Chemistry petrochemistry. Petrochemistry. The largest enterprises of chemistry and petrochemistry

PETROCHEMICAL PRODUCTS, chemical products isolated or produced (in whole or in part) from oil and natural gas. The use of oil and natural gas as raw materials for chemical production began in the 1920s and grew rapidly after 1940. Petrochemicals in the 1990s accounted for more than half of the world's organic production and more than one third of the output of the entire chemical industry. Oil and natural gas have replaced chemical raw materials such as coal, grain, molasses and timber. Petrochemical products are used to produce solvents, drugs, dyes, insecticides, plastics, rubber, textiles, detergents (detergents), etc.

The main classes of substances emitted from natural gas or refined petroleum products (as well as by-products) are hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds and naphthenic acids. Hydrocarbons are the main source of chemical products. From the simplest hydrocarbon, methane, the main component of natural gas, organic compounds and hydrogen are obtained for the synthesis of ammonia. Other hydrocarbon components of natural gas and oil - paraffins (ethane, propane and butanes) - are usually converted into the corresponding olefins (unsaturated hydrocarbons) for further chemical processing. Paraffins and olefins are also present in the gases produced during oil refining. Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene and xylene) are obtained by catalytic reforming processes from certain gasoline fractions containing a high percentage of naphthenes (saturated cyclic hydrocarbons).

The main products of methane processing are methyl alcohol (methanol), ammonia and methyl chloride. Methanol is used as an antifreeze or raw material for the production of formaldehyde. Fertilizers (ammonium nitrate and sulfate), hydrocyanic acid, nitric acid, urea and hydrazine are made from ammonia. Hydrazine is not only an intermediate product of the chemical industry; it is also used as rocket fuel. Chlorine derivatives of methane serve as intermediates and solvents.

Of the hydrocarbons, ethylene is used in the largest quantities. The main primary products of its processing are ethylene oxide, ethyl alcohol, ethyl chloride, dichloroethane and polyethylene-based plastics. Ethylene oxide is hydrated to produce ethylene glycol, which is widely used as an antifreeze or starting product for the production of dacron and other polymers. Ethylene oxide also reacts with hydrocyanic acid to form acrylonitrile, which is used to make polymers such as acrylan, orlon, dynel, and nitrile rubber. Ethyl alcohol, used as a solvent, is also important as a feedstock for the production of acetic acid and acetic anhydride, an intermediate in the production of acetate fiber and cellophane.

Dichloroethane is mainly used to produce vinyl chloride, which, when polymerized, gives polyvinyl chloride, and when copolymerized with acrylonitrile, dynel. Vinylidene chloride (1,1-dichloroethylene), the main raw material for saran fibers, plastics and rubber, is also obtained from dichloroethane.

Isopropyl alcohol is produced from propylene, most of which is oxidized to acetone. The latter is the starting material for the synthesis of a large number of chemical compounds and polymethyl methacrylates such as lucite and plexiglass. Other important products of propylene processing include its tetramer, which is used in the production of alkylarylsulfonate detergents, as well as allyl chloride, an intermediate compound for the synthesis of glycerol, and cumene, which, when oxidized, gives phenol and acetone.

Dehydrogenation of normal (straight) butylenes gives butadiene, which is mainly used for the production of synthetic rubber, as well as butyl alcohols, used as solvents and starting materials for the synthesis of ketones and esters.

Benzene is used to produce styrene, polymerization of which gives polystyrene plastics, and copolymerization with butadiene - styrene rubbers. Phenol, which is used primarily in the plastics industry, is obtained from benzene by chlorination, sulfonation, or by the synthesis of cumene. Benzene is also used in the production of nylon, detergents, aniline, maleic anhydride, chlorine and nitro derivatives.

Toluene is used in the production of trinitrotoluene (an explosive), saccharin, vinyl toluene, and other products.

Xylene has three isomers - about-xylene, m-xylene and P-xylene. Phthalic anhydride, used in the production of polymer coatings, is obtained by oxidation about-xylene. Dacron fiber and mylar films are produced by polycondensation of terephthalic acid (derived from P-xylene) and ethylene glycol. Isophthalic acid, an oxidation product m-xylene, is the main starting material for several types of plastics and plasticizers.

CORPORATE STRUCTURE OF THE INDUSTRY

The overwhelming majority of enterprises in the Russian chemical and petrochemical industry were created back in the USSR; The structure of the industry was formed during the formation and development of the chemical and petrochemical industry of the Soviet Union, which was characterized by the creation of large specialized industrial enterprises. Thus, in the Russian chemistry and petrochemistry there are a fairly large number of enterprises specialized in the production of a relatively narrow range of products, which, however, occupy a significant share in the all-Russian production of this product (Table 1).

