historical characteristics, political, diplomatic, economic and other documents, various information from various fields of science in order to form an objective picture of the world.

Penetration into the language of science, rigor in dealing with scientific concepts, data, concepts, adapting them to mass perception - all these are the most important qualities of an observer, necessary in everyday work. That is why there are more and more journalists with academic degrees and titles in various fields of human knowledge.

Going from phenomenon to essence, the browser brings the audience to a certain idea. And here he is helped by expressive examples, details that give the text a visual-specific character. Unlike the author of the article, who relies on logical arguments, the columnist convinces the reader of the correctness of the conclusion with the facts, and even pushes him to make the final conclusion that coincides with the opinion of the columnist.

The lexical composition of the review is quantitatively unlimited, not closed. Here are interstyle vocabulary, and thematic, determined by the theme of the review, and words, to varying degrees, approaching the main categories of intrastyle vocabulary. The selection criterion for a journalist is the ability of a word to express an assessment, its actual or potentially evaluative properties. However, the browser is often captured by foreign vocabulary. Meanwhile, borrowings do not always and immediately become the property of a wide readership. Therefore, the journalist must either find an appropriate Russian synonym, or explain the meaning of the word used directly in the text. This must also be done because foreign vocabulary, getting into the Russian language, often loses its emotional halo, becomes stylistically neutral, coldish.

The advantage of a Russian synonym lies in the clarity of its internal, semantic structure and in the breadth of semantic connections due to this structure. The browser, relying on scientific documentation, does not always bother to search for appropriate synonyms, the labor of adapting the information obtained to the language of the mass audience.

So, the observer should arouse the interest of the audience, telling her about the events, processes taking place in public life, defend advanced points of view and help improve the "personal strategy" of citizens, discover their essence in phenomena, show the contradictions of reality, comprehend the course of social development, identifying essential communication and determining the lines of development of phenomena, to contribute to the practical solution of the problems of society.

The volume of the review is, as a rule, not less than three hundred lines. After all, the observer, seeking to form a clear idea in the reader about a specific period of time and the state of affairs in a certain field of activity, creates a fusion of information and analysis, when the fact does not exclude thought, just as thought does not exclude fact. Creating a panorama of reality requires a serious analytical approach on the part of a journalist, and this, in turn, dictates the size of the material on the newspaper page.

Print overview

Print review - analytical genre. Its name originated at a time when there was no radio or television yet. Today it would be more correct to call it a review of the mass media. After all, it is intended for analysis, consideration of certain phenomena and situations associated with all types of mass media, their assessment and specific recommendations.

The first press reviews appear at the end of the 17th century, when scientists, journalists and publishers need to formulate their own idea of the role and possibilities of newspapers and magazines in the life of society and to acquaint their contemporaries with this idea. At the same time, the authors of the reviews compare various publications, their "face" and, as we would say today, their typological features, retelling socially significant or sensational materials characteristic of the reviewed publication. Thus, this genre pursues a dual goal: firstly, to influence the development of the press, increasing its ideological significance, and secondly, to acquaint readers with the most significant, impressive publications published in various publications.

It is no coincidence that the party press, throughout all the years of its existence, officially assigns the role of press reviews to one of the extremely important operational forms of directing the mass media. Reviewing journalistic works, the observer criticizes ideologically incorrect, erroneous ones, generalizes and disseminates the best practices of all-party propaganda work. We can say that this genre, until recently, more than all others was associated with the spread of class ideology. Press researchers note that, in terms of functionality, the press review has always been close to the leading article: with its help, directive instructions were given in a journalistic form by the mass media, and therefore it was often printed on behalf of the editorial board.

Unfortunately, now it is less and less possible to meet in the full sense of the word a review of the mass media. Journalists do not bother with a rigorous scientific analysis of such phenomena as print, radio or television, replacing the study of causes with a retelling of major news or reviews of journalistic materials. This is connected not only with the difficulties of working on the review, but also with the departure from the ideologization of the mass media. But there is still a persistent opinion that reviews are, first of all, a weapon of ideological work with the press, radio and television, a political orientation to fight class opponents and propagate the gains of the party.

If you look through the textbooks on the theory of journalistic genres, you can find mainly such an interpretation of press reviews. And arguing their point of view, the researchers refer, first of all, to the experience of the classics of Marxism and publicists of the Leninist school.

Recently, however, the objectives of the media review have changed significantly. The press reviews radio and television programs, and television and radio talk about publications in the press, not at all in order to exercise ideological leadership - the leading role of the central publications, as well as the ideological and political subordination of the mass media itself, disappeared with the development of pluralism . Therefore, today this genre is much closer to the review.

So, a press review is a critical analysis of journalistic works over a certain period of time, an assessment of the formulation of problems in the mass media and acquaintance of the audience with the most interesting or socially significant materials.

Here a panorama of events or phenomena is created, on the basis of which the totality of social facts of reality is studied. This is not a simple retelling of what was read, heard or seen. The journalist comprehends the fidelity, the truthfulness of the journalistic understanding of life.

There are several types of media review.

General review - analysis of the breadth of the range of publications in a particular medium of mass communication, the development of the most relevant topics in it, the literary merits of materials.

A journalist working on this type of review should be well aware not only of the media being monitored, but also of its audience, the specifics of the microclimate in the editorial team, and the potential creative possibilities of its employees. He carefully analyzes the subject matter, style, illustrativeness, infographics, geography of materials, the composition of authors, the systematic presentation, the effectiveness of publications, makes a forecast of the development of the situation and gives recommendations on how to avoid failures.

Review-presentation - analysis of a new edition, radio or television program, showing characteristic features, shortcomings and advantages. Most often, the criterion for selecting the materials reviewed here is the degree of their sensationalism, interest for a mass audience. The journalist seeks to show the underlying causes that gave rise to this publication, radio or television program, sensational materials, and the need for them in society.

This is not just a news announcement, an informational selection. First of all, the analytical approach is important here.

An unaddressed review is an analysis of topical issues raised in the mass media, characterized by the absence of references to specific monitored publications, radio and television programs.

It is important for a journalist to follow how the mass media generally discuss a particular problem, what conclusion they come to, what assessments they make. This type of review allows the author to express his own, subjective opinion on the solution of a topical issue and, at the same time, avoid reproaches from specific mass media for distorting their position.

Thematic review - an analysis of media coverage of a particular topic. The subject of study can be, for example, actions related to the adoption of important public and state documents, emergencies or sensations.

When working on a review, a journalist carefully monitors not only large materials, but also small notes that reflect the subject of his interest. Therefore, it is very important to clearly and correctly define the purpose of your speech, outlining the range of topical issues.

In the current conditions of pluralism, the monitored publication may not agree with the assessment of the observer, argue with him and even bring him to justice for causing moral damage. Therefore, a journalist analyzing the mass media must have special knowledge not only in the theory and practice of journalistic activity, a holistic view of the development of social relations, but also a number of special knowledge, especially when writing thematic reviews.

