Oratory is heterogeneous in its composition, since in the process of thinking a person tends to reflect various objectively existing connections between the phenomena of reality, between objects, events, individual judgments, which, in turn, finds expression in various functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning (thinking). Monological types of speech are built on the basis of reflecting mental diachronic, synchronic, cause-and-effect processes. Oratorical speech in this regard is a monologue narrative - information about developing actions, a monologue description - information about the simultaneous features of an object, a monologue reasoning - about cause-and-effect relationships. Semantic types are present in speech depending on its type, purpose and on the speaker's conceptual intention, which determines the inclusion or non-inclusion of one or another semantic type in the general fabric of oratory speech; the change of these types is caused by the speaker's desire to more fully express his thought, reflect his position, help listeners perceive the speech and most effectively influence the audience, as well as give speech a dynamic character. At the same time, in various types oratorical speech will have a different ratio of these types, because in reality they all mix, interact, and their isolation is very conditional.

Narration is a dynamic functional-semantic type of speech that expresses a message about actions or states developing in a temporal sequence and has specific linguistic means. Narrative conveys changing actions or states that unfold over time. This type of speech, unlike the description, is dynamic, so time plans can constantly change in it. For example, this is how time plans change in F. N. Plevako’s speech on the Gruzinsky case: “20 years ago, a young man, he met in Moscow, on the Kuznetsky bridge near Tromle, a confectioner, a sweets dealer, a beautiful saleswoman Olga Nikolaevna Frolova. She liked him, he loved her. In a confectionery, where the goods are not just bread or firewood, without which you cannot do, but you can even go to a dirty inn to buy, bait is needed in a confectionery. So they stand there in the chambers flooded with lights and gold, the beautiful saleswoman; and who would have had enough of a pound for a week, you see - he comes every day to admire, to exchange words, to be kind<...>. She fell in love, and it became hard for him at the thought that she would stand at the auction, in a lively place, where anyone who wanted to stare at her would speak obscene speeches. He takes her to his house as a friend. He would immediately marry her, but his mother is still alive, even more than he, close to her old glory: she does not want to hear about the marriage of her son with a shop assistant. The son, ardently devoted to his mother, yields. Meanwhile, Olga Nikolaevna suffered from him, gave birth to her first-born son. The prince did not react to this in the same way as those revelers about whom I spoke. For him, it was his son, his blood. He called his best friends: Prince Imeretinsky baptized him. This fragment is a narrative (because it shows developing, dynamic events) with elements of description (because static pictures are given that accompany this narrative). The entire presentation is divided into separate clear frames of different time plans, which helps to quickly perceive speech.

Narration includes dynamically reflected situations of the external world, and this arrangement of a given type of utterance determines its position in speech. This type is resorted to if it is necessary to confirm the positions expressed by the speaker with specific examples or when analyzing some situations. The speaker's task is to depict the sequence of events, to convey this sequence with the necessary accuracy. Thus, meaningful and factual information is transmitted, and it is clothed in different forms. Firstly, the speaker can speak as a participant in the events, secondly, state the events from the words of a third person, and thirdly, model the series of events without indicating the source of information. The speaker conveys events that take place as if before the eyes of the listeners, or introduces memories of events developing in the past. For example, N.P. Karabchevsky uses this technique in his speech on the case of Olga Palem: “With such lightweight luggage, she went to Odessa. To remain in Simferopol, in the same Jewish environment, from now on hostile to her, was already unthinkable. In Odessa, she had neither relatives nor acquaintances. Remember Berting's testimony. At first, she tried to settle down to some at least black, at least hard work. She became a maid. She stayed for several days and was released, as it turned out that she did not know how to take on anything, she was a white hand. Then we see “for some time she was a saleswoman in a tobacco shop. According to the recall of the police bailiff Chabanov, at that time she was poorly dressed, but she was distinguished by flourishing health, she was energetic and cheerful. Nothing reprehensible could be noted in her behavior.

Then, some time later, in 1887, the same bailiff Chabanov began to meet her already "well dressed." This narrative speaks of the characters, the place and time of the action, the action itself, which is developing. The defense lawyer reproduces the actions of Olga Palem on the basis of her testimony and the testimony of witnesses.

The dynamics of the narrative is created through the use of verbs that can express a quick change of events, the sequence of their development, therefore, verbs of a specific action are most often used. Dynamics can also be conveyed by the meaning of verbs, their different types of temporal plans, the order of succession, referring them to the same subject, adverbial words with the meaning of time, conjunctions, etc. The principle of rapid narrative movement comes into force, and the style acquires breathtaking speed . Such, for example, is the narrative part of K. F. Khartulari’s speech on the Lebedev case: “Having secured a permit from the city government to demolish the building, the board, in accordance with the obligation, demanded from Lebedev an immediate start to work.

Lebedev went to the Nikolsky market, and there, among the working proletariat, he recruited a detachment of workers for the cheapest daily wages.

This entire detachment, under the command of Andrei Lebedev,<...>scattered over the dome of the building, which from the inside, for safety, was supported by four wooden posts, fastened together with iron ties or staples<...>.

Work boiled over. Hammers banged, and soon the outer metal sheathing was removed, and behind it the so-called black floor was removed, and the skeleton of the dome was immediately exposed with its metal rafters, up to 32 in number, which, like radii from the center, descended from the top of the dome to its base, lying on the walls of the building itself in the ring.

The most difficult and most dangerous part of the work was coming, which consisted in dismantling and dismembering the metal rafters. The words that are used here give dynamics to the presentation: it required an immediate start to work, set off, recruits, crumbled, the work began to boil, hammers banged, soon, immediately got naked. Dynamic speech always effectively influences listeners.

It is possible to single out specific, generalized and informational narration. Concrete is a narrative about dismembered, chronologically sequential concrete actions of one or more actors, for example, in judicial speech; generalized - about specific actions, but characteristic of many situations, typical for a certain situation, for example, in a scientific presentation; informational - a message about any actions or states without their specification and detailed chronological sequence; it most often takes the form of a retelling of the actions of the subject or the form of indirect speech.