This is most clearly manifested in the production of potash and phosphorus fertilizers and some other types of basic chemical products, synthetic rubbers, methanol and other organic synthesis products, basic thermoplastics, car tires, and to a lesser extent in the production of nitrogen fertilizers, which are produced in Russia by more than a dozen large enterprises.
However, even more significant than the concentration of production in Russian chemistry and petrochemistry is the concentration of capital. The industry is characterized by a situation where the activities of most enterprises are controlled by only a few large companies and financial and industrial groups.
The largest of them have long been and are well known - this is a petrochemical holding (whatever its future fate), which unites large manufacturers of basic organic synthesis products, plastics, synthetic rubbers, tires, chemical fibers; a group that actually manages assets in the phosphorus industry of the former FIG; a corporation that controls a number of large enterprises in the nitrogen industry. The Tatar petrochemical complex is not a single holding, but includes a number of major petrochemical enterprises, whose activities are strongly influenced by the government of Tatarstan.
Several smaller figures can also be noted: the Bashkir holding is mainly focused on primary oil refining, but its constituent enterprises also produce a wide range of petrochemical products; in 2000-2001 active efforts to form a petrochemical holding were made by the MDM group, which created a mineral and chemical company; the Singapore company AMTEL controls 2 tire plants (Kirov, Krasnoyarsk) and some other assets.
In recent years, the largest Russian oil companies have also become more actively interested in chemistry. This is primarily LUKOIL (a chemical division of the company has been created that controls one of the largest polyethylene producers OOO and a number of other enterprises).
Listing the largest economic entities that have an impact on the Russian chemistry and petrochemistry, it is impossible not to mention OJSC, which occupies a special position. This is primarily due to the fact that natural gas and products of its primary processing are raw materials for the production of most types of petrochemical and nitrogen industry products. Thus, Gazprom and its dependent companies (such as, for example, Mezhregiongaz) are the main suppliers of raw materials for the nitrogen industry.
Until recently, most of the gas processing was under the control of SIBUR, but this company has always been perceived as heavily dependent on Gazprom. Now Gazprom is the largest shareholder of holdings in the petrochemical industry (SIBUR) and the nitrogen industry (corporation). But, in addition to this, Gazprom, through Mezhregiongaz, controls the largest Russian producers of chemical fibers - and (Balakovo).
It would not be an exaggeration to say that Gazprom, both through its ownership of shares in the capitals of various companies and holdings, and through control over the sources of raw materials, is now the most influential figure in the Russian petrochemical and nitrogen industry.

LARGEST CHEMISTRY AND PETROCHEMISTRY ENTERPRISES

Most Russian chemical and petrochemical companies are rather highly specialized. Relatively high specialization in the industry, which is characterized by a wide range of products, leads to the fact that chemical and petrochemical companies, being among the largest in their sub-sectors, are significantly inferior to the largest Russian companies in terms of production in monetary terms. So, for example, the largest company in the industry took 17th place in the ranking of the largest manufacturing companies in Russia in terms of sales in 2000, and in total only 4 chemical and petrochemical companies were among the 50 largest, of which two are holdings.
For comparison: the top 50 companies in 2000 included 13 oil and gas industry companies; 11 enterprises of ferrous metallurgy; 7 - non-ferrous metallurgy; 7 - mechanical engineering.
If we do not consider holdings, then, by far, the largest enterprise in the Russian chemistry and petrochemistry is OJSC, followed by a group of enterprises that are producers of mineral fertilizers, as well as a Bashkir OJSC and petrochemical enterprises of Tatarstan (Fig. 1).
In terms of size, the leading chemical and petrochemical enterprises are noticeably inferior to the largest oil companies (NK had sales revenue in 2000 - 241.8 billion rubles, OJSC - 156.7 billion rubles), metallurgical plants (OJSC - 59.1 billion rubles, OJSC - 46.4 billion rubles), but are commensurate with the largest companies in the non-ferrous metallurgy (with the exception of the mining and metallurgical complex) and mechanical engineering (with the exception).
Having included holdings and groups of companies in consideration, it can be said that in terms of the scale of activity in Russian chemistry and petrochemistry there are three most powerful groups: Bashneftekhim (sales volume in 2000 - about 38 billion rubles), SIBUR (about 32 billion rubles) , Phosagro (about 20 billion rubles). These groups (with the exception of Bashneftekhim, which is mainly engaged in oil refining), as well as some of the largest companies, have key positions in the Russian production of the types of products they provide (Table 2).

DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

In the field of chemistry and petrochemistry, there is a fairly clear trend towards the concentration of capital, which manifests itself in the formation of holdings or financial-industrial groups. And although there are still quite a lot of enterprises in the industry that retain relative independence, the number of companies falling under the influence of one group or another is constantly increasing.
It was during the last three years that the influence in the industry of the group has sharply increased, which has moved from dominance in gas processing to key positions in the production of a number of petrochemical products, gaining control over several dozen enterprises; during the same period, the group was formed in its current form as the largest player in the phosphate fertilizer market, providing more than 60% of their production in Russia; in recent years, the Government of Tatarstan decided to form a republican petrochemical holding at the base, and although it was not possible to include it, influence in the petrochemical industry has noticeably increased; In 2001, the MDM group formed a mineral and chemical company, which announced its intention to actively develop the chemical business.
The most noticeable changes in the corporate structure of the industry can be expected in connection with a possible change in the status of SIBUR and the composition of enterprises controlled by it. It is now quite obvious that Gazprom will be able to acquire full control over SIBUR, whose management tried in 2001 to pursue a too independent policy that did not particularly take into account the interests of the gas concern. However, it is not completely clear which assets will eventually be at the disposal of Gazprom and what exactly it will do with these assets - sell or develop SIBUR's petrochemical business. It seems that if the gas processing plants are sold to oil companies, then the petrochemical assets will still remain in SIBUR, which will acquire a management completely loyal to Gazprom.
Thus, the emergence of new figures in the petrochemical industry based on the division of SIBUR's property is unlikely, but an increase in interest in petrochemicals by oil companies is quite likely.
The scale of the petrochemical business of Russian oil companies and their share in the total output of petrochemical products in Russia is still extremely small, which does not correspond to world practice. According to the Oil&Gas Journal and the Bulletin of Foreign Commercial Information, as of January 1, 1998, oil companies control 48% of the world's production capacity for the production of ethylene, 65% for the production of propylene, 94.5% for xylenes, 76, 5% benzene, 67% methanol, 34.2% butadiene, 29% styrene, 24.4% polystyrene, 20% polypropylene. And, although so far none of the oil companies, except for and, has declared a desire to engage in petrochemistry, the situation may change: further processing of products already manufactured by companies looks quite logical, especially given the acquisition of gas processing plants and the limited growth rate of world oil consumption.
As another likely trend, one can consider the possible formation of a more specific corporate policy and an increase in the level of corporate governance of some of the largest enterprises in the industry (such as, for example, Uralkali, Kazanorgsintez, Togliattiazot, etc.). This is due to the fact that the quality of corporate governance, which was almost ignored a few years ago, is gradually beginning to attract the attention of both investors and government agencies (the Federal Commission for the Securities Market of Russia), as well as the issuers of securities themselves. Among chemical and petrochemical companies, the growth in attention to corporate governance has so far been the least noticeable. This was reflected, in particular, in the state of the stock market for chemical and petrochemical companies (which we will briefly consider later).
But while maintaining stability in the Russian economy, it is unlikely that there will be companies in the industry that will want to change their position. For further successful development, the vast majority of chemical and petrochemical enterprises need significant modernization, one of the sources of funds for which may well be the stock market, but the volume and conditions for raising capital in the stock market directly depend on the level of corporate governance.
While the capitalization of Russian companies is small, in connection with which, as a rule, the stock market cannot be seriously considered by them as a possible source of investment, and this reduces incentives for its development and improvement of corporate governance. Indeed, even the leader of the Russian petrochemistry OJSC, whose management has taken quite definite steps to increase the market value of shares, has a capitalization slightly exceeding $280 million. At the same time, in accordance with the investment policy of this company for the coming years, approximately reconstruction of ethylene production. And if an OJSC could, in principle, use the issue of shares to partially resolve the issues of attracting investments, then such companies as, for example, OJSC or OJSC, in order to attract any significant investment, would have to make a radical change in the distribution of shares among shareholders.
However, the positive changes taking place in the economy and the stock market (trends towards an increase in the credit ratings of Russia and the largest Russian issuers, towards an increase in the capitalization of the Russian stock market), allow us to expect that, while maintaining the direction of these changes, many companies, having made serious efforts to improve corporate governance and the development of their stock markets, are able to increase capitalization so much that they can already consider the stock market as a very real source of possible investments.

STATE OF THE SHARE MARKET OF RUSSIAN CHEMICAL AND PETROCHEMICAL COMPANIES

At the moment, shares of a small number of chemical, petrochemical and oil refining enterprises are included in the number of securities admitted to circulation in the main Russian trading systems RTS and MICEX. As of March 15, 2002, among 370 securities (ordinary and preferred shares) of 233 issuers listed on the RTS, there are 16 securities of 12 chemical and petrochemical enterprises (less than 4.5%), and among those admitted to circulation on MICEX has almost 200 shares of more than 100 issuers, there is only one security (!) (ordinary shares of OJSC, which are almost completely illiquid), representing issuers in the chemical and petrochemical industries.
All chemical and petrochemical enterprises included in the RTS list can be divided into two groups - petrochemical enterprises and chemical industry enterprises. Of these groups, the second group is more numerous, uniting enterprises of various sub-sectors of the chemical industry: pharmaceuticals (), production of organic synthesis products (,), mineral fertilizers (,) and other chemical products.
Such a level of representativeness of chemical and petrochemical enterprises among issuers of securities traded on organized markets does not correspond to the importance of this industry in the Russian economy. This allows us to say that the sector of shares of chemical and petrochemical enterprises is less developed compared to the sectors of shares of enterprises of other industries, which is confirmed by the data on trading in shares of chemical and petrochemical companies (Fig. 2).
Transaction volumes in all listed securities are low. The volume of all transactions with shares of chemical and petrochemical companies in 2001 amounted to 1826 thousand dollars, while transactions with shares of, for example, machine-building companies amounted to 25.9 million dollars, and the total trading volume on the RTS for the year was 4450 .6 mln USD In such a situation, individual transactions affect the distribution of shares of individual issuers in the trading volume. The stock markets of almost all chemical and petrochemical companies are characterized by low liquidity, the existence of significant spreads between purchase and sale prices. Under these conditions, at present, only for three issuers it seems possible to at least approximately estimate the capitalization and the degree of their investment attractiveness (see Table 3).

It seems that in the conditions of a fairly stable financial position and high export potential of many Russian chemical and petrochemical enterprises, the low degree of development of the share markets of companies in this industry and their relatively low capitalization are largely related to the corporate structure of the industry and the low level of corporate governance.
Obviously, in conditions when a controlling stake in a company is controlled by a certain group of persons, it actually gets the opportunity to establish the company's development policy and determine all the most important decisions that affect the results of its activities.
Moreover, if this group of persons is a large financial and industrial group that operates in various business areas and manages a large number of other companies, then it is quite possible that the interests of this group will not coincide with the interests of the rest of the company's shareholders. In such a situation, the only way to reduce risks for investors is to demonstrate on the part of the actual owners of the company (owners of a controlling stake) the intention to respect the rights of minority shareholders, pursue a policy to increase the company's capitalization, and increase the level of corporate governance.
So far, this has not happened, which clearly indicates the unwillingness of the owners to increase the capitalization of companies. But in the future, the situation should change.
For the corresponding changes, several years of stable economic development of Russia are required (note that in 1999-2001 it was quite stable), which should lead to an increase in Russia's sovereign rating (and this has already been observed over the past year) and a decrease in the risk of Russian securities in the eyes of the global investment community, as well as the awareness by top managers of financial and financial-industrial groups of positive changes in the opportunities provided by financial markets.
Given the above, the opportunity to acquire shares of companies in the industry should be considered by potential investors as long-term, high-risk, but potentially high-yield investments.
The main risks are associated with a strong dependence of the future dynamics of share prices on possible changes in the positions of the owners of controlling stakes in issuing companies on the advisability of raising the level of corporate governance and developing the share markets of their companies.