The journalistic beginning of the review dictates to the journalist such an essential and deep stylistic feature as the socially evaluative sharpness of the word. After all, the attitude of the subject to what is being evaluated plays the greatest role here. And the formation of this relationship has social basis. The principle of social appraisal, the social significance of the language determines in many respects the selection of speech means designed to express not only an individual, but above all a social assessment of facts, phenomena, events. The observer uses predominantly socially significant speech means that have emotional power and expressiveness. Evaluative words become words that do not originally carry evaluativeness, but in figurative meaning taking on a positive or negative connotation. The formation of this category of vocabulary is caused by the acute need of journalism in the means of expressing a socio-political assessment. This includes, say, such words as abscess, props, hotbed and the like.

And, finally, we note that this genre is distinguished by the use of a large number of quotations from the monitored publications, radio and television programs. After all, the review should have the power of evidence, detailed argumentation and convincing conclusions, and all this can be achieved only with the help of extracts from the analyzed texts.

This feature brings the review even closer to a review based on excerpts from the analyzed works.

Review

The very word "review" came to us from Latin. In translation, it means - "view, message, rating, feedback on something." The genre that received this name is critical analysis, an assessment of the reflection of reality in works of literature, art and science.

That is, a journalist, peering after the peer-reviewed author into the phenomena depicted by him, tries to figure out how deeply reality is comprehended, makes judgments about the degree of understanding by the writer or scientist of the essence of the displayed subject, about his position. In a word, if a work of art or a scientific work comprehends reality itself, revealing typical features or patterns in it, then a journalist in a review analyzes the correctness of the interpretation of the reflected facts.

The reviewer absorbs part of the experience of society and relies on it in the analysis, combining objective and subjective factors of perception. Objectivity can also be achieved by block submission of two or more differently directed reviews of the same work of art or the same scientific work. The benefit of this form of submission of reviews lies in the fact that they enable the reader to seek their own approach to the analyzed work, comparing different assessments and judgments.

Publicism, the actual topicality of the review dictates to the journalist a combination of theoretical and aesthetic research methods with an active intrusion into the problem under study, an interested continuation of the reviewed author. Descriptiveness and illustrativeness are alien to this genre - on the contrary, this is a kind of journalistic study of facts, phenomena, situations of reality through the prism of their correct reflection in works of literature, art and science.

To evaluate a particular work in the practice of reviewing, certain criteria have been developed, which can be conditionally divided into three groups. These are criteria that characterize, firstly, the content of the material, secondly, the method of presentation, and thirdly, the mastery of speech. If the reviewer manages to comprehend the internal laws of the work and see in it the individual author's features, he achieves true mastery. The dialectical fusion of criteria is determined by the unity of content and form, which the reviewer is called upon to feel and show.

Researchers divide reviews into two main types.

The first is evaluating such socio-political, journalistic and scientific works, where modern reality is reflected mainly by means of theoretical knowledge. Here it is important for a journalist to be able to speak with the peer-reviewed author in the same "language" - the language of theoretical research, and therefore to have a clear idea of the subject of the conversation, professionally understanding its essence.

The reviewer evaluates the theoretical and practical significance of new ideas, social models, technical innovations, and, consequently, the originality, weightiness of the author's concepts, their vitality, the correctness of judgments, conclusions, and recommendations. The expressive and visual palette of such reviews includes theoretical calculations, logical arguments, comments, statistical data, quotations, descriptions of episodes, journalistic digressions and illustrations, generalizations and conclusions.

The second is evaluating works of art. Here there is a need to explain figurative creativity, which comprehends reality in the unity of the logical and emotional, rational and sensual, abstract and concrete. A journalist, in addition to special theoretical and aesthetic knowledge, must have the ability to empathize, penetrate into the world of feelings of a peer-reviewed author or a whole creative team.

For example, referring to films or theatrical performances, the reviewer analyzes the work of the creative ensemble. He should not dwell only on its leader, on the ideological and aesthetic significance of this art form in the work of only one author or director. It is important to remember that if the text comes from the playwright, then the subtext comes from the actors who are assisted by colleagues in the workshop: make-up artists, costume designers, lighting designers, artists and many others. And here the journalist should reveal the nature of the production for the entire team - its progressiveness, stagnation or regression. And besides, to show this work as a link in a single process.

Turning to works, he selects from them either milestones for the artistic process of modernity, or those that negatively affect the spiritual potential of society, and tries to understand the reasons that prompted the author to create such a work. After all, the task facing this type of review is to teach society to quickly navigate in spiritual wealth and actively influence its development.

Whereas the first type of review is aimed primarily at the formation of the scientific and ideological potential of society.

But in both cases, the reviewer, when selecting a subject for analysis, is guided by the relevance of the problem raised in the work. And besides, he certainly takes into account the interests and needs of his audience. After all, one of the tasks of the review is the ability to instill in a person the will to creative, culturally transforming life. Therefore, each reviewer is concerned that an interesting, bright journalistic work comes out from under his pen.

It should be remembered that in the case when a journalist, based on an in-depth analysis of a separate work, puts forward any socially significant problems, his work can outgrow the scope of a review and become a literary-critical article or an art history study.

Of course, the review does not retell the main storyline of the work of art being analyzed or the content of scientific work, does not focus on their individual points, the informational and illustrative part of the review is compressed to a minimum, it is understood that the reader is already familiar with the work under review. The journalist, first of all, seeks to help the audience understand what new discoveries in the comprehension of life were made here, what new motives appeared in the work of the author under study. It is extremely important for the reviewer to activate the thinking of the readers, to make them think.

Turning to the analyzed work, he shows the internal patterns and features of a particular type of creativity, the forms of embodiment of the author's intention, the conditions for achieving unity of form and content, and, of course, the reality passed through the creative laboratory of an artist or scientist. The reviewer comprehends the general author's concept, gives it a proper assessment and even tries to rise to high generalizations and conclusions. Unfortunately, in modern conditions, the attempt is not always successful - the reviewer lacks professional knowledge, the scientific and theoretical basis of the study.

But another task of the review is the formation of correct ideas about the world among the creators of spiritual values and the correction of the hypotheses built by the artist or scientist. The journalist conducts a complex professional dialogue with them, entering into a discussion. And here it is necessary to master the special terminology, organically included in the text of a journalistic speech.

Reviews are characterized by the evaluation of language means. Evaluative vocabulary is associated with an acute need for the formation of new knowledge and beliefs, a certain attitude towards them. Therefore, in the arsenal of the reviewer there are colloquial constructions, and book high words, and archaisms, and various means of emotional syntax.

The task of directly influencing the reader with a bright, emotional, figurative word determines the characteristic speech structure of this genre. The leading role is given to the author, whose personality traits, individuality, richness of feelings and thoughts acquire special significance.

