geographical professions. Research Methods - Observation

Observation- this is a purposeful and systematic perception of phenomena, the results of which are recorded by the observer. In the activities of the teacher can be used different kinds objective observation.

Types of observations

Immediate Conducted by the researcher himself, directly observing the phenomenon and process under study.	And	mediated Ready results of observations prepared by other people are used: the message of educators; audio, film, and video recordings.
Open (explicit) Observation proceeding in the conditions of the fact of the presence of unauthorized persons realized by the teacher and children. The behavior of a student who knows that he is being observed changes. It is important that the purpose of the observation is not explicitly stated.	And	Hidden Observation through a glass wall that allows light to pass through in one direction. Use of hidden cameras, etc.
Included (participle) The observer is included in a certain social situation and analyzes the event "from the inside". The observer acts as a member of the observed group.	And	Not included (uninvolved) The researcher conducts observation from the outside.
Systematic (solid) Regular observation for a certain period. All manifestations of the mental activity of the child are recorded: Diaries of parents; diaries of teachers.	And	Unsystematic (selective) Any one mental process, any one mental phenomenon is observed: Communication skills of the teacher with the child; child's speech.
long-term Observation while learning mental development children for several years.	And	short-term Different variants: 1. observation of the child's activities certain time day for one hour; 2. observation for measuring time intervals of particular events, etc.
Causal (causal) Observation of individual cases that are of any interest. Observing a given case to get an idea of ​​it (observing an excitable child).	And	episodic Separate facts of behavior typical for a given child are recorded.
External (observation from outside) A way of collecting data about another person, his psychology and behavior by observing him from the side.	And	Internal (self-monitoring) Experiencing the corresponding phenomenon, the researcher observes himself, his sensations.

The above classification of observations is conditional and reflects only their most significant features. Due to the characteristics of each type of observation, it should be applied where it can give the most useful results.

Significant situations should also be noted. Significant situations can be in the game, educational and other activities of children. So, they can react violently to the arrival of a new person in the group, for example, Santa Claus; for the introduction new toy, for a job well done, etc. Observations of children in significant situations will help the educator to understand the characteristics of interaction in the group, the role behavior of individual children, their statuses, etc.

Conducting a study using the observation method requires special preparation for observation. It is necessary to have prior experience in conducting observation, the PURPOSE of observation (for what, for what purpose), to know the theoretical foundations.

Based on the PURPOSE of observation, select the OBJECT, SUBJECT and situation of observation (what to observe?). Then think carefully about the PLAN, the SYSTEM OF CATEGORIES, the PROTOCOLS of observations, etc. Select the OBSERVATION METHOD that has the least impact on research facility and the most providing the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?).

After that, select the REGISTRATION METHOD of the observed (how to record?).

General characteristics of observation

Observation method
Surveillance symptoms 1. Movements, actions, deeds, activities. 2. Facial expressions, gestures, pantomime. 3. Statements, speech, verbal reactions. 4. Vegetative reactions.	1. The presence of a goal and a developed observation scheme (compiled after a preliminary study of the object and subject of research). 2. Conditions most characteristic of the phenomenon under study. 3. The “legacy” of observation and its goals by business, from the point of view of the subject, relationships with him. 4. Immediate, systematic and possibly full registration results (facts, not their interpretation): logging using conventional icons, shorthand; system of categories and evaluation scales; tape recording, photo, film and video recording. 5 . When observing complex processes(for example, group lessons) two or more observers can work. Everyone should have precisely defined goals and their own tasks of observation (preparation of observations, coordination of their activities). 6. Systematic nature of the observations.
Advantages	Flaws
1. availability, low cost of funds. 2. does not distort the natural flow mental processes. 3. wealth of information collected.	1. Large expenditure of time due to the passivity of the observer (waiting position). It is difficult to foresee when something important from the point of view of the problem under study will appear. Some phenomena are inaccessible to the observer. 2. The impossibility of repeated observation of identical factors. 3. Difficulty in establishing the cause of the phenomenon: confluence of observed factors with incidental phenomena; many conditions not taken into account; possibility of subjectivity. 4. Difficulty of statistical processing.

The results depend on the experience, scientific views, interests of the researcher.

Observation is a complex process. It requires special training of observers.

Before conducting a study using the observational method, it is desirable to conduct TRAINING observation to uncover upcoming difficulties and acquire basic observational skills.

Difficulties in observation may arise (this, as a rule, when studying complex phenomena and when the phenomenon proceeds at a high pace and a constant change of situations). After the main observations are made, the data obtained are processed and interpreted (what is the result?).

System of categories and rating scales contains Full description all possible behaviors. It serves as an important means of clarifying and facilitating observation. She plays the role of:
a) aids for more accurate analytical observation;
b) allows scientific processing of observed facts;
in) draw the appropriate conclusions.

Main types of categorical systems

I a. Complete categorical system

Any manifestation of behavior is included in the category list, for example, the study of the student's relationship to the team (Zaluzhny A.S. Children's team and methods of studying it. M., 1931).