The narration in speeches can be built according to the scheme of the traditional three-part division, that is, it has its own plot, which introduces the essence of the matter and predetermines the movement of the plot, the development of the action and the denouement, containing an explicit or implicit emotional assessment of the event by the speaker.

Usually, there is a distinction between extended and non-extended narration. An extended narrative is a speech that reflects successive, sometimes simultaneous, but developing actions or states. A non-expanded narration is either expressed by a separate remark in a dialogue, or, when used in a micro-thematic context, serves as an introduction to a description or reasoning.

Description is a stating speech, as a rule, giving a static picture, an idea of ​​the nature, composition, structure, properties, qualities of an object by listing both its essential and non-essential features in this moment.

Description can be of two types: static and dynamic. The first gives the object in statics, the signs of the object indicated in speech can denote its temporary or permanent properties, qualities and states. For example, a description of a scene in a court speech or a description of an object in political speech. The description of the second type is less common; so, any experience in scientific speech usually appears in development, dynamics.

Descriptions are very diverse both in content and form. They can be, for example, figurative. The speaker, trying to inform the listeners of the necessary amount of information, gives not only a detailed description of the object, but also its characteristics, assessment, recreating a certain picture, which brings the speech closer to the description in fiction.

The center of the description is nouns with objective meaning, which give rise to a specific image in the minds of listeners, and informatively it can be very rich, since nouns with objective meaning cause a number of associations. Let us give an example from N. I. Bukharin’s speech “Goethe and His Historical Significance”, delivered by him in 1932 at a solemn meeting of the USSR Academy of Sciences dedicated to the 100th anniversary of Goethe’s death: “Serf labor, “belt whip”, Christian- German patriarchy of life found its adequate expression in the political superstructure of the country. Since the Peace of Westphalia, Germany has been divided into 300 too-sovereign "states" and well over 1,000 semi-sovereign knightly estates. These sometimes tiny political units<...>felt like real “courts”: every prince wanted to be a little Louis XIV, to have his own luxurious Versailles, his charming Marquise de Pompadour, his court jesters, his life poets, his ministers and, above all, his police and army. Here, the method of description is the enumeration of nouns, through which the characteristics of one object are given - Germany in the time of Goethe. In the first half of the fragment, nouns are used in their direct meaning (except for the expression "belt whip" belonging to Goethe), but comparisons already appear in the second half, which enhances the associative moment. Thanks to such a concentration of nouns, the speaker manages to give an exhaustive description of Germany at the turn of the 18th-19th centuries, with its medieval patriarchal way of life, on the one hand, and its claims to luxury and independence, on the other.

Let us give another example from N. I. Bukharin’s report on Heine, read by him at a solemn public meeting at the USSR Academy of Sciences on April 29, 1931, on the occasion of the 75th anniversary of the poet’s death: “Heine is so brilliant and bright, so many-sided and whimsical that from the precious casket of his poetic creativity one can choose the dagger of a tyrant and the diamond ring of an aristocrat; the spring pipe and the sword of the revolution; pearls of tears and cynical irony; medieval amulet and purple banner of the proletarian revolution. Heine is the king of visions and dreams, the fabulous prince of romantic dreams. And at the same time, a great mocker, the earthly incarnation of the goddess Irony, a brilliant "whistle". Leader of the "party of flowers and nightingales". And on the other page - the dashing drummer of the revolution. This fragment uses a large number of nouns in a figurative sense and adjectives with a qualitative-evaluative meaning, characterizing the poet from different angles, as well as quoting. As a result, a qualitative characteristic of the image is given.

In the description, as a rule, the forms of the present, past and future tenses are used. For judicial speech, the use of the past tense is most typical, for academic speech - the present. The latter lists the permanent features of objects, which is expressed using present tense verbs. For example, I.P. Pavlov describes the actions that took place in his report as follows: “And you, who are somewhat familiar with conditioned reflexes, know, of course, that we finally have in our hands, on the one hand, external stimuli that produce in the central nervous system is an excitatory process, and on the other hand, we have stimuli in our hands, which in the large hemispheres produce an inhibitory process” (23, 329).

Descriptions are more or less homogeneous in their syntactic structure. As can be seen from the previous examples, it usually represents an enumeration of key words or words denoting the features of the Described object, in a direct or figurative sense, which determines the enumerative intonation, as a result of which a complete image of the object is created.

In a dynamic event description, relatively equal, complete actions or facts are depicted in the form of changing parts, which gives the statement an enumerative character. This type of description has a designated start and end. Here is how F.N. Plevako uses the dynamic event description in his defensive speech on the case of the Lutoric peasants: “The need arose to always borrow land from the landowner for cultivation, to always look for work from him, to lend seeds for seeding the fields. Permanent debts, thanks to the methods of management, grew and dragged the peasants: the creditor ruled over the debtor and enslaved him to work for himself, to work for non-payment of the accumulated penalty from year to year.

In this position, where the creditor ruled and the debtor suffocated, there was no longer a trace of a voluntary agreement. Monstrous contracts and decisions prove that management did not agree, but prescribed a condition; eternally enslaved peasants also did not agree, but silently put on a noose, which ended and free civil transactions between the peasants and their former owner came into force. In this passage, a dynamic description of the event is given, and the main role is played here by verbs that express equal completed actions and act in close connection with various nouns denoting subjects, objects, abstract concepts, processes: the need arose to look for work, to lend with seeds, debts grew and the peasants were dragged in, the creditor ruled, enslaved him, the debtor suffocated, prescribed a condition, deals entered into force, etc. This description has general idea, a single substantial core (the position of the peasants), and at the same time it reveals this idea in two aspects (creditors to the landowners - debtors to the peasants).