In the mass media, micro-reviews are most often found, occupying up to a hundred lines. A small volume does not allow a journalist to fully reveal personal impressions, so micro-reviews are concise, accurate, and capacious. A large, detailed review is characteristic primarily of specialized publications. Such a macro review is usually prepared by venerable critics who specialize in certain subtypes of reviews.

Feature article

An essay is an artistic and journalistic genre that combines logical-rational and emotional-figurative ways of reflecting reality to solve certain aspects of the concept of a person or social life. This is the scientific definition of the genre. What does it mean?

First of all, the essayist artistically embodies real historical persons and events in words, forming an opinion about them on the basis of a systematic study of the object. Judgment is achieved through analysis, and the conclusion and conclusion are its logical completion.

In a word, the essay is both a documentary-scientific understanding of reality and an aesthetic exploration of the world. It is no coincidence that an essay is compared with works of art and even with painting, emphasizing: if a story is a picturesque picture, then an essay is a graphic drawing or a sketch for a picture. It is, as it were, on the verge between a document and a generalized artistic image. If historians today had no other sources than essay literature, then even in this case they would be able to correctly imagine the past life: the Russian essay contains a huge amount of artistic and educational material that reflects many important moments in the development of the country over a number of decades.

After all, an essay in the history of Russian journalism has been known since the end of the 18th century. And it was distinguished not only by the breadth of coverage and thematic diversity, but also by the formulation of exciting, topical problems of our time. Therefore, the cognitive value of Russian essay literature is inseparable from its active role in the history of the liberation movement. Throughout its history - from its appearance to modern development - the essay has sought to acquaint the reader with new, emerging forms of life and its daily course, to awaken public opinion and form an understanding of the right to put forward and defend advanced thoughts, combining an objective assessment of reality with subjective opinion, comparisons and parallels between them. Only when a publicist proves himself to be a competent researcher, a subtle analyst, can he convince the reader of the correctness of his assessments and judgments.

Researchers distinguish several types of essays.

The portrait sketch develops a certain aspect of the concept of a person, reveals the inner world of the hero, the socio-psychological motivation of his actions, individual and typical in character. The essayist is looking for in real life such a person who would embody the main typical features of his social environment and at the same time be distinguished by the originality of character traits, originality of thought. And only then he creates not a photographic image, but an artistic and journalistic display of an individual image.

It's not simple curriculum vitae. A person's life cannot be revealed in its moral beauty, in the richness of its creative manifestation, replacing the story about it with a presentation of personal data or a description of the hero's labor technology.

In order for a portrait essay to take up a whole newspaper page, a person who would be very significant is needed. After all, a journalist outlines a portrait of his hero only in details, with strokes. However, the essay is unlikely to fit in less than 300-400 lines: the relative laconism of the genre is combined here with a journalistic development of an actual problem, an analysis of the psychology of the hero.

The problem essay includes a number of subtypes: economic, sociological, philosophical, ecological, judicial, polemical and others. Here, a specialist in a certain field acts as a publicist. The subject of his research and artistic and journalistic reflection is the actual problem facing society at a particular current moment. This is a conceptual author's monologue, illuminated by the individual vision of a person and the situation in which he acts.

The essayist-problem writer does not just develop a theme with the help of emotionally figurative expressive and visual means, but creates an image of the situation. It is no longer showing a specific personality that comes to the fore, but a scientific and journalistic study of the problem. The role of the author is always active here - he enters into a direct conversation with the reader, freely using knowledge of the history of the issue, figures, and statistical data.

This kind of essay is not a frequent visitor to the pages of newspapers. Creating a detailed image of the situation, it is much more voluminous than problem-analytical genres - correspondence and articles. Therefore, a problematic essay is a form of journal or even book journalism.

The travel essay is one of the oldest types. Its features lie in the fact that the object of study unfolds for the author gradually. Indeed, while traveling, a publicist peers at people, at situations, fixes facts and events, reflecting them through the prism of individual observations. In the transfer of personal impressions from the forms of life, customs, mores, social contrasts that arise before the eyes of the essayist, lies the specificity of the travel essay. It combines elements of portrait and problematic essays.

This is not accidental: the very origins of the Russian essay should be sought precisely here, in this kind of genre. The aggravation of social contradictions in Russia in the 18th century set the task for publicists to show the panorama of developing events. A new attitude to reality was combined with the search for new forms of its reflection. This is how "Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev and "Letters of a Russian Traveler" by N.M. Karamzin appeared.

Often, travel essays are published with sequels, creating the illusion of a joint journey between the author and readers. The essayist becomes the eyes of his audience, using reportage techniques for this.

Stylistic language structure essay is fully consistent with the goal set by the author, and the type of essay chosen by him for the artistic and journalistic understanding of reality. Brevity, conciseness, the ability to say a lot in a concise form, to create a multifaceted picture is one of the main signs of the essayist's high professional skill.

Landscapes play a special role in the essay. The description of nature helps to reveal both the environment in which the action takes place and the emotional and psychological state of the characters in the essay or the essayist himself. In identifying the essential features of natural phenomena, showing their relationship with the main idea of the essay, expressive details and detailing, the essayist can achieve an extraordinary depth of penetration into the very essence of what is being described.

However, in the practice of novice journalists, the depth of comprehension of what they have experienced and seen is often replaced by the monotony of topics, illustrative sliding on the surface of life, dryness of presentation of thoughts, poverty of vocabulary - here any description of a fact, event, person is called an essay.

Therefore, we note once again that Russian essay journalism, first of all, strives for an active intrusion into life, for problematicness, for novelty, for revealing facts of great social significance. And the bright, figurative manner of narration, sharp individual speech characteristics, metaphors, comparisons, hyperbole contribute to greater expressiveness and artistic and journalistic reflection of reality.

One of effective methods the construction of the essay is an associative way of presentation, a typical manifestation of which is the author's reflections. Author's associations, as a rule, deepen the figurative-psychological development of the main idea of the narrative.

It is very important that all situations, facts, events, associations represent a single whole, obey a single goal - the development of a topic chosen by the essayist. At the same time, only by fully studying the material, facts, circumstances, people, one can finally decide what turn to give to the essay, what problem to put forward in it. Therefore, while working on an essay, a journalist records everything in his notebook and in his memory: general information, data, figures, names and surnames, positions, specific episodes, situations that reveal a person in action, so that later he can reveal what is characteristic, instructive, impressive. After all, the composition of the genre requires an indispensable connection, a collision of many facts, episodes, reflections.

Essay

An essay is a prose study that presents general or preliminary considerations about any subject or on any occasion. This is a deeply personal personalized literary and journalistic genre that requires independence and originality of thinking, some experience in the area to which thoughts are devoted. Actually, in translation from French, its name means - "experience".

It is the youngest in the system of Russian journalistic genres, despite the fact that it has been known in European literature since the end of the 16th century, having gained particular popularity in England. However, for almost four centuries, Russian literary critics have attributed essays to purely literary genres, since the main role in it is played not by the reproduction of a fact, but by the depiction of impressions, reflections and associations.