Type of behavior	Action	Speech	Objects of observation
			a	b
I. Asocial	Turns away, runs away, defends	whimpers, cries, cries for help
II. antisocial	Destroys, takes away, chases, beats	Threatening, demanding, teasing, scolding
III. Passive-social	Joins, welcomes, tries	Conversations, greetings, requests
IV. Active social	Offers, caresses, shows, helps, corrects, takes the initiative	Talks, dramatizes, informs, advises, criticizes, calls for cooperation

II a. Continuum categorical system

Qualitative indicators are arranged in a continuous row (for example, “the child is ATTENTIVE<--->INATTENTIVE").

The classification can be according to the following continuous system:

II b. Discontinuous categorical system

It does not represent a continuum of a continuous series, for example, when solving mathematical problems, the system of categories is built in such a way that it is possible to follow the process of their solution (problems).

Understanding the task	Claiming information	Discussion	Solutions	Variant negation	Not relevant to the task

III a. Categorical system of one change

III b. Categorical system of several parameters of the studied

IV. Categories according to the nature of the requirements for the level of scientific observation.

IV a. The phenomenon is recorded as the observer sees it (for example, whether the child raises his hand or not).

IV 6. The researcher must know the essence of the issue under study, its logic. It must be prepared for observation, as it is required high level intellectual effort.

Observation logging allows you to return to the observed facts. The protocol is the basis and starting point for further analysis:

• records should be detailed enough to allow objective analysis;
• take notes at the place of observation or immediately after the study. After observation, review the records, correct them and supplement them.

The form of record keeping is determined by:

• the subject, task and purity of the study;
• the presence of a prepared continuum, conventional signs for registering facts;
• presence technical means(video, etc.);
• the recurrence of a certain kind of observable facts;
• write down only the facts, not their interpretation;
• perceive each replica, action not in isolation, but in connection with other actions, words, accompanying phenomena;
• All records must be processed immediately. Do not accumulate a large amount of observation material, since processing requires more time than the observation itself.

A TASK. In connection with the purpose of the study, it is recommended that the observation plan be carefully considered.

Why should the observation plan be carefully considered?

ANSWER. Usually we quickly highlight in our perception what we know about. With the development of observation, the ability to notice the essential, characteristic (including subtle) properties of objects and phenomena improves. With the development of observation efficiency research work increases.

A TASK. Usually in psychology, everyday and scientific observations are distinguished. What is the difference between scientific observation and everyday observation (which is typical for scientific observation)?

ANSWER. Scientific observation is characterized by:
1. PURPOSE(the presence of a goal and a plan allows you to collect essential research material).
2. PLANNING(allows you to determine the program of the most effective research, i.e. when, where and under what conditions the observation will be carried out).
3. SYSTEMATICITY(allows you to highlight regular processes).
4. ANALYTICITY(allows to explain the observed facts).
5. REGISTRATION OF RESULTS(eliminates memory errors, reduces the subjectivity of conclusions).
6. OPERATION WITH UNIQUE CONCEPTS special terms (allows you to clearly identify the observed material).

EXERCISE. Make a characterization of the student's personality based on the characteristics of the manifestation, severity and stability of his interests. Scheduled supervision:

1. Common interests:

1. sport;
2. tourism;
3. chess;
4. technique;
5. construction;
6. music;
7. creative activity;
8. literature;
9. amateur art;
10. economy.

2. Expression:

1. test of strength;
2. episodic;
3. constancy.

3. Activity:

1. practical;
2. theoretical.

4. Sustainability:

1. high;
2. average;
3. low (situational).

5. mental activity:

1. independent;
2. dependent.

6. Complexity:

1. a) large volume;
2. b) average;
3. c) small.

7. Skills:

1. complex;
2. average;
3. permanent.

8. Creative Expression:

1. independent creativity;
2. reproduction with enhancement;
3. reproduction.

Environmental monitoring(monitoring environment) - this is integrated system observations of the state of the environment, assessment and forecast of changes in the state of the environment under the influence of natural and anthropogenic factors.

The state of the environment, and accordingly the habitat, is constantly changing. These changes are different in nature, direction, magnitude, unevenly distributed in space and time. Natural, natural, changes in the state of the environment are very important feature- they tend to occur around some average relatively constant level. Their average values ​​can change significantly only over long time intervals.

Technogenic changes in the state of the environment, which have become especially significant in recent decades, have a completely different feature. Technogenic changes in some cases lead to a sharp, rapid change in the average state natural environment in the region.

To study and assess the negative consequences of technogenic impact, it became necessary to organize a special system of control (observation) and analysis of the state of the environment, primarily due to pollution and the effects they cause in the environment. Such a system is called an environmental monitoring system, which is part of a universal environmental monitoring system.

Monitoring is a set of measures to determine the state of the environment and track changes in its state.