The description can be expanded, detailed and concise, brief; objectified, for example, a description of an experience in an academic speech or a crime scene in a judicial speech, and subjective, in which the speaker expresses his attitude to the object, for example, a description of a situation in a political speech. Most often, of course, the speaker does not hide his attitude to the object, giving him a hidden or explicit assessment. Let us give an example from the same speech by Plevako N.F. in the case of the Lutoric peasants: “I ask you to look through the submitted document. Claims for penalties of 30 percent, 50 percent, 100 percent for a debt flash before my eyes. Penalties of 300 and 500 rubles - in dozens. And read the contract: a full penalty for non-payment of a small share of the debt. Read case No. 143 for 1870 - they are looking for a debt and a penalty, the peasants bring money to the judge. The money was accepted, received, but a writ of execution was nevertheless taken for a penalty of 50 percent. Read case No. 158 - a terrible, disgusting contract: in case of delay - the hut, the cow, the horse and everything that is found in the hut goes into a penalty. Claims are awarded on certificates of the volost board. Awarded according to the certificate given by the volost board!” . This fragment provides a detailed description of objective facts. However, it reflects the point of view of the speaker, giving a negative assessment of the indicated facts (terrible, disgusting treaty), and also contains a call to action (please scroll through, read). It should also be noted the swiftness of the change of enumerated objects, which is enhanced by the word "flash". The description makes extensive use of introductory words and introductory sentences (subjective modality); modal words, indicative mood (single time plan), homogeneous components (including sentences expressing judgments), etc. Therefore, this description is dynamic.

Reasoning (or reflection) is a type of speech in which objects or phenomena are examined, their internal features are revealed, certain provisions are proved. Reasoning is characterized by special logical relationships between its constituent judgments, which form inferences or a chain of inferences on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form. This type of speech has a specific linguistic structure, depending on the logical basis of reasoning and on the meaning of the statement, and is characterized by cause-and-effect relationships. It is associated with the transfer of content-conceptual information. An example is a fragment from a speech on naval defense delivered by P. A. Stolypin in the State Duma on May 24, 1908: “Gentlemen! The realm of government power is the realm of action. When the commander on the battlefield sees that the battle is lost, he must concentrate on gathering his frustrated forces, uniting them into one. In the same way, after the catastrophe, the government is in a slightly different position than society and public representation ...>. It (the government. - Ya. K.) should unite its forces and try to restore the destruction. For this, of course, we need a plan, we need the united activity of all state bodies. This is the path taken by the real government from the first days when power was handed over to it.

In the “Logical Dictionary” by N. I. Kondakov (M., 1971, p. 449), the following definition is given: “Reasoning is a chain of conclusions on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form. Reasoning is also called a series of judgments related to a question, which follow one another in such a way that others necessarily follow or follow from previous judgments, and as a result, an answer to the question posed is obtained. When reasoning, the speaker comes to a new judgment.

Reasoning allows you to involve listeners in the process of speech, which leads to the activation of their attention, causing interest in what is being reported.

Let us give an example from the speech of G. A. Aleksandrov in the Zasulich case: “Stand up for the idea of ​​moral honor and dignity of a political convict, proclaim this idea loudly enough and call for its recognition and assurance - these are the motives that led Zasulich, and the idea of ​​a crime , which would be put in connection with the punishment of Bogolyubov, it seemed, could give satisfaction to all these motives. Zasulich decided to seek trial for her own crime in order to raise and provoke discussion of the forgotten case of the punishment of Bogolyubov.

When I commit a crime, thought Zasulich, then the silent question of punishing Bogolyubov will arise; my crime will cause a public trial, and Russia, in the person of its representatives, will be forced to pronounce the verdict not on me alone, but on the importance of the case, in the mind of Europe, that Europe that still likes to call us a barbarian state in which the attribute of the government is the whip.

These discussions determined the intentions of Zasulich. Therefore, the explanation of Zasulich, which, moreover, was given by her during her very initial interrogation and was then invariably supported, is absolutely reliable, which was indifferent to her: whether the result of the shot she fired would be death or only infliction of a wound. I will add on my own that for her purposes it would be the same even if the shot, obviously aimed at famous person, and did not produce any harmful action, if a misfire or a miss followed. Not life, not physical suffering Adjutant General Trepov was needed for Zasulich, and her appearance in the dock, together with her the appearance of the question of the case with Bogolyubov. The main thing in reasoning is the object of thought. In this passage, the object of thought is the cause of the shot V. Zasulich. The speaker expresses his point of view on the event, then reproduces the arguments of V. Zasulich, based on her explanation during the initial interrogation. He, as it were, reconstructs V. Zasulich's thinking, then motivating her act. G. A. Alexandrov uses in this speech the “presence effect”, which consists in the fact that the speaker, as it were, reincarnates as the subject of his speech, talking about the events he allegedly witnessed or participated in, about the details that he allegedly saw, about thoughts that he knows, thereby involving the listeners in the speech, in this case, in the reflection of V. Zasulich, forcing them to “be present” at the same time as reflections and empathize. This technique is universal and can take place in other types of speech.

In reasoning, prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, and various types of stable combinations are used to connect individual parts: therefore, because, further, firstly, secondly, therefore, as a result, let us dwell on, note the following, move on to the next, etc. .

One can single out the actual reasoning - a chain of conclusions on any topic, presented in a logically consistent form, its goal is the derivation of new knowledge (most often, the commenting part comes first, then the key, or main, part); proof, the purpose of which is to substantiate the truth or falsity of the statements made (the key part usually precedes the commentary); an explanation, the purpose of which is to reveal, specify the stated content, establish the reliability of judgments regarding some obscure case (as a rule, the key part also comes first, then commenting). Let us give an example of the actual reasoning from the words of V. S. Solovyov, said at the grave of F. M. Dostoevsky; “We all came together here for the sake of our common love for Dostoevsky. But if Dostoevsky is so dear to all of us, it means that we all love what he himself loved most of all, what was dearest to him; so we believe in what he believed and what he preached. And why would we come here to honor his death, if we were alien to what he lived and acted for? But Dostoevsky loved, first of all, the living human soul in everything and everywhere, and he believed that we are all the race of God, he believed in the infinite divine power of the human soul, triumphant over all external violence and over any internal fall. This reasoning begins with a commentary part: the reasons that led everyone to the grave are revealed; then comes the main (key) part: what was Dostoevsky like, what did he believe in, and, consequently, what prompted him to come to say goodbye to him.

A special case of reasoning are common places - abstract reasoning, inspired by the topic of speech, not assigned to a specific situation, which reinforce the argumentation of the main presentation, are used to emotionally strengthen arguments and provisions. This is the reasoning for common topics, for example, about honesty and decency, justice and humanity, about the attitude towards people, etc. A well-chosen general idea serves as one of the main elements of the composition and a support for specific material; the connection of common places with specific material increases the content orientation of speech. Thus, commonplaces are a kind of reasoning.