Meanwhile, among the essay there are several varieties.

A literary-critical essay by no means claims to analyze the work or the writer's creative path, limiting itself to general discussions about them with an emphasized subjectivity of the author's attitude to the subject matter.

The philosophical essay is a reflection on the meaning of being, on the development of society, on life and death, on the knowledge of truth, on good and evil. All these problems can be discussed and discussed by people of different professions, with different experiences and cultures. But for many centuries, such questions were discussed within the framework of a special spiritual activity, which since antiquity has been called philosophy. Thus, a philosophical essay is an expression of a deeply personal individual knowledge of being, distinguished by a critical and creative attitude towards the world and the former system of views on the world.

Organizational and managerial essay is one of the most popular methods in the science of personnel management of the modern system of formal assessment of perfect performance. It assumes that the assessor needs to describe, according to pre-developed assessment standards, how a particular employee performs his work. It is used in cases where it is necessary to evaluate the performance of employees performing very specific tasks that are difficult to bring under any standards, and serves as a management improvement program. Its goal is to improve performance, determine remuneration for the work done and formulate considerations related to the employee's career.

A scientific and journalistic essay - sometimes it is simply called a journalistic essay - is often referred to as a type of essay. Indeed, having common origins, these two genres are similar in many ways. However, a freer, uninhibited manner of narration, dictated by the publicist's need to speak out, remember the past and look into the future, has become a specific feature of this subspecies of the essay. A departure from traditional forms of communication, a philosophical outlook, fullness of thoughts full of doubts and hesitations, a tendency to analyze one's own experiences - this is the essence of a scientific journalistic essay.

Turning to this genre, a publicist must have a rich memory, abundant knowledge, an endless chain of associations, solid experience in scientific and theoretical research and life observations. The reader from the first lines is obliged to feel in the author of the essay an educated, well-educated specialist, capable of broad generalizations.

Often an essay can be built without a plot and dialogue, since its subject is the author's introspection of the worldview and intuitive progress towards new knowledge about being.

The essayist's free self-expression is influenced by the level and direction of public opinion, the philosophical concepts prevailing in the country, and the peculiarities of national self-consciousness. Therefore, this genre does not fit into a strict framework of definitions. In different conditions of appearance, essays are different, since the cabinet conclusions of publicists figuratively reflect real phenomena and episodes of life.

However, the essay does not apply to documentary journalism. He does not at all seek to form a broad public opinion, to achieve a specific result, to rely on a pragmatic system of facts. Being analytical in essence, the essay does not set itself the goal of analyzing an urgent problem that requires an urgent solution. His interests are focused on the global problems of social life, which cannot be solved at once. The development of the existence of the triad "man, humanity, humanity" has become the leading one in modern essayism - a truly global problem of the present and future.

And it is considered, first of all, through moral categories, the moral level of modern society. Therefore, philosophers, culturologists, art historians, historians, in a word, experts in the field of social sciences, pay tribute to the essayistic style of presentation.

The depth of penetration into the material and the breadth of coverage of reality entirely depend on the publicist's ability to perceive the spiritual values of society, on the level of his scientific worldview, which includes the scientific picture of the world, the generalized results of the achievements of human knowledge, the principles of the relationship of man with the natural and artificial environment.

The essayist advertises his subjectivism, the desire to comprehend the global nature of what is happening, to show the socio-psychological section of society. And in this inclusiveness, the publicist himself becomes the core, a kind of lens of refraction of facts. No force can force the reader to continue reading as soon as he realizes that his own intelligence exceeds that of the essayist.

The perception of spiritual values, as we know, is creative. Everyone comprehends and interprets the images and feelings recreated by the author in his own way. Any person experiences spiritual values through the prism of his own experience, but this is always the creative work of the soul and mind of a person.

The essay becomes a special kind of activity of two interconnected creative personalities - the author and the reader. The level of education and general culture of each of these two personalities directly affects the emergence of a specific dialogue, simultaneous spiritual consumption and spiritual creativity.

Among the stylistic devices used by the essayist, the so-called "imaginary advance" occupies not the last place. It has the ability to clearly distinguish between actions, movements, stopping the reader's attention on each of them. All facts, phenomena are, as it were, compressed, shifted in time, pulled together into a single spatio-temporal plane. Therefore, the author seeks to distinguish between them, pointing to their real location in time: "a little later we will see ..." or "a little later we saw ..." - the actions are referred to the future or the past. And this sets the boundary separating the real world from the iconic world of art.

The contrast of time plans allows the essayist to highlight the essential points in the text that he wants to pay special attention to. Sometimes he even interrupts the presentation in mid-sentence in order to comment in detail or analyze his inner feeling about a real fact, phenomenon.

This technique contributes to the expression of the emotional and expressive content of the essay, associated with the effect of communication, personal contact between the author and the reader, reproduction of a casual conversation between them. In reasoning that periodically interrupts the narrative, the experience of scientific and theoretical and life observations of the author are so organically combined that the reader, being included in the reflections, involuntarily perceives these reasoning as his own, based on personal observations.

An essay is a rare visitor to a newspaper page. Although some analytical and artistic publications publish materials written in this genre. For example, essays by prominent writers appear on the pages of Literaturnaya Gazeta. But it is, rather, still a book form of journalism.