The main tasks of monitoring are:

Systematic monitoring of the state of the environment and sources affecting the environment;

Assessment of the actual state of the natural environment;

Forecast of the state of the environment and assessment of the predicted state of the latter.

Taking into account the designated tasks, monitoring is a system of observations, assessment and forecast of the state of the environment.

Monitoring is a multi-purpose information system.

Monitoring the state of the environment includes monitoring the sources and factors of technogenic impact (including sources of pollution, radiation, etc.) - chemical, physical, biological - and the consequences caused by these impacts on the environment.

Observation is carried out according to physical, chemical and biological indicators. Integral indicators that characterize the state of the environment seem to be especially effective. This implies obtaining data on the initial (or background) state of the environment.

Along with observation, one of the main tasks of monitoring is the assessment of trends in changes in the state of the environment. Such an assessment should answer the question of the unfavorable situation, indicate what exactly caused such a state, help determine actions aimed at restoring or normalizing the situation, or, conversely, indicate particularly favorable situations that allow the effective use of the available ecological reserves of nature in the interests of man. .

Currently, the following monitoring systems are distinguished.

Environmental monitoring - universal system, the purpose of which is to evaluate and predict the reaction of the main components of the biosphere. It includes geophysical and biological monitoring. Geophysical monitoring includes determining the state of large systems - weather, climate. The main task of biological monitoring is to determine the reaction of the biosphere to the technogenic impact.

Monitoring in various environments ah (various media) - including monitoring of the surface layer of the atmosphere and upper atmosphere; monitoring of the hydrosphere, i.e. surface waters of land (rivers, lakes, reservoirs), waters of oceans and seas, groundwater; monitoring of the lithosphere (primarily soil).

Monitoring of impact factors is the monitoring of various pollutants (ingredient monitoring) and other impact factors, which include electromagnetic radiation, heat, noise.

Monitoring of human habitats - including Monitoring of the natural environment, urban, industrial and domestic human habitats.

Monitoring by the scale of impact - spatial, temporal, at various biological levels.

Background monitoring is a basic type of monitoring that aims to know the background state of the biosphere (both at the present time and in the period before noticeable human influence). Background monitoring data is needed to analyze the results of all types of monitoring.

Territorial monitoring - including monitoring systems for man-made pollution, the classification of which is based on the territorial principle, since these systems are the most important integral part environmental monitoring.

There are the following systems (subsystems) of territorial monitoring:

Global - held on everything the globe or within one or two continents,

State - held on the territory of one state,

Regional - conducted on a large area of ​​the territory of one state or adjacent areas of several states, for example, the inland sea and its coast;

Local - conducted on a relatively small area of ​​the city, water body, district large enterprise etc.,

"point" - monitoring of pollution sources, which is essentially impact, as close as possible to the source of pollutants entering the environment,

Background - the data of which is necessary to analyze the results of all types of monitoring.

The method of observation is one of the main methods of psychological study of the activities of military specialists. It consists in the direct perception of the object under study based on the registration of selected units (indicators, signs) that characterize the characteristics of the activity being studied, the behavior of the individual, the team, individual acts, mental reactions, speech actions, operations of activity.

General characteristics of the observation method.

1. The composition of the procedure: a) definition of the task and purpose (for what, for what purpose?); b) choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?); c) the choice of the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and most ensures the collection of the necessary information (how to observe?); d) the choice of methods for recording the observed (how to record the observed phenomena?); e) detailed recording of the information received using registration tools; f) processing and interpretation of the information received (what is the result? What conclusions follow from the information received?).

2. Possible tasks of observation: a) preliminary orientation in the object; b) putting forward working hypotheses and testing them; c) refinement of the results obtained using other methods; d) illustration of conceptual provisions.

3. Object of observation: servicemen performing the tasks of military professional activity.

4. Observation situations: a) natural and artificial (laboratory, experimental); b) controlled and uncontrolled by the observer; c) spontaneous and organized; d) standard and non-standard; e) normal and extreme; e) differing in types of activity and communication.

5. Subject of observation: verbal and non-verbal acts of behavior of an individual, a group or several groups in certain conditions of a social or professional environment and in specific situations: a) speech acts, their content, sequence, direction, frequency, duration, intensity, expressiveness, features semantics, vocabulary, grammar, phonetics, synchronization; b) expressive movements, expression of the face, eyes, body; c) movement, movements and stationary states of people, the distance between them, the speed and direction of movement, contact; G) physical impact: touch, pushes, blows, support, joint efforts, transfer, take away, delay; e) a combination of the above features.

6. Types of observation: basic and additional.

The main types of observation: everyday (unsystematic) and scientific (purposeful). In military professions, supervision is understood as scientific observation, which can be unincluded (distant) and included. Participant observation involves observing the professional activities of a military specialist or group "from the inside", when the observer becomes a full member of it. Participatory surveillance has many advantages. It makes it possible to see many hidden sides of a person as a subject. labor activity. However, participant observation is not always possible and feasible for various objective reasons. Along with it, remote observation, that is, observation from the outside, is actively used. With such observation, the researcher does not become a participant in the activity or any group process, where he studies the subject of military activity or his actions (operations). He organizes his behavior much more simply: the main thing that is required of him is to remain unnoticed by the person being studied.