The main branches of the chemical industry are conditionally divided into the following:

gas processing industry;

Oil refining industry;

Petrochemical industry (raw materials - oil and gas fractions);

Coke-chemical industry (raw material - coal);

Microbiological industry (hydrocarbon and other raw materials);

Industry of heavy and fine organic synthesis (raw materials of oil, gas and coal origin);

Industry of inorganic synthesis (inorganic and organic raw materials);

Chemical and pharmaceutical industry.

Modern complexes of the chemical industry often combine different branches of chemical technology in one industrial area, most often gas processing, oil refining and petrochemistry, which contributes to the achievement of the highest profitability of joint production.

Petrochemistry provides products that represent the basis of society's consumption. The profitability of modern petrochemical industries in advanced countries is usually higher than that of industries supplying raw materials for petrochemistry and other branches of the chemical industry; it is only slightly inferior to the most profitable branches of modern business. Labor productivity in the petrochemical industry is 30-40% higher than in the oil and gas industries.

Petrochemical industries in advanced countries are technically mature. This is manifested in high yields of finished products from raw materials, in a constant significant improvement in the quality and expansion of the functional properties of products, in the use of energy technological schemes that actually lead to noticeable energy savings, in the use of flexible technologies that are universal in relation to different types of raw materials. Today, the degree of technological development of a country is judged (naturally, along with other factors and indicators) by the share of plastics among structural materials, synthetic fibers among textile raw materials, synthetic rubbers among elastomers. Modern information technologies can no longer be imagined without special materials obtained on the basis of petrochemical products, as well as new materials for new and old technologies, in particular, for nuclear, space, laser, optical and other special equipment. New materials with predetermined properties for the manufacture of electronic equipment, new composite materials, ceramic, optical, magnetic, biologically active and biologically neutral materials are now being manufactured based on the latest achievements in petrochemical science and technology.

From 2002 to 2012, world GDP grew 2.25 times, oil prices - 4.2 times. By 2010, petrochemical consumption in Asia exceeded that of the US and Western Europe combined. Demand for basic petrochemical intermediates is distributed as follows: olefins - 66%, aromatic compounds - 21%, methanol and others - 13%.

Currently, more than 100 major petrochemical processes in the world produce 95-98% of organic synthesis products. More than 80,000 chemical products are produced on the basis of oil, gas condensate and associated petroleum and natural gas, but only a few dozen of them are large-scale production. About half of its production is consumed within the petrochemical industry. In general, petrochemistry consumes about 10-12% of the produced oil in the world.

1.5-4.0 tons of raw materials (ethane, propane, butanes, straight-run gasoline - naphtha, catalytic reforming gasoline, gas oils, etc.) are consumed per 1 ton of petrochemical products (including intermediate products), as well as about 1.6 tons of standard fuel in the form of steam, hot water and electricity, which is 60-80% of the cost of production. According to aggregated estimates, the sale of 60% of petrochemical products is carried out in the region with a radius of up to 1000 km, interregional exchange is 15% and export of products - up to 25%.

Petrochemical enterprises are sources of increased environmental pollution, therefore, the industry has quite high costs for environmental protection measures, including the creation of waste-free and environmentally friendly technologies, while at least 5-10% of capital investments fall on environmental protection facilities.

Achieving technical maturity for large producers means, first of all, accelerating the pace (growth) of scientific and technological progress and expanding its areas, of which the most relevant for petrochemistry are the development of new catalysts and catalytic systems, the development of methane chemistry and technologies for the processing of alkanes; creation of new materials, including those with predetermined properties, biotechnology.

Virtually none of the leading areas of scientific and technological progress in oil and gas processing and petrochemistry, as well as in chemistry in general, achieves further success without improving the theory of catalysis, creating new more efficient catalysts and catalytic systems. Technical catalysis is of paramount importance for assessing the state of the modern chemical complex of any country. For example, about 60% of all US chemical production and 90% of new technological processes are based on the use of catalytic synthesis. Only the wide application of the scientific and technical successes of modern catalysis serves as one of the main indicators of the economic security of the state. In addition, catalytic methods provide ample opportunities for modernizing existing and creating new industries in the direction of resource and energy saving and waste reduction.

The development of methane chemistry makes it possible to create more efficient technologies for producing synthesis gas, methanol, ammonia, liquid hydrocarbons (in particular, alternative synthetic motor fuels), etc. The latest synthesis processes based on methane do not proceed through known intermediate products (such as synthesis gas, methanol and others), but directly lead to the production of well-known basic petrochemical intermediates: ethylene, benzene, butadiene, styrene, etc. Recently, intensive studies have been carried out on the possibilities of producing ethylene from natural gas. For example, a technology has been developed by Dow Chemical (USA) for the conversion of synthesis gas into olefins by the Fischer-Tropsch reaction on promoted molybdenum catalysts; Mobil (USA) technology for producing ethylene from methanol on zeolite-containing catalysts; the technology of Norsk Hydro (Norway) and UOP (USA) for the production of ethylene and propylene from natural gas through methanol. The industrial wide introduction of such technologies is possible already in the first quarter of the 21st century, then it will be possible to speak about the onset of a new “methane era” in petrochemistry and in the processing and use of hydrocarbon gases.