Publicism

PUBLICITY (from the word public, public) - a field of literature that has as its subject topical socio-political issues, resolving them from the point of view of a certain class in order to directly influence society and therefore contains a pronounced assessment, appeal, etc. while the artist gives his ideological statement through a system of images, the publicist uses the image only as one of the means of expressing thoughts, which may be absent without violating the basic principle of constructing a journalistic work. P. differs from scientific and theoretical works in that it does not have the specific features of scientific research and uses one or another scientific research, striving to develop questions of social order and illuminate them on the basis of acquired scientific knowledge. The most striking genre of P. is a pamphlet (see). The pamphlet always contains irony, sarcasm, mockery, mockery of the enemy, and a bright, ardent appeal to the reader. Publicistic genres are also a feuilleton, a note, an appeal, an appeal, a proclamation, a political letter, a slogan, a publicistic article. A special place in writing is occupied by such genres as memoirs, letters, and diaries. The diaries of Herzen, Dobrolyubov, numerous memoirs of Lenin, Stalin, etc., can be cited as examples of journalistic works.
Embracing great content in such a variety of genres, propaganda includes mass agitation and propaganda literature. Here, the true nature of poetry, its meaning and significance as a special type of literary creativity, comes forward with the utmost clarity. But literature exists not only as an independent type of literature, it often breaks into adjacent areas, appearing there as a "journalistic trend." This was already the case in the 60s. journalistic criticism, so fiction of the 70s. carried a bright publicistic coloring. Proletarian P. grows organically into scientific work. The depth of scientific analysis, the objectivity of the content, acting inseparably from the party sharpness of scientific conclusions, are therefore associated with a pronounced journalistic tendency. Examples of this type of scientific work with a bright journalistic coloring can be Marx's "Capital", Engels' "Anti-Dühring", Lenin's "The Development of Capitalism in Russia" and "Materialism and Empirio-Criticism", Stalin's "Issues of Leninism" and many others. etc. Publicism not only does not reduce their scientific character, but, on the contrary, gives it brightness, sharpness. About the journalistic trend so. arr. we speak when a writer (fiction writer, scientist) does not limit himself to expressing his understanding of reality through showing it in images or concepts, but also directly declares his attitude towards it. At the moment when the class struggle is intensifying, journalistic criticism acquires great importance, when not so much the literary work itself serves as material for criticism, but the reality that has found its reflection in literature. This is primarily due to the acuteness of the very questions of reality, which attracts criticism, and also in the absence of freedom of speech (revolutionary democratic criticism of the 60s), the desire to use fiction and criticism as the only means of expressing political views.
In elucidating the question of the relationship between journalism and fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between those literary works in which a tendency appears that does not follow from position and action (as Engels put it), from those works where journalism is an organic part of the ideological-figurative system. Publicism of the first kind can also stem from the artist's inability to figuratively reflect the world, an inability due, in particular, to the author's artistic helplessness.
The development of journalism is closely connected with the development of public life. P. of the feudal formation, P. of the capitalist era, depending on political conditions, place and time, either exists independently or uses fiction and criticism as means, creating a special type of fiction and journalistic criticism. In the era of the dictatorship of the proletariat, poetry develops along with fiction and criticism, becoming in the hands of the proletariat a powerful tool for the communist re-education of the masses and for the propaganda of the ideas of communism and the proletarian revolution throughout the world. At the same time, Soviet fiction and criticism, while retaining their specificity, acquire a clear ideological orientation and sharpness, thereby expressing the effectiveness and party spirit inherent in the proletarian worldview.
In Russia, we find vivid examples of P. already in the 16th century. M. N. Pokrovsky wrote: “In the 16th century. we suddenly have something that Moscow never dreamed of in the 14th century, political literature, journalism. Without touching on the entire mass of journalistic works, we note the literary controversy of Ivan IV with Prince. Andrei Kurbsky, writings by Iv. Peresvetov, and even earlier (XV century) the message of the elder of the Pskov monastery Philotheus to Grand Duke Vasily Ivanovich. The political task of Philotheus was to carry out the idea of Moscow - III Rome: "two Romes fell, and the third stands, and the fourth will not be." The writings of Ivan Peresvetov had as their political task the protection of the autocratic-bureaucratic state of Ivan IV and the preaching of the same idea Moscow - III Rome. The journalistic works of Ivan the Terrible - letters to Kurbsky and writings to the abbot of the Kirillo-Belozersky monastery - were caused by the political tasks of protecting the nobility and merchants against the claims of the old boyars. The boyars put forward their ideologist - Prince. Andrey Kurbsky, who gave “the history of led. book. Moscow” and letters to Grozny. Previously, the feudal lord, by means of violence or cunning, took away the land from his neighbor, sometimes tried to atone for his sin by building one or two monasteries. The consciousness of the crime committed by him did not go further than this. Now separate classes are challenging each other for land and power over the working people, trying to prove their case with examples from history, scripture etc., trying to convince them that what they need is good for everyone. Therefore, sometimes they even stand up for the oppressed and act under the guise of representatives of the masses and their interests. Among the publicistic works of the XV-XVI centuries. we have works directed against the church. “The Conversation of St. Sergius and Herman of the Valaam Wonderworkers” is a vivid pamphlet directed against the church and monasteries.
In the XVIII century. P. in Russia has already acted quite widely. The satires of Kantemir, “There were tales” by Catherine II, and in particular Radishchev’s “Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow”, journalism of Novikov, early Krylov, and others should be attributed to P. Novikov, Krylov, and especially Radishchev sharply criticized the entire system of social relations, serfdom, the tsarist bureaucracy, the court, education, and Radishchev and Novikov - and the autocracy of the tsar. In the XVIII century. the works of the grassroots peasant, Cossack and soldier masses also appear: “Lamentation-pamphlet about the serfdom (copy from a request to the heavenly chancellery)”, “Lament of serfs”, etc.
In the West, the beginning of the development of P. also belongs to the era of feudalism. The sharp class struggle of the end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times brings P. to life. The struggle of capitalism in the West against feudalism has taken the form of a rejection of the church and monasteries, of priests and monks, as vivid spokesmen for reaction. "Praise of Stupidity" by Erasmus of Rotterdam, "Letters of dark people" reveal the nature of this struggle by means of journalism. Fiction itself takes on a pronounced journalistic character.
During the period of the Reformation, when the peasant movement was marching under the banner of religious struggle, there was a need to appeal to the broad masses of the people. This need was met by P., a prominent place among the works of which is occupied by the controversy between Thomas Müntzer - the leader of the peasant uprising of 1525 - and the leader of the Reformation Luther.
The English Revolution of the 17th century brought about an exceptional increase in P. The struggle against Charles I demanded its own argumentation in defense of those who were executing. A pamphlet appeared that answered this task - "Kieling no morder" (Killing is not murder). The industrial revolution in England and the development of bourgeois relations created a powerful development of political struggle as a form of political struggle. Phenomena such as the struggle for the liberation of Ireland, the Chartist movement, etc., gave rise to periodical organs such as The Spectator and the famous pamphlets of Swift and Defoe.
The period of preparation for the French Revolution gave a powerful impetus to the development of literature in the form of a pamphlet, feuilleton, newspaper satire, and so on. "What is the Third Estate" by Sieyes can be considered the best example of the then journalism, a bright, convincing, saturated political trend. Marat's newspaper articles bring P. to higher development, and Babeuf's "People's Tribune" ends the period of this brilliant heyday. The era of the Restoration and the struggle associated with it gave P. a satirical character (Paul Louis Courier, Beranger of this period are purely saturated with P.). P. in Russia continued to develop in the 19th century. The central problem of the journalism of the Alexander era was the question of the liberation of the peasants and the form political power. The Nikolaev reaction did not destroy P., but influenced its form with its iron censorship regulations. P. entered an inevitable element in both fiction and criticism. Belinsky was a brilliant publicist and critic of the Nikolaev era. His famous letter to Gogol is, according to Lenin, one of the best works of the uncensored democratic press. Belinsky's letter to Gogol is a wonderful and vivid pamphlet, with clearly expressed political demands and with a passionately destructive attack against the autocratic-feudal system of Russia.
A striking example of protective P. are Gogol's Selected passages from correspondence with friends, against which Belinsky's blow was directed. The tendencies of protective P. were developed: in Moscow, by Pogodin, Shevyrev, and partly by the Slavophiles in the Moskvityanin magazine, and in St. Petersburg, by the reptilian hacks Grech and Bulgarin in the Northern Bee. The tendencies of revolutionary P. found their continuation with Chernyshevsky and Dobrolyubov in Sovremennik, and radical - in Pisarev's Russian Word. The struggle between the magazines of the 60s. dealt with fundamental political issues. The aggravation of the class struggle contributed to the growth of poetry. At the same time, censorship also grew, and poetry inevitably became part of fiction and criticism. Brilliant examples of revolutionary-democratic journalistic criticism of the 60s are the articles of Chernyshevsky, Dobrolyubov and Pisarev. Remarkable publicists-artists are Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin and Gleb Uspensky. The reactionary camp put forward in the 60s. such publicists as Dostoevsky and Katkov. P. 40-60s raised the problem of serfdom, socialism and revolution, freedom of the human person, women's emancipation, family and marriage. P. uncensored had a different character. “The forerunner of the workers’ (proletarian-democratic or social-democratic) press was then the general democratic uncensored press headed by Herzen’s Bell,” wrote Lenin (“From the Past of the Workers’ Press in Russia,” Works, Vol. XVII, p. 341). Herzen-Ogaryov's "The Bell" created a type of free uncensored journalistic work that takes the form of a pamphlet, a satire, or a direct indictment. In terms of brightness, strength and passion, Herzen's journalism occupies one of the first places in the history of Russian journalism.
The appearance on the historical stage of a new social force - the proletariat - gave a new impetus to the development of journalism and gave it a new content. In Germany, journalism came to light especially vividly in the works of K. Marx and F. Engels. The pamphlets of K. Marx show a huge literary talent, wit, caustic sarcasm that destroys the enemy; his P. was both agitation and a deep generalizing scientific work, reinforcing and developing a certain political-party line. This is a characteristic feature of the proletarian P. In Russia, the content of the proletarian P. at first was the struggle against the Narodniks. The main questions were questions about the nature of Russia's development, about the peasantry, about the revolution, about socialism, etc. The Narodnik camp put forward N. K. Mikhailovsky. From the positions of Marxism (albeit inconsistent) Plekhanov fought against populism. Lenin's brilliant journalism, which creatively developed the principles of Marx in the conditions of the newest stage of capitalism, was the true and highest example of consistently Marxist literature. The persecution of the tsarist gendarmerie led to the emergence of an underground propaganda campaign. Back in the 60s. a form of underground proclamation arose. In the 90s and 900s: gg. in Russia, "underground leaflets" were commonplace. Many Marxist publicists used the images of fiction (Nekrasov, Saltykov-Shchedrin, Gl. Uspensky, and others). The struggle against Economism and Menshevism, otzovism, God-seeking, God-building, liquidationism, etc., brought to life brilliant works of Bolshevik journalism (V. Vorovsky, M. Olminsky, M. Pokrovsky, V. Fritsche, and others). Its peculiarity consisted primarily in the open implementation of the principle of party membership in it. Lenin wrote in 1905: “Literature must be party. In opposition to bourgeois morals, in opposition to bourgeois literary careerism and individualism, aristocratic anarchism and the pursuit of profit, the socialist proletariat must put forward the principle of party literature, develop this principle and put it into practice in the fullest and most integral form possible. What is this principle of party literature? Not only that, for the socialist proletariat, literary work cannot be an instrument for the gain of individuals or groups, it cannot be an individual matter in general, independent of the general proletarian cause. Down with the non-party writers! Down with the superhuman writers! Literary work must become a part of the common proletarian cause, a wheel and a cog in one single, great social-democratic mechanism set in motion by the entire conscious vanguard of the entire working class. Literary work must become an integral part of organized, planned, united Social-Democratic Party work...
We, socialists, expose this hypocrisy (i.e., freedom of the press - M.D.), tear down false signs - not in order to obtain non-class literature and art (this will be possible only in a socialist non-class society), but in order to in order to oppose literature that is hypocritically free, but in fact associated with the bourgeoisie, with really free literature, openly associated with the proletariat” (Lenin, Party Organization and Party Literature, Sochin., vol. VIII, pp. 387 and 389).
In addition to the above-mentioned articles of party-pointed proletarian journalism, the articles of Iskra before the split or during the revolution of 1905 are the journalism of the cast group under the Moscow Committee of the RSDLP in the collections Current Moment, Questions of the Day, and others. reactions after the revolution of 1905. At that time, writers came out not only with journalistic and artistic works, but also directly with journalistic articles, such as, for example. M. Gorky.
At the same time, the bourgeoisie openly turned its publicists into corrupt, deceitful, hired agents ready for anything, who were not ashamed to be an instrument of flagrant injustice. The Menshevik P., like the bourgeois one, carried out its political task of drugging the masses, turning them into an obedient instrument of imperialist predators. Proletarian P. was forced to go underground and developed freely only after the October Revolution. Civil war, socialist construction, industrialization of the country, collectivization p. x., a tremendous cultural upsurge in the country, the rabselkor movement, the emergence of many newspapers and mass publications, all this caused the flourishing of proletarian propaganda. Kirov, Kaganovich, Molotov, and the journalism of Pravda are examples of Soviet proletarian propaganda. Under the conditions of the dictatorship of the proletariat, propaganda is a powerful tool for propaganda and agitation in the communist spirit. Scientific and partisanship are characteristic features of proletarian journalism.