Additional types of surveillance: open and covert (incognito); standardized and non-standardized (diary); field ( natural conditions) and laboratory; random and systematic; limited and long; continuous and selective; ascertaining and evaluating; external and internal (self-observation); mixed type; controlled (registration according to a previously worked out procedure) and uncontrolled.

7. Methods for processing the results of observation: classification; grouping; content analysis; comparative analysis(comparison with the results of other observations).

8. Requirements for the preparation of observation: a clear statement of the goal; choice of observation units; the choice of methods of observation depending on the nature of the studied actions of people and the type of social situation; development of an appropriate surveillance scheme; development of methods for fixing observed units, i.e. use of technical, stenographic, symbolic and graphic means; the expression of perceived facts in an operational language accessible to other observers; the possibility of checking the objectivity and reliability of observation by other researchers and other methods; combination of quality and quantitative characteristics observed object.

9. Advantages and disadvantages of observation.

Advantages of the observation method: direct perception and fixation of acts of social and professional behavior; reflection of specific processes in specific situations; a more accurate measurement of the degree of intensity of acts or behaviors; the ability to check indirect methods (questionnaires and questionnaires); removal of the influence of attitudes on the stereotype of answers to questionnaires and corresponding forms psychological protection; the possibility of a holistic assessment of the social situation.

Disadvantages of the method of observation: a strong influence of attitudes, mental and functional states of the observer on the results of his activities; perceptual readiness to confirm their hypothesis; the influence of the persons being monitored; difficulties of interpretation due to causal-attributive distortions; significant costs time; errors of personal and psychological origin:

A) "halo effect" (halo - iridescent circles around the sun and moon), based on the generalized impression of the observer, assessment in "black and white" of individual manifestations of the personality of a serviceman;

B) the “indulgence effect”, manifested in the tendency to give an exaggeratedly positive assessment of what is happening;

C) the "error of the central trend", which consists in the desire to average the estimates of the observed processes;

G) " logic error”, based on the falsity of the judgment about the closeness of the connection of any qualities of a person (for example, the tendency to believe that courteous people are necessarily kind);

E) "contrast error", that is, emphasizing the traits of the subject that are opposite to those of the observer;

E) "stereotypes of the first impression" - the dependence of the attitude towards a person on the first impression, often determined by professional, ethnic and age factors.

For a professiologist, it is most characteristic to observe a specialist performing any professional functions. Observation is always an evaluation of the actions and operations of the perceived person. Therefore, the observer must: a) know the peculiarities of his professional and personal behavior when observing people and their work; b) keep an eye on different ways; c) plan the observation.

It should be noted that the empirical signs of the object of observation recorded during the observation are categories of observation. Categories of observation can be descriptive and evaluative. Descriptive categories of observation fix specific actual manifestations of quantitatively - qualitative indicators of an object. For example, the number of actions or operations performed in a certain period. Evaluative categories of observation fix the observer's assessment of the state of the manifested properties. Thus, the reaction of colleagues to a soldier's statement (positive, negative, or neutral) can serve as an indirect indicator of his authority.

These categories are specifically manifested in units of observation. They are considered to be observable simple or complex actions object of observation, such as arm or leg movements, posture changes, etc. To register observation units, the following methodological documents are used: observation card (designed to register observation signs in a strictly formalized and usually coded form; during the observation, the observer can use several cards - one for each observation unit); observation protocol (required for combined registration of observation results in formalized and non-formalized procedures and reflects the algorithm for the interaction of various observation cards); observation diary (designed to record the results of observation, it contains not only information about the object, but also the actions of the researcher during the observation, an assessment of the tools is given); transcript (written form of audio recording of the results of observation); description of the results of observation based on viewing and analysis of filming and video recording.

In the practice of observation, an approximate list of questions recorded in the registration documents was developed. Let's list them.

Questions about the observed: who are they, how many are there? What is their occupation, profession or specialty, the nature of the relationship? What is the structure of the crew, calculation, team?

Questions about the environment of the observed activity: where and in what conditions do the actions of the observed take place? How can their behavior differ in different situations? What can they do? What actions can be expected in this environment? What actions will be unexpected? What are the factors of the professional environment that affect the efficiency of the specialist, and their characteristics (in terms of intensity, direction and duration of exposure).

Questions about the goals of the actions of the observed: What are the main professional functions of the participants in the actions? What goals do they pursue (official, unofficial)? Which goals of the participants coincide with the tasks of the team, the goals of other participants, and which ones do not coincide?