The development of industrial technologies for the processing of alkanes will also expand the scope of mutual transformations of hydrocarbons. For example, new technologies will make it possible to convert ethane into vinyl chloride, propane into acrylic acid nitrile, isobutane into methyl methacrylate, etc.

The biotechnological direction in petrochemistry makes it possible to reduce the material and energy consumption of the main equipment, increase the efficiency of technological processes using renewable raw materials and facilitate the solution of environmental problems. In a number of countries with large biomass reserves, the technology of enzymatic conversion of biomass into ethyl alcohol and its subsequent decomposition into ethylene is used. Successes have already been achieved in the biotechnological synthesis of feed protein, microbial polysaccharides, xylitol, the first polymer films and fibers have been obtained, biocatalysis technologies have been developed in chemistry and petrochemistry, in particular, a biocatalytic process for the production of propylene oxide (USA), xylitol (Russia) and other products. Biocatalysis can provide processes for the division of hydrocarbon chains due to the activity of enzymes while reducing production costs by almost half, while in petrochemistry such processes most often require high temperatures and pressures. Biotechnological processes also connect petrochemicals with agrochemicals and pharmaceutical technologies.

The history of the formation of petrochemistry. About 80 years ago, the formation of petrochemistry began. The first industrial petrochemical installation is considered to be the installation for the production of isopropyl alcohol from petroleum feedstock (1920, Union Carbide, USA). In 1925, the same company launched the first ethylene plant, and in 1929, a plant for the production of acetone from petroleum raw materials was launched (previously it was obtained by fermenting agricultural products). The technology for producing ethylene oxide was developed in 1932, and for producing polyvinyl chloride - in 1935. In 1931, the synthesis of polyethylene was patented (1C1, Great Britain), and in 1939 this company obtained low-density polyethylene at an industrial plant. In the early 1930s, the USSR began to produce synthetic rubber from ethyl alcohol; in 1940, synthetic rubber was also obtained in the USA. In the early 1950s, high-density polyethylene was obtained using the technology of K. Ziegler; in the late 1950s, plants for the production of polypropylene, ethylene oxide and ethylene glycol were put into operation. In the early 1960s, cyclohexane was industrially synthesized from benzene; in the early 1970s, high-purity paraxylene and low-pressure methanol were already being produced. Since the late 1970s, linear low density polyethylene and vinyl acetate have been commercially produced from ethylene and acetic acid. In the 1990s, the synthesis of maleic anhydride from n-butane and the synthesis of phenol from benzene were introduced commercially.

In the 50s of the XX century. the leading US oil and gas companies have begun to develop the petrochemical industry at an accelerated pace, large petrochemical centers are emerging in cooperation with gas processing plants and refineries. At the same time, the first petrochemical plants were also created in the USSR, including those for the production of synthetic ethyl alcohol for the production of synthetic rubber (Ufa, Kuibyshev, Orsk, Saratov, Sumgait, etc.), which in the future became large petrochemical complexes. The formation and development of petrochemistry in Japan and Western European countries falls on the 1960-1970s. In the 1980-1990s, an unprecedented development of petrochemistry took place in South Korea, Singapore, Malaysia, Iran, Brazil, Argentina, Mexico, Saudi Arabia, etc.

It is necessary to emphasize the unusual significance of the modern oil, gas and chemical complex in the life of any developed country. It cannot be divided into isolated sectors, they are closely interconnected both by the achievements of modern science and technology, and by high oil and gas technologies, mutual and close cooperation. Among nanotechnologies (nanotechnologies deal with microsystems with dimensions at the level of 10~9 m, i.e., the size of a molecule, which makes it possible to create or control the structure of matter even at the atomic level), an important area is the successfully developed nanochemistry. Nanochemistry already helps to remove impurities (contaminants) of harmful substances from the atmosphere more efficiently than previously to purify (separate) industrial and other gas and liquid mixtures, create adsorbents (zeolites-molecular sieves) with nanosized open pores, zeolite-containing catalysts with nanosized particles for many catalytic processes of oil refining and petrochemistry (catalytic cracking, catalytic isomerization of aromatic hydrocarbons, numerous hydrogenation processes of hydrocarbons, including heavy oil residues, etc.). The discovery of fullerenes and fibrous carbon nanotubes, the creation of highly effective zeolite nanoadsorbents and zeolite nanocatalysts, nanofibers, nanomembranes, ultrafine soot, powders of other substances, aerosols, thin films and coatings are just some of the stages in the development of nanochemistry, nanotribology and nanotechnology in general.

The most important chemical and petrochemical products are listed below.

Plastics (plastics, plastics) are produced on the basis of synthetic polymers: polyethylene, polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polytetrafluoroethylene (fluoroplast), polyethylene terephthalate, etc. Their molecular weight ranges from 5 LLC to 1 LLC LLC. To obtain plastics, fillers (resins, fibers, fabrics, glass, graphite, etc.) are often added to polymers to impart strength, heat resistance and other necessary properties, plasticizers (glycerin, oils, etc.) to impart plasticity and / or elasticity, dyes and various additives (for example, stabilizers). Plastics are not substitutes for wood, metal and porcelain. Modern plastics are superior in their properties to most natural materials, and many plastics have such valuable qualities that they have no analogues in nature at all. Plastics are a new construction material that does not exist in nature. The scope of their application is practically unlimited, they are the material of the future. The main disadvantage is that the use of plastics is limited to a temperature of 150-200 °C, although expensive plastics have already been obtained that can withstand temperatures of 300-500 °C. The production of composite materials (composites) has opened up completely new opportunities for polymers. In the production of plastics, the main monomers are used: ethylene, propylene, styrene, vinyl chloride, etc.