Literary encyclopedia. - In 11 tons; M .: publishing house of the Communist Academy, Soviet Encyclopedia, Fiction. Edited by V. M. Friche, A. V. Lunacharsky. 1929-1939 .

Publicism

(from lat. publicus - public), a kind of literature and journalism that considers modern problems, current political, economic, social issues. The purpose of journalism is to influence society, to draw people's attention to any fact, to get a reaction from them. In journalism, there is always a clearly defined position of the author and there is no fiction. The subject of journalism is an event, a phenomenon that takes place in this moment or recently happened, as well as the opinion of the author about this event or phenomenon. Journalism forms public opinion, the authors enter into discussions with each other, defending their point of view. The journalistic style is distinguished by emotionality, polemic.
Large Russian. publicists were A.N. Radishchev, P. Ya. Chaadaev, V. G. Belinsky, A.I. Herzen, N. G. Chernyshevsky, ON THE. Dobrolyubov, D.I. Pisarev, N.K. Mikhailovsky, V. V. Rozanov and others. famous writers like N.V. Gogol(“Selected places from correspondence with friends”), F.M. Dostoevsky(“Writer's Diary”), L.N. Tolstoy and etc.

Literature and language. Modern illustrated encyclopedia. - M.: Rosman. Under the editorship of prof. Gorkina A.P. 2006 .