Questions about the behavior of observables: what exactly do they do and how? What is the content of the actions to be performed? What incentives and motives are caused by their action, this or that form of behavior? How does it express itself outwardly? emotional attitude to action? What are the main emotional reactions? What are the intensity, constancy, duration of individual forms of behavior? What is the effect of individual behaviors? What follows this effect and how is it perceived by the observed and other participants in the action? How does the action change after a certain result is achieved?

Questions about the perception of external information: how many channels for obtaining information; what are its sources, scope and nature? What is the dynamics of information in terms of content and significance in a fixed period (cycle) of time? What are the main methods of management and features of decision-making in various conditions? What are the periods and levels of special stress of psychophysiological functions?

Questions about the dynamic parameters of observed situations: frequency and duration of observed situations: when did the situation occur and how long did it last? Is the situation unique? Does it often occur? In what indicators can it be fixed? What causes and restrains its occurrence? How common is this situation?

Questions about observation procedures and evaluation of their effectiveness: brief information about the observer, including how many times has he observed before? Filling time methodological documents observations, data recording (before, after observation, when exactly). Fulfillment of program requirements. Deviations of the conditions of the observed situation from those specified in the program. What requirements have been met? Toolkit evaluation. Cases of difficulties in fixing signs, their assignment to the selected categories of observation. Evaluation of the involvement of the observed situation. To what extent did the participants notice the fact of observation and what is the reaction to it? What is the degree of communication with observed military personnel? What kind of contacts did you have with them during the observation? Efficiency mark. The need to re-observe or verify the data by other methods. The use of techniques that increase the effectiveness of observation. Recommendations for the further application of the observation method to solve this research problem.

When recording the results of observation, along with the above-described tools, film and video equipment can also be used. Recording is most often done during observation. In some cases, when this is impossible due to the conditions of the situation, the recording is carried out according to fresh impressions, immediately after the observation.

Observation using film and video equipment has a number of disadvantages:

The shooting angle is determined subjectively at the discretion of the operator;

The clarity and visibility of the shot is affected by the illumination in working area specialist;

Recorded data is limited to what is in the lens field;

There is a constant element of conditionality of the angle and speed of shooting, for example, shooting from above or below, with a quick or slow change of passages (fragments) can distort the role and significance of various psychophysiological functions in the labor process.

It should be noted that only external manifestations of a person in the process of activity can be directly observed. At the same time, a number of essential psychological components that determine behavior do not have external manifestations and therefore cannot be isolated by observation. It is impossible, for example, with its help to reveal the course of mental activity, hidden emotional states. In this regard, even in those studies where the method of observation is the leading one, other additional methods are used.

In any organizational system, the activities of the management apparatus are mainly aimed at solving continuously emerging problems, i.e. to eliminate problematic situations (development of the organization, debottlenecking, elimination of shortcomings, miscalculations, etc.)

Identifying problems in the present provides the ability to predict problems in the future, thereby eliminating the unexpectedness of problems and increasing the time to prepare appropriate solutions. As a result, the regularity of the process of preparation and decision-making is increased.

To analyze a problem situation, it is necessary to clearly formulate the essence of the problem and describe the situation. Problem (translated from Greek - task) in a broad sense - this is a complex theoretical or practical issue that requires study and resolution, in a narrower sense - a discrepancy between the desired and actual levels of achieving the goal. The situation accompanies the problem. Situation - a combination of conditions and circumstances that create a certain situation ( external environment) where the problem occurred.

Strengthening focus on achieving better outcomes in national economy and the improvement of management requires from each leader the ability to focus on key problems, which special methods help to identify:

analysis of the results of production and economic organization activities,

Identification of problems through an expert survey of managers of specialists,

・Monitoring the implementation managerial functions and (or) direct participation in the management of specialist consultants,

· a method of logical-semantic modeling of problems based on expert assessments and the use of personal computers (PCs).

When analyzing the results of production economic activity organizations the initial data are information about the state, functioning of the organization in question and the compliance of this state with the goals that determined the directions and results of the organization's development. To do this, study and analyze directive, reporting, regulatory and statistical documents and data. A large role in this belongs to the methods of processing statistical information.

The disadvantage of this approach is the difficulty of isolating, based on the analysis of the results of production and economic activities, the problems of improving management from the total set of problems of a given organization.

Expert assessments are widely used in the practice of identifying problems, since they provide relatively reliable, and sometimes the only possible information about the problems of the organization. Usually, expert survey carried out among the employees of the surveyed organization. However great importance may have information obtained from sources external to this organization (higher and lower organizations, suppliers and consumers, etc.). Experts are invited to answer in writing in an arbitrary form the question: formulate the problems that hinder the more efficient functioning of the management system.

Currently, expert assessments of managers and specialists are used to identify problems.

Specialist consultants oversee the performance of managerial functions and (or) are directly involved in management , while identifying the problems of improving management in the organization. They can work for a certain time in departments of the administrative apparatus, participate in meetings, observe the practice of preparing and adopting management decisions, make photos of working time.