Synthetic resins (oligomers) - polymers of small molecular weight, which, as a result of hardening, turn into infusible and insoluble substances used in the production of plastics, varnishes, adhesives, sealants, for finishing fabrics, paper, in the woodworking industry (wood-fiber and wood-chip boards, wood-laminated plastics), etc. There are alkyd, polyester, phenol-formaldehyde resins, etc.

Synthetic rubbers (SR) have become a quality substitute for natural rubbers (NR) and have reduced the dependence of any country on imports of expensive and scarce NR from Southeast Asian countries (Indonesia, Vietnam, Laos, etc.). For the first time in the world, the industrial production of SC was organized in the USSR in 1931 under the leadership of Academician S. V. Lebedev (the first industrial batch of butadiene rubber based on ethyl alcohol), in 1932 the Yaroslavl and Voronezh plants of SC were put into operation. Synthetic isoprene rubber, one of the leading producers of which was the USSR, is closest to the properties of NC. The main consumers of SC are the tire industry (up to 60%) and the industry of rubber products. More than 200 types, grades and grades of latexes and SR are produced, which are divided into general-purpose rubbers and special (high-temperature) rubbers, their various compositions are widespread, including in combination with NK for especially critical products. The world rubber market in 2008 was 22.7 million tons, of which synthetic rubber represented 55.5%. For the production of SC, monomers are used as raw materials: butadiene (divinyl), isoprene, styrene, isobutene, ethylene and propylene, etc.

Synthetic fibers (textile) were produced in the world (2007 data) in the amount of more than 45 million tons / year. They are a high-quality substitute for artificial fibers (viscose, acetate, etc.) and a raw material for obtaining completely new materials (yarn, fabrics, fur, special fibers for industrial use, for example, for composite materials). The following synthetic fibers and threads are produced: polyester (lavsan, etc.), polyamide (kapron, etc.), polyacrylonitrile (nitron, etc.), polyolefin, etc. Synthetic fibers are obtained from polymers. For composite structural materials, special organic aramid fibers are produced based on aromatic polyamides, carbon fibers based on polyacrylonitrile and viscose fibers and carbon pitches (carbon fibers can be carbonized at a temperature of 900-2,000 ° C and / or graphitized at temperatures up to 3,000 ° C, carbon content above 99%, specific surface 1,000-2,000 m2/g). The raw materials are the following monomers: ethylene, propylene, butadiene, phenol, benzene, paraxylene, etc.

Surfactants (surfactants) - synthetic detergents, detergents (a term common to foreign countries) - are produced in the world in quantities exceeding tens of millions of tons per year (11 million tons in 2002 and forecast for 2010 14 million t). The rapid development of this industry began in the middle of the 20th century, the structure and quality of surfactants changed over time, now their main quality has become the degree of biological (biochemical) degradability and harmlessness. All organic surfactants are distinguished by a characteristic feature of their molecular structure. Their molecule contains both a hydrophilic (water-soluble) and a hydrophobic (oil- and fat-soluble) part (group). Hydrophobic (lipophilic) part of the molecule of hydrocarbon origin - derivatives of propylene, benzene, ethylene oxide, liquid and solid paraffins, phenol, etc. The hydrophilic part of the molecule can be in the form of a wide variety of ionic or polar groups that can be divided into two classes: ionic and nonionic . Ionic groups are divided into three groups: anionic, cationic and ampholytic. Anionic groups with a negatively charged ion or radical are carboxyl, sulfonate, sulfate and other compounds. Cationic groups with a positively charged ion or radical are amine salts, ammonium compounds, etc. Ampholytic (amphoteric) substances have both anionic and cationic groups in one molecule. Non-ionic hydrophilic groups contain non-ionized chemicals: alcohols, glycols, ethers, etc.

There is an almost unlimited variety of chemical structures that can be used to develop new surfactants. As early as 1955, the US industry was putting on the market more than 1,100 different surfactants. All surfactants have a common property - the ability to concentrate on the interface over which they spread, forming a continuous film that reduces surface tension, which causes abundant foaming and active cleaning of the surface of materials from contamination. Synthetic detergents are produced in the form of a powder obtained by spray drying, as well as in the form of a liquid detergent (gels). Packaged washing powders and liquids - household products account for the largest (more than 80%) share of the total consumption of synthetic detergents.

In contrast to domestic use, where a small number of different types of surfactants are used, an extremely wide range of different specialty surfactants are used in different industries. The textile industry ranks first in the use of surfactants (detergents, softeners, anti-electrifying substances, emulsifiers for oiling fibers, etc.). Next, in terms of the amount of surfactant consumption, follow: maintenance of buildings and enterprises (cleaning walls, windows, floors, dishes, etc.); oil industry (flooding operations in secondary oil recovery methods, in hydraulic fracturing of oil reservoirs to increase oil production, as emulsifiers added to solvents injected into wells, in acid treatment of wells, etc.); oil refining industry (obtaining colloidal surfactants, widely used as demulsifiers in the dehydration and desalting of oils); washing and dry cleaning in laundries; construction industry (foaming agents for the production of gypsum boards, air-entraining additives to concrete, additives to improve the adhesion (adhesion) of bitumen with coarse aggregates in road construction, etc.); agriculture (emulsifiers and wetting agents, washing dishes and equipment, etc.); transport (washing cars, buses, planes, railway cars, etc.); metalworking industry (emulsifiers for the preparation of cutting fluids (coolants), detergents for cleaning metals during their processing, etc.). Surfactants are also used for the production of polymers, pesticides, corrosion inhibitors, extractants of rare elements, additives for fuels and oils, etc.