For example, in the speech of the lawyer in the case of Lesina, who is accused of complicity in embezzlement, there is such common place on the work of the court: “The work of the court is often called creative. And they call it correctly, because special, very high and very complex requirements are presented to the court. To work creatively means not to skim the surface of life's phenomena, but to penetrate into the very core of these phenomena, to be able to find, though hidden, but the only true meaning. To work creatively means carefully, thoughtfully, avoiding mistakes and hasty conclusions, and restoring the real image of the defendant endowed with all life's originality. Some mistakenly believe that human science is the monopoly of literature. Human science is the most important science for the court, which no one teaches and which is always studied; it is a science that the court comprehends daily, from case to case. And she will help to understand Eva Mikhailovna Lesina more fully and better.

A common place can act as an argument, or argument, to prove a thesis. Such a role, for example, is played by three common places at the beginning of V. S. Solovyov’s speech, which he said at the Higher Women’s Courses on January 30, 1881, regarding the death of F. M. Dostoevsky: “In Dostoevsky, Russian society lost not only a poet or a writer, but but your spiritual leader.

While the historical process of the development of society is taking place, evil inevitably manifests itself, for the struggle against which there is a twofold kind of power: worldly and spiritual. The mundane limits the evil inclination to evil, fights it with punishments and violence, carrying out only some external order in society. The second power, spiritual, not recognizing this external order as an expression of unconditional truth, strives to realize this latter through internal spiritual power, so that evil is not limited only by the external order, but the completely conquered principle of good. And just as the highest worldly power in one way or another is concentrated in one person - the representative of the state, in the same way, the highest spiritual power in every era usually belongs in the whole people to one person, who most clearly strives for them, most strongly affects others with his preaching. Such a spiritual leader of the Russian people in recent times was Dostoevsky.

As long as the actual position of society is based on untruth and evil, while good and truth only strive to find their fulfillment, the position of such people is not the position of kings with their own power, but the position of prophets, often unrecognized. Their life is struggle and suffering. Such was the life of Dostoevsky<...>Dostoevsky entered the literary field with the story "Poor People"<...>. In the first general place, the idea of ​​temporal and spiritual power during the period of historical events is carried out, and on the basis of this it is concluded that Dostoevsky has recently been the spiritual leader of the Russian people.

The second common place is a discussion about good, evil and the position of the prophets, whose life is struggle and suffering. At the end - the conclusion: such was the life of Dostoevsky.

The third common place (not quoted here) is devoted to the development of the idea of ​​prophets who feel untruth and give their lives to fight against it, rising above the level of material life. The text of the speech is accompanied by an analysis of the life, fate and philosophical direction of the writer's work.

Anticipating this analysis, common places set the direction of the speaker's speech, being its compositional part.

Common places can act as a final conclusion, following a specific analytical part of speech.

functional sense types often act in a contaminated form, which leads to the emergence of new semantic shades and the formation of mixed types of oratory. For example, in judicial speech of the narrative type, while maintaining the meaning and function of the narrative, semantic shades of description or causal meanings of reasoning may appear. Let us give an example of such a contamination from V. D. Spasovich’s defense speech in the Dementiev case (refusal to obey the order of the lieutenant and insulting the latter): “There is a large house on Malaya Dvoryanskaya Street, occupied by the common people below; The mezzanine is occupied by Danilova and other tenants, then Dementiev lives on the mezzanine with his wife and daughter. Danilova has a dog, big and angry. From the verdict of the justice of the peace it is clear that she rushed at the children and frightened them. On April 5 this year, this dog terribly frightened the young daughter of Dementyev, whom her father passionately loves, for the sake of which he exchanged his freedom for military discipline. The girl was walking down the stairs on behalf of her parents; the dog attacked her, began to grab her by the heels. The youngster was frightened, bit her lip to the blood and rushed to run with a cry. At the cry of his daughter, the father ran out in what he was, in a shirt, in trousers, in boots, there was only a frock coat. He is a simple man, he is a lower rank, he often happened to walk in this way both in the yard and in the shop. And then there is no time to argue, the dog could be rabid. The dog is dragged into the apartment, he follows it, enters the hallway and declares: “Shame on you to keep such a dog.”<...>As for indecency, there are very different concepts. You treat a person of your circle differently than a person of a lower circle. Dementiev, the lower rank, knew his place in the house of the widow of the court adviser and did not go further than the front. Danilova was offended by the fact that a simple man entered her hall without a frock coat.<...>. In this fragment, all functional-semantic types of speech are present.

So, the functional and semantic types of speech in a speech usually alternate, one way or another replacing each other, which creates a special compositional and stylistic dynamics. For example, reasoning can prevail in an academic lecture, while description and narration occupy a large place in a legal speech.

As we can see, description, narration and reflection have constructive-stylistic and semantic differences that determine the use of these types in speech.

In functional and semantic terms, oratorical speech is regulated and systematized; the choice of one or another functional-semantic type depends on the object of speech and the purpose of the statement.

Oratory is polemical in nature, because it reflects the contradictions modern life and conflicts of communication. You can understand the organization of oratorical speech based on the positions it opposes, by comparing two (or more) speeches or different opinions, in other words, two or more plans that can be taken as thesis and antithesis (positive and negative plans).

In oratorical speech, a complex and systematic organization of counter-directional meaning, features of expression, and argumentative structure can be traced, which leads to its definition as specifically persuasive. Thus, the speaker builds his speech as a holistic opposing semantic plan, organizing the movement of speech as a complex expanded thought, starting from the opposite meaning.

N. P. Karabchevsky, in his defense speech in the case of the wreck of the steamer "Vladimir", speaks directly about the polemical nature of court speeches: “The normal type of criminal adversarial process is an open competition between two struggling parties, both of which have their visors raised. The prosecutor and the victim are one side, the defendant and the defender are the other. One attacks and strikes, the other reflects them. The present process is a somewhat different phenomenon. The fight is reminiscent of a crowd, as if a general dump of "various interests, seeking to evade the generally accepted conditions and rules of an open struggle. Here, the judges who decide the outcome of the struggle have to look both ways. You won’t even understand right away who is against whom, you need to figure it all out" .