The joint application of these approaches makes it possible to obtain complete information about the shortcomings of management in a particular organization and develop measures to overcome them.

The method of logical-semantic modeling of problems based on expert assessments and the use of personal computers (PCs) isolated in the second method .

The procedure for identifying problems includes the formation of a catalog of problems and its structuring.

The most difficult is the formation of a catalog of problems. This process is based on the expert method, which includes: choosing the form of interviewing experts, determining the structure and size of the expert group, developing a survey methodology, conducting a survey, compiling a list of problems, examining problems. Managers and specialists with deep knowledge of management problems are involved in the expert survey. The survey is conducted by a working group.

Initial list of issues obtained as a result of an expert survey is compiled by the employees of the working group. Completed and coded questionnaires are examined and processed. From them, the formulations of the problems and the codes of the questionnaires in which they are stated are sequentially written out. Problems in the list are numbered in the order in which the questionnaires are considered. If in the next questionnaire there is a wording that is already in the list, then only the code of this questionnaire is entered into it.

The examination of the original list consists in the fact that the same problems, as well as problems that are identical in content but differ in wording, are replaced by a problem with a generalized wording.

As a result, the original list "shrinks" and turns into problem directory - an unordered list of them. The catalog of problems is entered into the PC memory for the subsequent structuring of problems by the method of logical-semantic modeling, for which a special program is compiled.

The graphic materials obtained as a result of information processing in the form of printouts from a PC and texts make it possible to visualize the logical and meaningful relationship of problems.

A formal representation of the structure of problems is a graph (tree of problems), the vertices of which correspond to the problems, and the arcs correspond to the connections between them.

The connection of problems most often obeys the dialectic of the relationship "cause - effect". In organizational systems, it is the relationship of cause and effect that is essential. These relationships give an idea of ​​the processes of change, the movement of individual components of the system as a whole. Such an attitude characterizes one problem as a cause, another as a consequence, or these problems may be incomparable.

The desired ordering of problems is treated as a sequence of hierarchical levels, which is clearly displayed as a connected graph. The order of problems within the same level (layer) is irrelevant, since they are incomparable among themselves according to the introduced relation. The point here is that an elementary logical analysis of the entire set of problems is carried out.

With the method of fixing the “causality” relationship used, at the top level of the hierarchy there will be cardinal, basic problems, and on the bottom - problems - consequences, characterized by the highest degree of aggregation. Upper-level problems have no causes, while lower-level problems have no effects.

The graph of problems is a coherent and logically justified description of the sequence of solving the entire set of problems, taking into account the maximum use of the results of solving previous problems. For any pair of graph-related problems, the problem solved earlier must be the cause of the problem solved later.

Positive sides method logical-semantic modeling:

characterized by relative speed, ease of implementation;

Identification of basic (cardinal) problems makes it possible to concentrate efforts and resources with the greatest optimality;

Structuring and streamlining problems makes it possible to identify the causes of problems, their relevance, urgency.

Negative sides :

· it is difficult to assess the degree of completeness and reliability of the information provided by the experts;

· there is no full confidence that all the main problems are really listed;

· Individual experts may be reluctant to present all the problems, especially if they are the culprits.

1. The problem should be formulated specifically, without generalizing formulations.

2. Problems should be of the same scale, for example, for one level of management.

Let us consider some features of the current state of the biosphere and the processes taking place in it.

The global processes of formation and movement of living matter in the biosphere are connected and accompanied by the circulation of huge masses of matter and energy. Unlike purely geological processes, biogeochemical cycles involving living matter have a much higher intensity, speed, and amount of matter involved in the turnover.

As already mentioned, with the advent and development of mankind, the process of evolution has noticeably changed. In the early stages of civilization, cutting down and burning forests for agriculture, grazing, fishing and hunting for wild animals, wars devastated entire regions, led to the destruction of plant communities, and the extermination of certain animal species. As civilization developed, especially the end of the Middle Ages, which was turbulent after the industrial revolution, mankind seized more and more power, an ever greater ability to involve and use huge masses of matter to satisfy its growing needs - both organic, living, and mineral, inert.

Population growth and expanding development Agriculture, industry, construction, transport caused massive deforestation in Europe, North America, Livestock grazing on a large scale led to the death of forests and grass cover, to erosion (destruction) of the soil layer (Central Asia, North Africa, southern Europe and the USA). Exterminated dozens of animal species in Europe, America, Africa.

Scientists suggest that soil depletion in the territory of the ancient Central American Mayan state as a result of slash-and-burn agriculture was one of the reasons for the death of this highly developed civilization. Similarly in Ancient Greece Extensive forests have disappeared as a result of deforestation and excessive grazing. This increased soil erosion and led to the destruction of the soil cover on many mountain slopes, increased the aridity of the climate and worsened agricultural conditions.

Construction and operation of industrial enterprises, mining have led to serious violations of natural landscapes, pollution of soil, water, air with various wastes.