Mineral fertilizers produced in the world in the mid-1980s amounted to more than 120 million tons / year, including more than 20% in the USSR. In 2005, world production and consumption of mineral fertilizers were 207 and 157 million tons, respectively (including 60% of nitrogen fertilizers). Synthetic ammonia is currently produced using mainly (up to 92%) natural gases and, to a lesser extent, gasoline and heavy oil fractions, while the share of coal in hydrogen production for ammonia synthesis has sharply decreased since the 1960s.

Below is a brief description of some technological processes and technologies for obtaining the most significant chemical products based on oil and gas hydrocarbons and their derivatives.

Petrochemistry, petrochemical synthesis - a branch of the chemical industry that produces chemical products from oil, associated and natural gases and their individual components. The share of petrochemicals accounts for over a quarter of all chemical products in the world. The orientation of the economy of developed countries to oil raw materials allowed petrochemistry to make in the middle of the 20th century. a qualitative leap and become one of the most important heavy industries.

Usually, when talking about the history of the emergence of petrochemistry, 1918 is taken as a starting point, when the world's first production of isopropyl alcohol from cracking gases was mastered in the United States. Isopropyl alcohol is still widely used in industry (mainly for the production of acetone). But probably, the main products of petrochemistry were materials that initially did not seem to have the slightest relation to it.

The creation of synthetic rubbers (SC) is described in Art. rubbers and elastomers. Our first SKs were made exclusively from alcohol, which was obtained from food raw materials. Now all rubbers are synthesized from petrochemical raw materials. The rubber obtained from rubber is mainly used for tires for cars, aircraft, and wheeled tractors.

Many other substances are also produced from petroleum raw materials, the manufacturing technology of which was originally based on the chemical processing of food products. Suffice it to think about fatty acids and detergents. Petrochemistry saves not only food, but also significant funds. One of the most important monomers for rubbers, divinyl, is about half as expensive when produced from butane as when it is obtained from edible alcohol.

The first five representatives of the saturated hydrocarbons of the methane series - methane, ethane, propane, butane and pentane - have become the most important petrochemical raw materials, although there are few of each of them, including methane, which prevails in natural gas, in oil. Saturated hydrocarbons do not enter into addition reactions. Therefore, substitution reactions are extremely important for petrochemistry: chlorination, fluorination, sulfochlorination, nitration, as well as incomplete oxidation.

Drawing (see original)

All these methods of chemical action on saturated hydrocarbons make it possible to obtain more reactive compounds.

Pyrolysis of saturated hydrocarbons can produce ethylene, acetylene and other unsaturated hydrocarbons, on the basis of which many organic compounds are synthesized. Ethylene is of particular value. It is needed to produce synthetic alcohol, vinyl chloride, styrene, one of the most important plastics - polyethylene, etc., as well as to produce polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene and a number of other substances and materials. At the end of the 50s. only 15% of plastics and synthetic resins were produced on the basis of petrochemical raw materials in our country, now - more than 75%.

The petrochemical industry also produces aromatic compounds, organic acids, glycols (dihydric alcohols), raw materials for the production of chemical fibers, and fertilizers. In recent decades, a group of biotechnological industries has been born on the basis of petrochemistry. This is the production of protein-vitamin concentrates by the microbiological dewaxing of oil. The concentrate is a cellular substance of microorganisms that can feed on oil or its individual fractions. After appropriate purification, these concentrates are suitable for fattening farm animals. The refinery in Schwedt (GDR) produces fermosin protein-yeast concentrate, the production technology of which was developed jointly by scientists from the USSR and the GDR. Several large-scale production facilities for microbial protein have been built in the USSR, where highly purified α-paraffins are used as raw materials.

Today, the petrochemical industry provides us with many essential industrial products.

(Markovnikov), them (M. I. Konovalov, S. S. Nametkin) and liquid-phase (K. V. Kharichkov, Eng-ler), as well as catalytic. transformations of high-boiling liquids (V. N. Ipatiev, N. D. Zelinsky).

First prom. petrochemical the product was synthesized from waste thermal. (1920, USA). Mass transition prom. org. synthesis from coal raw materials to oil and gas, which occurred in the 1950s and 60s, stimulated the separation of petrochemistry into independent. direction of scientific research in .

In scientific and technical. In the literature, the term "petrochemistry" began to appear in 1934-40, and after 1960 it began to be used to designate a scientific direction and discipline. The previous term "" from now on is used only in a narrow sense - to denote the direction of petrochemistry, which studies the composition and St.

Main tasks and directions. The main task of petrochemistry is the study and development of methods and processes for processing components and nature. , Ch. arr. , in large-tonnage org. products used prem. as a raw material for the last. release on their basis commodity chemical. products with certain consumers. St. you (diff., solutions, surfactants, etc.). To achieve this goal, petrochemistry studies St. Islands, explores the composition, structure and transformation of mixtures and heteroatomic compounds contained in, as well as those formed during processing and nature. . The petrochemical industry operates preim. multicomponent mixtures and their function, derivatives, solves the problem of managing the p-tions of such mixtures and carries out the purposeful use of components.