Publicism

PUBLICITY(from the word public, public) - that area of \u200b\u200bliterature that deals with political, public issues in order to pursue certain views in a wide range of readers, create, shape public opinion, and initiate certain political campaigns. The origin of journalism belongs, of course, to the era when the mass reader first appeared, as well as the means of reproducing literary works in in large numbers, i.e. to the beginning of the capitalist period of Europe, with the influx of new ideas that corresponded to new social relations, with the development of urban life and trade, with the advent of a number of discoveries and inventions, and first of all - typography. Journalism is the child of a young, emerging bourgeoisie and is developing in Europe along with the development of bourgeois relations. Therefore, the birthplace of journalism is Italy, where, along with the first banks, the first newspapers appeared and where, in the Renaissance, the first literary form of journalism arose - pamphlet, i.e. a small pamphlet of bright propaganda content, dealing with some topical, sore issue or attacking individuals and groups that are especially hated politically.

The end of the Middle Ages and the beginning of modern times, the epoch of the collapse of feudalism, with its subsistence economy, economic and spiritual stagnation, is a profoundly revolutionary epoch. And like all subsequent revolutionary epochs, it creates an extensive publicistic literature and, first of all, pamphlets. In addition to a number of Italian humanists who opposed the Catholic Church, German humanists became especially famous at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century. Erasmus of Rotterdam with his "Praise of Stupidity" and Reuchlin- with his "Letters of the Dark People", which ridiculed the ignorant monks, the most hated and reactionary social group of that time. Great social movement, known as the reformation, which stirred up huge masses of the lower strata of the population, for the first time created journalism for the people, popular, rude in form, but often caustic and witty. Poisonous pamphlets of a polemical nature were exchanged by the leader of the moderate reformation - Luther with the apostle of heretical communism and the leader of the peasant uprising of 1525 - Thomas Müntzer, who, in his pamphlets and appeals, cursed both the clergy and the authorities.

The pamphlet developed especially in the era of the first English revolution of the 17th century. The great English poet Milton wrote the first pamphlet in history in defense of freedom of the press. At the same time, the famous pamphlet “Killing - no murder” appeared, justifying the execution of the king. A number of pamphlets were written by the Democrat Lilborn and the Communists - "true Levellers". Since then, the pamphlet has become a favorite spiritual weapon of the English opposition parties and has provided examples of high agitational skill, especially during great political campaigns, such as the struggle for electoral reform and the abolition of the Corn Laws in the first half of the 19th century, the struggle for the liberation of Ireland or Chartism. The pamphlet (along with political newspapers) also reached a remarkable development in the era of the French Revolution, which opened with the pamphlet of the Abbé Sieyes "What is the Third Estate", reached its apogee in the newspapers of Marat and ended with the "People's Tribune" of Babeuf. In the era of restoration, French Shchedrin became famous with satirical pamphlets against the returning nobles and the royal administration - Paul Louis Courier. The socialist pamphlets of the 1930s and 1940s are also remarkable. After that, the pamphlet was more and more forced out in France by newspaper journalism.

In Germany, before the revolution of 1848, the poet became famous as publicists Heine and critic Berne. But then the first place undoubtedly took Karl Marx, who in his pamphlets and newspaper articles was able to combine a brilliant literary talent, wit and caustic, killing sarcasm with a deep and clear theoretical analysis. That is why his pamphlets are both agitational and deeply scientific works. The first such work was the Communist Manifesto by Marx and Engels. Then Marx's articles in the New Rhine Gazette, Louis Bonaparte's 18th Brumaire, where, with devastating satire and mockery of the hero of the coup of 1851, a class explanation of the very possibility of this coup is given - finally, "The Civil War in France" , manifesto of the First International, issued immediately after the pacification of the Paris Commune.

Lassalle was also a great master of the agitational and scientific pamphlet in Germany, who wrote his speeches and distributed them in the form of pamphlets.

In Russia, due to censorship conditions, there was no journalism in the real sense of the word at all, until 1905, except for brief periods of weakening of censorship oppression, such as the beginning of the 60s or the very end of the 70s. Therefore, in Russia journalism was hidden under the guise of literary criticism, in which the authors sometimes succeeded with the help of "Aesopian" language, i.e. allegories and omissions, deceive the vigilance of the censor. From this point of view, the first genuine Russian publicist should be considered Belinsky. And his " Letter to Gogol”, which circulated in Russia in handwritten lists, was the first illegal political pamphlet.

The first creator uncensored political newspaper Bell" was Herzen, with his great literary talent.

An outstanding publicist and at the same time a great master of deceiving censorship - was Chernyshevsky who has developed the ability to directly mock the censor and be understood at a glance their reader.

A highly gifted publicist-satirist was Saltykov-Shchedrin, which combined with the talent of a publicist a deep gift of an artist. A prominent publicist was also a sociologist and literary critic, an ideological leader and theorist of populism - N. K. Mikhailovsky. Since the 1960s, several talented newspaper and magazine publicists have also been promoted by the reactionary camp of Russian public life. In the first place here you need to put Katkova, then Dostoevsky, as the author of the Writer's Diary, and in later times - Suvorin and Menshikov, editor and feuilletonist of the Novoye Vremya newspaper.

With the appearance of Marxism in Russian literature, a number of talented publicists and pamphleteers came forward who were imbued with the Marxist spirit in literature, i.e., not limited to literary agitation or criticism of political and social orders, but giving them a scientific content in the spirit of historical materialism. The teacher of all Marxist publicists and in this respect is Plekhanov, an incomparable polemicist and stylist, at the same time witty and deeply meaningful. And when, in the early 1900s, the young Marxist publicists Lenin and Martov joined Plekhanov, and they began to publish together the political magazine Iskra abroad, a bright literary constellation emerged, which waged a journalistic war on four fronts: against tsarism, against the liberals, the Narodniks, and finally, against the opportunists within the Social Democracy itself. Iskra is one of the most brilliant pages in the history of not only Russian journalism, but journalism in general, both in terms of the depth of its content and the strength of the blows it delivers. Since 1902, he began to cooperate with Iskra Trotsky, who, by the time of the revolution of 1905, is being developed into a first-class publicist, original and bright, both in the field of shock newspaper articles and in the field of pamphlet pamphlets. His small articles in the penny Russkaya Gazeta in the "days of freedom" in 1905, his pamphlet "Mr. Peter Struve in Politics" written in prison in the spring of 1906, are masterpieces of journalistic art.

As the pace of social life in Europe accelerates, that is, as capitalism and urban life develop, the heavy-weight tool of the pamphlet and the magazine article is increasingly replaced by the light, fluid, mobile newspaper journalism, in the form of an editorial or feuilleton, and making it possible to conduct political campaigns from day to day.

Along with the school and the barracks, bourgeois journalism has become the most important tool for the spiritual enslavement and intoxication of the masses. This role of bourgeois journalism manifested itself with particular force during the World War, when, in the interests of the capitalist cliques that started the war, almost without exception, the entire press of the belligerent and even neutral countries, including even partly the Social-Democratic press, day after day preached necessity and justice. war, deafened and dulled the consciousness of the masses of the people with patriotic drumming and thus helped to turn these masses into obedient cannon fodder.