Two types of polemicalness can be distinguished: 1) implicit (or hidden, internal) and 2) explicit (or open, external). The first type of polemicalness is manifested in almost all speeches, since the speaker has to convince the audience that he is right, without naming possible dissenting listeners or opponents who may be in this audience or outside it.

Explicit polemicism is associated with open defense of one's views and refutation of opponents. One can speak of an unreal opponent when the speaker, in an effort to express his views, refutes the existing ones, fights with an imaginary opponent. About the real - if the opponent is personified, named, meanings are formulated on his behalf that are subject to refutation.

Since explicit polemic is directed at a specific, real person, a controversy may arise between the speaker and this person if the latter publicly defends his views. Controversy is a bilateral (multilateral) public communication of speakers, a free exchange of opinions, a dispute in the process of discussing an issue at a meeting, conference, etc., as well as in the press in order to best solve the problems under consideration.

The polemical form of speech involves a thorough analysis of the original factual material, statistical data, scientific problems, the opinions of various people, etc., a rigorous argument based on this, as well as an emotional impact on the listener, which is necessary in the process of persuasion.

Let us cite as an example of such an analysis a fragment of a speech in defense of L. M. Gulak-Artemovskaya (accusation of forgery of bills): instincts, which, judging by the reviews of the brothers and Polevoy, Pastukhov did not reveal at all. And is the game of fools itself proven?

The prosecutor says in his speech: "We will prove them to you - we have books and figures." The defense sees for the first time a prosecutor who threatens to charge rather than bring them; but she is not afraid of threats and will meet the accusation<...>.

The prosecutor says that the signatures on the bills are not similar to the original signatures of Pastukhov, therefore, the bills are forged. As a lawyer, I must say that this "therefore" is somewhat premature.

Speakers use all possible means from a rich polemical arsenal: hints, irony, sarcasm, meaningful omissions, categorical value judgments, antithesis, comparisons, remarks, relief, “pictures” of speech, proverbs, sayings and other classical oratory techniques associated with speech counterplan. The credibility of a polemical speech largely depends on the arguments that substantiate the truth of the main idea, as well as on the degree to which facts and statements that do not require justification, previously made generalizations, exact quotations and statements are used as evidence.

Thanks to the polemical nature, the analytical side of the speech, its informative significance is enhanced, and the speaker's commentary position is manifested. The polemical nature of the speech is associated with a number of circumstances: there are always people in the audience who have the opposite point of view or are skeptical about the ideas of the author, and these people should be convinced; truths expressed in this form are easier for the audience to digest, activate the thought processes of the listeners; this form allows you to compare and evaluate different theories and thereby verify the authenticity of the judgment.

Let us dwell on a brief analysis of the dispute between A. V. Lunacharsky and Metropolitan A. I. Vvedensky on September 21, 1925. The report of A. V. Lunacharsky is the first and main one, which largely determined its structure. It is subordinated to the proof of the main thesis: “In this short preliminary report of mine, I want to dwell on one central idea<...>is there only one experiential world in which we live<...>, or next to it there is some other supersensible, invisible world that we must take into account<...>"(p. 290). This thesis is proved throughout the speech, in which implicit polemicism is mainly manifested, since the speaker proves his point of view only by assuming the opponent’s point of view and referring to him in his speech only three times: in the first case, he expresses confidence, in the next two he makes an assumption .

(1) “In the normal experience of a normal person, absolutely nothing speaks for the existence, apart from the real world, of some other “other world”<...>Meanwhile, and my opponent, of course, will not deny this, this line is constantly drawn, and this is the peculiarity of all kinds of mystical or idealistic ideas” (p. 290).

(2) “My opponent in his speech will almost certainly speak very high words about what a beautiful thing immortality, eternity, flight to God, striving for absolutism<...>"(p. 298).

(3) “My opponent, perhaps, will also refer to numerous learned people, for whom learning does not interfere with hoping for the Lord God and on his path, but I reject such an objection in advance and declare that scientists are not always complete scientists” (with .298).

In the first case (1) we can talk about the reception of polemical certainty, in the second and third (2, 3) - about the reception of polemical conjecture (forecasting the opponent's theses).

In the response speech of A. I. Vvedensky more than in the speech of A. V. Lunacharsky, explicit polemicalness is manifested, since the speaker not only sets out his point of view (which A. V. Lunacharsky did in his speech), but also defends his positions, as evidenced by the very beginning of the speech: “A little technical note. I received a number of notes yesterday and today regarding why I did not object to the fact that yesterday in closing remarks said Anatoly Vasilyevich. The fact is that the real dispute, as far as I know, arranged by the Leningrad Political Education, from which I received an invitation to speak here, is organized as a report by Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky, whose opponent I am, and, as an opponent, I do not have a word after the speech (final. - Ya. K.) of the speaker. That is why I did not object to Anatoly Vasilievich yesterday. This did not mean, of course, that I had nothing to object to him yesterday, but this, it seems to me, despite the numerous requests addressed to me, does not oblige me today to return to yesterday<...>I do not return to yesterday - let no one get angry - because yesterday I did not receive enough material for an objection ”(p. 299).

In this speech, the features of polemicality are fully manifested: the polemical “I” (a manifestation of egocentrism), the refutation of the opponent’s theses by logical evidence, operating with facts, references to research, parries, analogies, repetitions, comparisons, emphasizing the ethical forms of polemic (for example, referring to to the opponent "respected"; "dear Anatoly Vasilyevich"), etc.

Let's give some examples.

1. A parry that allows you to note the opponent’s unethical behavior: “Anatoly Vasilyevich wanted to jokingly give me several comparisons - from the Apostle Peter, below whom I was, to the camel, with which I was fully adequate. But, citizens, it seems to me that such zoological witticism offends me just as little as it adorns the one who uses it (Applause). That is why I believe that yesterday's concluding remarks by Anatoly Vasilyevich are an objection<...>obliges me to give a serious, as far as I can - I'm a lost man, I wear a cassock - answer ”(p. 299-300). Here we can also note the technique of self-abasement - deliberate humiliation, humiliation, belittling of oneself.