The task of exploratory research is the discovery of fundamentally new districts and methods, to-rye in the last. implementation in the form of technology. processes can qualitatively change tech. petrochemical level. production

The specific tasks of applied research and development are determined by the requirements of the petrochemical industry. and the oil refining industry, and are also dictated by the logic of the development of the entire chemical industry. Sciences.

To solve its problems, petrochemistry comprehensively uses the methods and achievements of org. and physical , mathematics, and other sciences. In connection with a clearly defined applied focus of research in the development of petrochemical. processes are widely practiced and testing them in pilot plants decomp. scale (see). Scientific research in petrochemistry is developing following. main directions: study of chem. composition, interconversions, synthesis of func. from oil and gas raw materials.

The study of the chemical composition reveals patterns in the distribution of heteroatomic and metal-containing compounds. in and their fractions depending on the deposit, depth of occurrence and production conditions (see). Knowledge of such patterns makes it possible to create data on , recommend the most. diet. ways of processing and use of oil fractions and components. For a deeper study of the composition, existing methods of analysis are intensified and new ones are developed using complex chem. and fiz.-chem. methods of analysis (, optical, etc.).

The study of the interconversion of hydrocarbons provides the scientific basis for the processes of oil refining and production, their high-octane components (isoparaffins C 6 -C 9, aromatic . ), monomers and intermediates ( , ) from other components, Ch. arr. unbranched and . For this purpose, the regularities and mechanism of thermic are investigated. and catalytic transformations of individual and their mixtures, carry out the search, development and application of new and modified. rolledcongestion, study the mutual influence of the components of the reaction. mixtures on the direction of the district at , etc. Such a study makes it possible to improve existing and develop new processes in order to deepen it to 75-85%, to obtain high quality. , dispose of heteroatomic components . It is also promising to study and use biochemical, plasmachemical, photochemical, new for petrochemistry. and other methods of stimulating districts.

Synthesis of func tions. c o o n o d o d o dr o d o v (petrochemical synthesis) - development of the scientific foundations of effective direct or low-stage methods for obtaining the most important functions. derivatives (carboxylic to-you, ethers, halogen- and sulfur-containing derivatives) based on and prir. , semi - products and waste . An example is the creation of new promising processes for the selective synthesis of oxygen-containing compounds. using single-stage p-tions decomp. and olefins.

petrochemical production. The results of scientific research and achievements in the field of petrochemistry are practical. application in production pl. large-capacity org. intermediates. The advantage of oil and gas raw materials over other types (growing, etc.) is that its complex processing makes it possible to simultaneously obtain a wide range of intermediate products for decomp. chem. production

Neftekhim. production begins with the receipt of primary petrochemicals. products partially supplied, e.g. straight-run, highly aromatizir. from catalytic installations. and , bottom fractions and , and the liquid and secreted from them. Based on primary petrochemicals. products (ch. arr. unsaturatedand aromatic. ) secondary products are produced,presented diff. org classes. compounds ( , aldeguides, carbon to-you, etc.); WTO basedretail (and partly primary) - final (commercial) products(see diagram). Liquid, solid or gaseousand (ch. arr. n-alkanes) are raw materials for microbiol.synthesis of feed products (see).

Neftekhim. production is characterized by the release of non-fuel products, a limited and stable range of products (about 50 items), large-scale production. State and development of petrochemical. production has a decisive influence on the pace and scale of chemicalization of the entire national economy and, first of all, on the production of synthetic. and , rubber tech. products, fodder in-in, etc. Due to this, the development of petrochemistry determines the progress of many others. other branches of the national economy, where it is implemented in the main. profits and savings in raw materials and energy from those involved in the use of .

Neftekhim. production, as a rule, are flow-continuous, carried out on large unitsunit power, with increased t-pax and release 1 t petrochemical. product requires the cost of 1.5 to 3 tons of it as a raw material and another 1-3 tons as an energy source (in the amount of 2.5 to 6 tons). In this regard, the share of raw materials in the cost is large (65-85%), production costs and profits are relatively low. The urgent task of intensifying and increasing the economic petrochemical efficiency. production is solved at the expense of chemical-technol. (the use of new, more selective districts and working conditions, the attraction of more accessible and cheaper types of raw materials and more efficient methods of carrying out operations, etc.) and organizational and economic. factors (production and enlargement of units, cooperation and combination of processes, installations and production).

Neftekhim. production is usually accompanied by the formation of polluting by-products. The solution of environmental issues is achieved by improving processes, creating low-waste technologies, and complex processing of raw materials and waste.

On the chem. processing is now spent worldwide more than 8% of mined . For individual countries, these figures fluctuate and for the USSR amount to approx. 7%, for the USA 12%. In commensurate in tonnage with the total number of spent on petrochemical. goals, used natural. . The share of its production coming to the chemical. processing is 12% in the world, 11% in the USSR, and 15% in the USA.

The total output of petrochemicals. products in the world can be. estimated at 300 million tons/year (1987-88). In table. estimated data on world pro-wu naib. large-capacity petrochemical products.

The USSR is a major producer of ethylene is not growing (from 3.11 billion tons in 1980 it decreased to 2.6 billion tons in 1983, and then increased to 3.07 billion tons in 1989), the main range of petrochemicals. products will be preserved, and their production volumes will grow by 4-6% per year. In this regard, we should expect a significant (in terms of absolute quantity and percentage) growth in consumption and technology of basic organic and petrochemical synthesis, 4th ed., M., 1938; "J. All-Russian Chemical Society named after D. I. Mendeleev", 1989, v. 34, No. 6.

S. M. Loktev.