The October Revolution in Russia punched the first serious breach in the world bourgeois monopoly in the field of journalism. For the first time in history, such a powerful means of propaganda as state power, all printing houses, all stocks of paper, post office, telegraph, and radio stations were in the hands of the Communist Party. And if in Russia journalism became the monopoly of the Communist Party and a means of educating the masses in a revolutionary, anti-capitalist spirit, then in the West it became more and more impossible to hush up this revolutionary propaganda. For the very decrees of the Soviet government directed against the landowners and capitalists inside Russia, as well as the diplomatic notes sent by radio to the governments that were at war with Russia or blockaded it, becoming public in the West, turned into the hands of European and American communists, as well as the revolutionaries of Asia - into journalism, into an instrument of propaganda and revolutionization of the proletariat. The very fact of the existence of Soviet Russia has become a means of revolutionary journalism for some, counter-revolutionary for others.

Publicism in the broadest sense of the word can also include specifically propaganda literature, i.e., literature addressed to the masses, calling for certain actions. This is how he once described Plekhanov the role of agitation and its difference from propaganda, i.e. activities public educational: “Propaganda, in fact, the so-called, would lose all historical significance if it were not accompanied by agitation. Propaganda communicates correct views to tens, hundreds, thousands of people... But influence on the social life of modern civilized countries is unthinkable without influence on the masses, i.e., the people. without agitation... The propagandist gives a lot of ideas to one person or several persons, and the agitator gives only one or only several ideas, but he gives them a whole mass of people, sometimes almost the entire population of the area. But history is made in bulk. Therefore, agitation is the goal of propaganda: I conduct propaganda in order to be able to move on to agitation.

Therefore, if propaganda literature takes the form of brochures, magazine, and sometimes newspaper articles, then propaganda literature most often has the character of brief appeals scattered proclamations, wall posters and even posters. Usually, revolutionary parties that do not have their own widely branched newspaper apparatus or are persecuted by censorship, as well as government agencies at times of acute political crises, such as wars or revolutions, usually resort to such forms of influence on the masses. One of the most common types of propaganda literature in the so-called parliamentary countries are election posters, where different parties before the elections set out their programs, make promises, criticize opponents and call on the masses to vote for their candidates. But even with the apparent freedom of election campaigning, the wealthy bourgeois parties have every advantage in this paper war and plaster all the walls of European or American cities with their posters.

Journalism (from lat. publicus - public) - these are articles, notes, reviews, reviews, interviews, correspondence, essays and other newspaper and magazine genres that cover issues and show the phenomena of public life. The business of publicists is to write the history of the present. The two most important features of journalism: its content is closely related to the facts and problems of modern life, and its function is to directly influence the practice of socio-political struggle.

Journalism is openly tendentious, it always expresses and propagates the point of view of a particular class, party. Publicists pay much attention to politics, and turning to other (economic, philosophical, literary, etc.) phenomena and problems, they necessarily reveal their social and political significance. For example, the literary-critical articles “Selected passages from correspondence with friends of Nikolai Gogol” by V. G. Belinsky, “Russian man on rendez-vous” by N. G. Chernyshevsky, “When will the real day come?” N. A. Dobrolyubova, "Realists" by D. I. Pisarev are wonderful examples of journalism.

The publicist not only states the facts and informs about contemporary issues, he explains and convinces, argues and denounces, calls to action, agitates and propagandizes. Publicistic works combine the lexical and stylistic features of a scientific essay and oratory, a relaxed liveliness of colloquial speech and a clear orderliness of the literary language.

Articles by Herzen, Belinsky, Dobrolyubov, Chernyshevsky, Pisarev are full of figurative sketches, metaphors, comparisons, figurative expressions from the speech of peoples - proverbs, sayings, etc. Publicists constantly turn to images from works of fiction.

Artistic images in journalism are not external decoration, they are inextricably merged with reflections. For example, Herzen's reflection on the short-term revolutionary nature of the bourgeoisie, which was replaced by an extremely reactionary policy, is based on likening the bourgeoisie to the hero of the comedy P. Beaumarchais - Figaro: “During Beaumarchais, Figaro was outlaw, in our time Figaro - legislator; then he was poor, humiliated, pulled off a little from the master's table and therefore sympathized with hunger, and much malice was hidden in his laughter; Now God has blessed him with all earthly gifts, he is flabby, heavy, hates the hungry and does not believe in poverty, calling it laziness and vagrancy.

Artistic images acquire the greatest importance in the so-called artistic and journalistic genres (essay, feuilleton and pamphlet), where they no longer appear for a moment in a vast stream of author's reflections and facts, but constitute a necessary part of the works. Being works of art, they, like works of architecture, fulfill at the same time a practical purpose. Thus, the works of V. V. Ovechkin, G. N. Troepolsky, E. Ya. Dorosh, I. A. Vasiliev, Yu. D. Chernichenko, G. G. Radov, Yu. N. Kuranov, V. I. Palman and other Soviet essayists played an important role in solving the complex problems of agriculture, publicistically sharply raised issues of village life.

In fiction and journalistic works, the leading role belongs to the narrator, who tells, argues, leads the reader from one fact to another, introduces phenomena, analyzes and explains phenomena or problems.

Reflections on specific phenomena of reality, dates, numbers, names of real people contribute to the fact that the images of journalistic works are perceived as single, like specific real phenomena, in contrast to the images of works of art, which are regarded by the reader as a fiction that generalizes many phenomena of a similar order. The essayist, even creating a fictional image, concretizes it, “tying” it to a specific problem, a precisely indicated place and a real event. The author of a novel or story, even when creating an image based on a prototype, emphasizes the universal meaning of the image.

Belinsky, comparing the artistic creations of Gogol and the collection "Physiology of Petersburg", wrote that the essays of the collection show a specific city and "mainly from the side of the customs and characteristics of its population", while Gogol's writings "are alien to any exclusive purpose: introducing the reader to a Petersburg resident, at the same time they introduce him to man in general and to the Russian man in particular. And yet the image, surrounded by concretizing indications and facts, dates and figures, continues to be an artistic image. This is not a single, photographically accurately reproduced image of a separate real object, but a wide-ranging artistic generalization illuminated by the light of an aesthetic ideal. For example, "Essays on America" by M. Gorky not only inform about American life, but reveal the nature of not only American capitalism, but capitalism in general.

In journalistic genres, artistic images, no less than figures, facts and logical evidence, inform and convince the reader. Images have the deepest ideological and emotional impact. The writers themselves are well aware of their necessity in journalism. Journalism has become extremely active in our days. Practically participating in the process of restructuring public consciousness, she deeply explores the problems of international and domestic politics, economics and ecology, culture and science, law and welfare, the life of a modern family and the spiritual image of youth. The journalistic beginning is clearly felt in the current prose, poetry, and dramaturgy.

Terminological dictionary-thesaurus on literary criticism What is journalism, what does it mean and how to spell it correctly. Features of a journalistic work

Essence of journalism

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