2. Bringing facts that the opponent deliberately ignores in order to “purity” his evidence: “Science, scientists recognize God. This fact seems highly unpleasant to the atheist, because the eminent representatives of science still speak openly about their confession of God. Indeed, in our day, Pasteur said that while working in his laboratory, he prays, because as his scientific experience accumulates, his faith grows.<...>. The same Planck, who was here at the academy celebration, in some of his works on physics quite definitely says that the modern development of physics should not only not eliminate the spiritual worldview, but, on the contrary, strengthen the spiritual worldview. These facts remain facts - stubborn and unpleasant for an atheist, and, therefore, they must be rejected - and the usual withdrawal is made: after all, these are bourgeois scientists ”(pp. 300-301).

3. Belittling the factual analysis of the opponent: “Citizens, the origin of religion is much deeper than it sometimes seems to an atheist. It seems to me that anti-religious propaganda is so weak here in the Soviet Union (this is not a paradox, I will prove it) because the anti-religious person is fighting (I am talking about the ordinary anti-religious and ordinary anti-religious literature) not with religion in its essence, not with religion. in her depths. From the sea of ​​religion they draw water with scoops, they measure the sea of ​​religion by the lots of their ingenuity. And it turns out that the sea is shallow, the bottom is close. In fact, the ocean of religion is boundless, and the atheist did not reach its bottom, because its yardstick, it was scooped up, its lot has too 1 short handle” (p. 302).

In his concluding remarks, A. V. Lunacharsky naturally sharpens and intensifies the polemical tone, ending his speech with the following reasoning: “Comrades, I am very pleased that the discussion does not end with our speech today. No discussion, no objection and counter-objection can ever be considered definitively convincing. Everyone has the feeling that the enemy would have hardly objected to the new words that came to mind, and in addition, the living argument that you hear during the evening is erased from your memory. Therefore, it is very good that our discussion will be published, verified by both disputants, that those who are really deeply interested in the questions posed and believe that this discussion sheds light on them can calmly read these and other arguments with a pencil in hand, and that each of us in the future - in those books that we will prepare - he will be able to dwell on the positions occupied by the enemy ”(pp. 318-319).

Polemicality is inherent, therefore, in any functional-semantic type of speech, since it is associated with persuasion.

Lecture No. 83 Functional-semantic types of speech

This lecture deals with issues related to the normative construction of sentences with separate members.

Functional-semantic types of speech

This lecture deals with issues related to the normative construction of sentences with separate members.

Lecture plan

83.1. Description.

83.2. Narration.

83.3. Reasoning.

83.1. Description

The text as a unit, primarily informative and communicative, needs the characteristics of its structure in terms of functional and semantic. Function and meaning, and not syntactic structures, create characterological features of the text. Therefore, it becomes necessary to pay attention to the ways of presenting the material in the text, and necessarily in relation to the nature of the textual information. To designate speech methods of transmitting information, there are terms - functional-semantic types of speech, types of presentation, methods of presentation.

Functional-semantic types of speech (FSTR) are communicatively conditioned typified varieties of monologue speech, which traditionally include:

• description,
• storytelling,
• reasoning.

Description is FSTR, the essence of which is to express the fact of the coexistence of objects, their attributes at the same time. The description serves for a detailed transfer of the state of reality, images of nature, terrain, interior, appearance.

For example:

“Kochanovskaya estate stands on the river, opposite the village. The manor is not rich - the house is covered with wood chips, on both sides the gate connects it with the outbuildings, in the left outbuilding there is a kitchen, in the right one there is a barn, a cowshed, a barn. One kitchen window overlooks the river, but you can’t see the river, the old hard raspberry tree props up the outbuilding ... "(K. Fedin. Shepherd)

Depending on the subject of speech, descriptive texts are divided into 1) landscape and 2) portrait .

For example:

1) It was a clear, blue lake with an unusual expression of water. A large cloud was completely reflected in the middle. On the other side, on a hill densely covered with woody greenery (which is the more poetic the darker), an old black tower rose straight from dactyl to dactyl.

2) He was a man of medium height, at first glance rather ugly and even clumsy, thin, with a sunken chest and downcast head. His face was small, pale reddish, his nose was irregular, as if flattened, his mouth was slightly twisted, especially when it opened, small frequent teeth; thick blond hair fell in a tuft on a white, beautiful, albeit low, forehead.

In landscape descriptions, specific words are often used, for example, a river, a village, a house, a gate, an outbuilding, a window, etc., and words of spatial significance, for example, on the river, against the village, far away, near.

In portrait descriptions, words that characterize a person (his height, age, overall appearance, condition, etc.) are used more often than others.

In the content of descriptive texts, the main thing is objects, properties, qualities, and not actions. Therefore, the main semantic load carry nouns and adjectives. Present tense verbs are often used, expressing a long-term state of an object or a “timeless” state (standing, connecting, propping up), verbs imperfect form past tense, indicating the state of the described phenomena at the time of observing them (turned white, bloomed).

Sometimes the semantic load in the description falls on the action, in this case they speak of a "dynamic description" - a type of transitional speech bordering on the narrative. The dynamic description conveys the flow of actions with small time intervals in a limited space. Dynamic description is often used to show external events, being a means of naturalistic reflection of reality (there is a special term for the naturalistic method of a very detailed description of an action with great accuracy in rendering details - “second style”). In addition, a dynamic description can serve as a means of sharp, subtle psychological sketches - when depicting the experience, the dynamics of the hero's internal state.

The dynamic description is widely presented in scientific texts(along with static description and reasoning), where it is used for a detailed, accurate depiction of actions performed during the experiment, experiment. The task of the author in this case is not to tell about the events unfolding at a certain time (which is typical for the narrative), but to describe the process, the stages of this process, usually regardless of the specific time.

For example:

« They take a prism of Icelandic spar ... The prism is sawn perpendicular to the plane ... Then both halves are glued together with Canadian balsam ...» (A.G. Stoletov. Introduction to acoustics and optics).