Real shifts in biospheric processes began in the 20th century. as a result of the next industrial revolution. The rapid development of energy, engineering, chemistry, transport has led to the fact that human activity became comparable in scale with the natural energy and material processes occurring in the biosphere. The intensity of human consumption of energy and material resources is growing in proportion to the population and even ahead of its growth.

Warning about the possible consequences of the expanding human intrusion into nature, half a century ago, Academician V. I. Vernadsky wrote: “Man is becoming a geological force capable of changing the face of the Earth.” This warning was prophetically justified. The consequences of anthropogenic (man-made) activities are manifested in the depletion natural resources, pollution of the biosphere by production waste, destruction of natural ecosystems, changes in the structure of the Earth's surface, climate change. Anthropogenic impacts lead to disruption of almost all natural biogeochemical cycles.

As a result of the combustion of various fuels, about 20 billion tons of carbon dioxide are emitted into the atmosphere annually and a corresponding amount of oxygen is absorbed. The natural supply of CO 2 in the atmosphere is about 50,000 billion tons. This value fluctuates and depends, in particular, on volcanic activity. However, anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide exceed natural ones and currently account for a large proportion of its total amount. An increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, accompanied by an increase in the amount of aerosol (fine particles of dust, soot, suspensions of solutions of some chemical compounds), can lead to noticeable climate changes and, accordingly, to disruption of the equilibrium relationships that have developed over millions of years in the biosphere.

The result of the violation of the transparency of the atmosphere, and, consequently, heat balance there may be a "greenhouse effect", that is, an increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere by several degrees. This can cause the melting of glaciers in the polar regions, an increase in the level of the World Ocean, a change in its salinity, temperature, global climate disturbances, flooding of coastal lowlands, and many other adverse consequences.

Air emissions of industrial gases, including compounds such as carbon monoxide CO ( carbon monoxide), oxides of nitrogen, sulfur, ammonia and other pollutants, leads to inhibition of vital activity of plants and animals, violations metabolic processes to the poisoning and death of living organisms.

Uncontrolled influence on the climate in combination with irrational agriculture can lead to a significant decrease in soil fertility, large fluctuations in crop yields. According to UN experts, last years fluctuations in agricultural production exceeded 1%. But a decrease in food production even by 1% can lead to the death of tens of millions of people from starvation.

The forests on our planet are catastrophically reduced. Irrational deforestation and fires have led to the fact that in many places, once completely covered with forests, by now they have survived only on 10-30% of the territory. Square rainforest Africa has decreased by 70%, South America - by 60%, in China, only 8% of the territory is covered with forest.

Pollution of the natural environment. The appearance of new components in the natural environment, caused by human activity or some grandiose natural phenomena (for example, volcanic activity), is characterized by the term pollution. In general, pollution is the presence in the environment of harmful substances that disrupt the functioning of ecological systems or their individual elements and reduce the quality of the environment in terms of human habitation or economic activity. This term characterizes all bodies, substances, phenomena, processes that in a given place, but not at the time and in the amount that is natural for nature, appear in the environment and can bring its systems out of equilibrium.

The environmental impact of polluting agents can manifest itself in different ways; it can affect either individual organisms, manifest itself at the organismal level, or populations, biocenoses, ecosystems, and even the biosphere as a whole.

At the organismic level, there may be a violation of individual physiological functions of organisms, a change in their behavior, a decrease in the rate of growth and development, a decrease in resistance to the effects of other adverse environmental factors.

At the level of populations, pollution can cause changes in their numbers and biomass, fertility, mortality, structural changes, annual cycles migrations and a number of other functional properties.

At the biocenotic level, pollution affects the structure and functions of communities. The same pollutants affect different components of communities in different ways. Accordingly, the quantitative ratios in the biocenosis change, up to the complete disappearance of some forms and the appearance of others. The spatial structure of communities is changing, chains of decomposition (detrital) begin to prevail over pastures, dying off - over production. Ultimately, there is degradation of ecosystems, their deterioration as elements of the human environment, a decrease in the positive role in the formation of the biosphere, and economic depreciation.

There are natural and anthropogenic pollution. Natural pollution occurs as a result of natural causes - volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, catastrophic floods and fires. Anthropogenic pollution is the result of human activity.

At present, the total power of the sources anthropogenic pollution in many cases surpasses the power of natural ones. So, natural springs nitrogen oxides emit 30 million tons of nitrogen per year, and anthropogenic - 35-50 million tons; sulfur dioxide, respectively, about 30 million tons and more than 150 million tons. As a result of human activity, lead enters the biosphere almost 10 times more than in the process of natural pollution.

Pollutants resulting from human activities and their impact on the environment are very diverse. These include: compounds of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen, heavy metals, various organic substances, artificially created materials, radioactive elements and much more.