Elements of description are present in almost any text, while the description of an object, phenomenon, person depends on functional style speech, and on the type of text. In scientific and technical, official business speech the description is factual, in fiction - figurative.

83.2. Narration

Narration - FSTR, designed to depict a sequential series of events or the transition of an object from one state to another.

For example:

“And Dr. Startsev, Dmitry Ionych, when he had just been appointed a zemstvo doctor and settled in Dyalizh, nine miles from S., was also told that he, like intelligent person, you need to get acquainted with the Turkins. One winter in the street he was introduced to Ivan Petrovich; we talked about the weather, about the theater, about cholera, followed by an invitation. In the spring, on a holiday - it was the ascension - after receiving the sick, Startsev went to the city to have a little fun and, by the way, buy himself something. He walked slowly (he didn’t have his own horses yet), and sang all the time ... He dined in the city, took a walk in the garden, then somehow by itself Ivan Petrovich’s invitation came to his mind, and he decided to go to the Turkins to see what kind of people they are…”(A.P. Chekhov. Ionych).

In the foreground in the content of narrative fragments of the text is the order of the action. Each sentence usually expresses some stage, stage in the development of the action, in the movement of the plot. In this case, events can be transmitted both in direct, chronological order, and in reverse - the reader can first learn about the denouement, and then about the action itself.

In the narrative, the main semantic load is usually performed by perfective verbs, prefixed and non-prefixed (settled, introduced, talked, went, dined, walked, decided, etc.), which denote actions that are limiting, changing. The narrative is characterized by specific vocabulary (doctor, patients, horses, city, garden). The course of events is accentuated by means of the circumstances of time (just now, somehow in winter, in spring, on a holiday, after receiving patients).

In terms of the use of syntactic constructions and types of connection of sentences, the narrative is opposed to the description, which is manifested, in particular, in the following:

1) in the difference in the aspectual-temporal forms of verbs - the description is based mainly on the use of forms of the imperfective aspect, the narrative is perfect;

2) in the predominance of a chain connection of sentences in the narrative - a parallel connection is more characteristic of the description;

3) in use one-part sentences- nominative sentences, impersonal sentences widely presented in descriptive contexts are atypical for the narrative.

Narration is a type of speech that functions primarily in literary texts and forms a story about events, the system of which makes up the plot of a work.

Narrative texts in their pure form are very rare. In artistic and visual speech (fiction, texts of some genres of journalism - reportage, essay, informative and expressive notes, texts-stories in colloquial style) elements of descriptiveness and narrative are organically combined. The description is included in the narrative for a visual-figurative representation of the characters, the place of action.

83.3. reasoning

Reasoning - FSTR, the main purpose of which is the presentation, explanation, confirmation of any thought. In other words, reasoning is used when it is necessary to give a reasoned character to speech (to come to a new judgment in a logical way or to argue what was said earlier).

Reasoning as a textual phenomenon was formed in scientific speech, because scientific speech is characterized by a logical, rational type of thinking. It is thanks to the scientific style that the Russian literary language in the process of its development was enriched by reasoning in its most “pure” form.

For example:

“Under the action of an electromagnetic wave, an atom with equal probability can go both to a higher and a lower energy state ... In the first case, the wave will be weakened, in the second, it will be amplified. If the paramagnet is in thermal equilibrium, the atoms are distributed among the sublevels in accordance with Boltzmann's law ... Therefore, the number of atoms in a state with a lower energy exceeds the number of atoms in a state with a higher energy. Therefore, transitions occurring with an increase in the energy of atoms will prevail over transitions occurring with a decrease in energy. As a result, the intensity of the wave will decrease - the paramagnet absorbs electromagnetic radiation, as a result of which it heats up. It follows from the foregoing that electron paramagnetic resonance is a selective absorption of radio frequency field energy in paramagnetic substances in a constant magnetic field..

A special place in the scientific style is occupied by subtypes of reasoning, which serve to give the expressed judgments a more reasoned character:

• proof - communicative-cognitive function - establishing the truth of the thesis,
• refutation - a type of evidence that serves to establish the falsity of the thesis,
• confirmation - or empirical evidence, function - establishing the reliability of the stated position by supporting it with facts,
• justification - establishing the expediency of action, motivation.

Explanation should be attributed to a special subtype of reasoning. Unlike the named subtypes of reasoning, the explanation serves, first of all, not to confirm the validity of the thesis (or to establish its falsity), but to reveal the causes of real phenomena.

For example:

“It is interesting to note that the sharp edges of the shaped profiles of the holes become smoothed in the fiber, and if the size of the details of the profiled hole is not very large, then the fiber turns out to be of a circular cross section, i.e., the same as with a round hole. This happens because surface tension forces act on the liquid jet ... "(S.P. Papkov. Polymeric fibrous materials).

In the texts of other styles, an adaptation of the reasoning to the specifics of the style is found.

Strictly logical detailed reasoning is not typical for artistic, journalistic, official business texts.

In literary texts, reasoning appears in the form of its emotional variant - free reflection. Literary texts do not use evidence. The laxity of the form of speech, the ease of reflection help to create an atmosphere of intimate communication between the author and the reader, which is characteristic of the artistic sphere. Besides, in work of art reasoning performs a purely communicative function - it makes what is depicted more visual, psychologically more reliable, helps the reader to feel internal state hero.

For example:

« He stood with his hands on the back of the seat, and was obviously very agitated: his face was red, and a muscle twitched on his cheek.... "(L.N. Tolstoy. Kreutzer Sonata).

In journalistic texts, reasoning performs the function of preparing, leading the reader to a certain conclusion, but here, unlike scientific speech, this subtype of reasoning, even with its large volume, as a rule, is not a chain of judgments that logically follow from one another, but information followed by conclusion. For journalism focused on the mentality of an educated, intelligent addressee, argumentative types of speech are fundamentally important, since they ensure the implementation of the main communicative function of journalism - persuasive influence. However, the task of persuasion is solved in journalism not by means of proof itself, i.e. not by strict logical procedures, as in scientific speech. In journalistic texts, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, confirmation of their facts is used.