Thus, according to experts, about 10 million tons of oil enters the ocean every year. Oil on water forms a thin film that prevents gas exchange between water and air. Settling to the bottom, oil enters bottom sediments, where it disrupts the natural life processes of bottom animals and microorganisms. In addition to oil, there has been a significant increase in the release into the ocean of domestic and industrial Wastewater containing, in particular, such dangerous pollutants as lead, mercury, arsenic, which have a strong toxic effect. Background concentrations of such substances in many places have already been exceeded by dozens of times.

Each pollutant has a certain negative impact on nature, so their entry into the environment must be strictly controlled. The legislation establishes for each pollutant the maximum allowable discharge (MPD) and the maximum allowable concentration (MPC) of it in the natural environment.

Maximum allowable discharge (MPD) is the mass of a pollutant emitted by individual sources per unit of time, the excess of which leads to adverse effects in the environment or is dangerous to human health. The maximum allowable concentration (MAC) is understood as the amount of a harmful substance in the environment that does not adversely affect human health or its offspring through permanent or temporary contact with it. Currently, when determining MPC, not only the degree of influence of pollutants on human health is taken into account, but also their impact on animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms, as well as on the natural community as a whole.

Special environmental monitoring (surveillance) services monitor compliance with the established standards for MPC and MPC of harmful substances. Such services have been established in all regions of the country. Their role is especially important in major cities, near chemical plants, nuclear power plants and other industrial facilities. Monitoring services have the right to apply measures provided by law, up to the suspension of production and any work, if environmental protection standards are violated.

In addition to environmental pollution, anthropogenic impact is expressed in the depletion of the natural resources of the biosphere. The enormous use of natural resources has led to a significant change in landscapes in some regions (for example, in the coal basins). If at the dawn of civilization a person used only about 20 chemical elements for his needs, at the beginning of the 20th century 60 flowed in, now more than 100 - almost the entire periodic table. About 100 billion tons of ore, fuel, and mineral fertilizers are annually mined (extracted from the geosphere).

The rapid growth in demand for fuel, metals, minerals and their extraction led to the depletion of these resources. Thus, according to experts, while maintaining current rates of production and consumption, explored oil reserves will be exhausted in 30 years, gas - in 50 years, coal - in 200. A similar situation has developed not only with energy resources, but also with metals (depletion aluminum reserves are expected in 500-600 years, iron - 250 years, zinc - 25 years, lead - 20 years) and mineral resources, such as asbestos, mica, graphite, sulfur.

This is a far from complete picture of the ecological situation on our planet at the present time. Even individual successes in environmental protection activities cannot noticeably change the general course of the process of the harmful influence of civilization on the state of the biosphere.

Air pollution. Various, negative changes in the Earth's atmosphere are mainly associated with changes in the concentration of minor components of atmospheric air.

There are two main sources of air pollution: natural and anthropogenic. The natural source is volcanoes, dust storms, weathering, Forest fires, processes of decomposition of plants and animals.

The main anthropogenic sources of air pollution include enterprises of the fuel and energy complex, transport, and various machine-building enterprises.

According to scientists (1990s), every year in the world as a result of human activity, 25.5 billion tons of carbon oxides, 190 million tons of sulfur oxides, 65 million tons of nitrogen oxides, 1.4 million tons of chlorofluorocarbons (freons), organic compounds lead, hydrocarbons, including carcinogenic ( disease-causing cancer).

In addition to gaseous pollutants, a large number of solid particles. These are dust, soot and soot. Great danger conceals environmental pollution with heavy metals. Lead, cadmium, mercury, copper, nickel, zinc, chromium, vanadium have become almost constant components of the air in industrial centers. The problem of air pollution with lead is particularly acute.

Global air pollution affects the state of natural ecosystems, especially the green cover of our planet. One of the most obvious indicators of the state of the biosphere is forests and their well-being.

Acid rains, caused mainly by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides, cause great harm to forest biocenoses. Determined that conifers suffer from acid rain to a greater extent than broad-leaved ones.

Only in our country total area forests affected by industrial emissions has reached 1 million hectares. A significant factor in forest degradation in recent years is environmental pollution with radionuclides. Thus, as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, 2.1 million hectares of forests were affected.

Green spaces are particularly affected in industrial cities, the atmosphere of which contains a large amount of pollutants.

The air environmental problem of ozone depletion, including the appearance of ozone holes over Antarctica and the Arctic, is associated with the excessive use of freons in production and everyday life.

	Origin	Action
Sulfur Dioxide (Sulphurous Anhydride)	When coal and fuel oil are burned	Irritates the bronchi. Causes pulmonary and allergic reactions
Sulfur trioxide	When sulfur dioxide reacts with oxygen	It combines with atmospheric moisture to form sulfuric acid. Inhibits plants, corrodes stone, etc.
Carbon monoxide	It is released during incomplete combustion of all types of fuel.	AT large quantities adversely affects the human body
hydrocarbons	They are released during incomplete combustion of fuel (oil)	Contribute to the development of cancer
Nitric oxide