For example:

Where have the “rulers of thoughts” and “engineers of human souls” gone? No matter how one treats the Soviet past, no one can dispute the fact that then literature was really a tribune of public consciousness, public opinion. And in those days, already quite far from us, the appearance of any significant work, both in aesthetic and socio-political terms, immediately caused a certain resonance.

Other works, being under an unspoken or open ban, were passed from hand to hand, read at night.

But we all wanted freedom. We got it, and all of a sudden, literature in the sense I'm talking about disappeared. That is, there is literature, I know it. There are talented writers, there are works, and for different tastes. But literature has ceased to be a phenomenon of social life in the deep and serious sense of the word. The mass reader is now fascinated by Marinina, Akunin, Dashkova, and so on... But where are our event books? What happened to literature?

In official business texts, in general, the frequency of the use of reasoning is insignificant. Due to the specifics of this style, its extralinguistic basis - its purpose in society, regulating the functions of reasoning cannot be a systemic feature of official business speech. In some genres, certain types of reasoning are presented (for example, substantiation is typical for statements and claims), but there is not a single subtype of reasoning that would be used in business texts of all genres (at least genres within one substyle). In addition, subtypes of reasoning function here specifically, reflecting the peculiarities of the style.

Outline of the lesson of the Russian language in grade 10
Popova L.Yu., teacher of Russian language and literature

Topic: Characteristics of functional and semantic types of speech. Structure. Linguistic and stylistic features. Function. The semantic basis of the type of speech.

The objectives of the lesson: deepening knowledge about the functional and semantic types of speech, structure, linguo-stylistic features, functions, semantic basis of speech types. Consolidation of text analysis skills of different styles and types of speech, text analysis skills with different types of speech in one text.
Methods and techniques: deepening previously studied material, text analysis; verbal, visual, practical. Application of computer technologies.
Class type: lesson-research, stylistic experiment.
Equipment: multimedia installation, table “How to determine the type of speech (memo).

Lesson progress
Organizing time. Reporting the topic of the lesson, getting to know additional literature on this topic, handout, table.
Examination homework. Analysis of the figurative means of the language in the proposed text (According to Belov). Blitz survey on the topic studied in the previous lesson “Descriptive and expressive means of language, stylistic figures. Stylistic coloring of the word (stylistic connotations).
Learning new material.
Consolidation of the studied material.
Summary of the lesson.
-Our speech (theme, compositional and linguistic design, etc.) depends both on the goal, motive, circumstances of communication, and on the situation being described. All the diversity of the content of our statements can ultimately be reduced to three types:
the world in statics, perceived objectively, at the same time;
the world in dynamics, perceived in motion, in time;
world in cause and effect relationships.
In the first case, the statement is realized in the form of a description, in the second - in the form of a narrative; in the third - in the form of reasoning.
Consider character traits these functional-semantic types of speech.
(Students write notes)

DESCRIPTION

Description - a functional-semantic type of speech, which consists in depicting a number of signs, phenomena, objects or events that must be imagined at the same time.
The world is static. To the text, you can ask the question - what is the object?
The basis of the description is a list, enumeration of signs, properties of an object, phenomenon. The purpose of the description is for the reader (listener) to see the subject of the description, to present it in his mind.
Description structure:
general idea of ​​the subject;
scroll hallmarks subject;
author's assessment, conclusion, conclusion.
Main types of descriptions
Most often they talk about scientific, business and artistic descriptions. A scientific, business description is a description that gives a list of essential features of an object, a concept of its properties. In descriptions of a scientific nature, the main thing is accuracy, logical consistency. Business descriptions are instructions, announcements. Artistic descriptions are descriptions where images of images and impressions predominate. The main thing here is to give a vivid idea of ​​the subject, while not necessarily exhaustive, complete.
Description functions
Descriptions can be portrait, landscape, event. An important function of description is the creation of figurative pictures: the situation, the atmosphere of events, which is often achieved by the selection of bright details, a long enumeration of them.
Linguistic and stylistic features of the description
The relationship between sentences is usually parallel. First - the first sentence or paragraph as the starting point. All other sentences are related in meaning to the first one, concretizing it. These sentences are less closely related or not grammatically related at all. Each sentence is relatively independent.
The unity of the species-temporal forms of verbs-predicates is characteristic. Verbs are most often in the form of an imperfect form, more often the past tense, and for special clarity - in the form of the present tense. In the description, verbs do not denote a successive change of events, but the simultaneity of what is happening. If the verbs are of the perfect form, then usually with the meaning of a sign, and not an active action. characteristic syntactic parallelism. The use of nominal predicates, nominal and impersonal sentences is frequent. The description uses more words denoting qualities, properties of objects. Widely used synonyms, definitions, incomplete sentences.
An example artistic description can serve as an excerpt from the story of I.A. Bunin "Antonov apples". Working with this text It is necessary to prove that the text is of type description.
(In the process of joint analysis of the text with students, we conclude that the text is a type of speech description)
The aunt's garden was famous for its neglect, nightingales, doves and apples, and the house for its roof. He stood at the head of the yard, near the garden, - linden branches hugged him, - he was small and squat, but it seemed that he would not live forever - he looked so thoroughly from under his unusually high and thick thatched roof, blackened and hardened with time. Its front façade always seemed to me alive: it was as if an old face was looking out from under a huge hat with hollow eyes, windows with mother-of-pearl glasses from rain and sun. And on the sides of these eyes were porches - two old large porches with columns. Fully fed doves always sat on their pediment, while thousands of sparrows rained from roof to roof And the guest felt comfortable in this nest under the turquoise autumn sky.
M. Prishvin "The First Frost". Working with this text It is necessary to prove that the text is of type description.
The night passed under a large clear moon, and by morning the first frost fell. Everything was gray, but the puddles did not freeze. When the sun came up and warmed up, the trees and grasses were covered with such strong dew, the fir branches looked out of the dark forest with such luminous patterns that the diamonds of all our land would not be enough for this decoration. The pine queen, sparkling from top to bottom, was especially beautiful. Joy jumped in my chest like a young dog.

NARRATORY

Narration is a story, a message about an event in its temporal sequence.
The world in dynamics - tells about actions and events in a certain time sequence. The narrative text develops in time, has a plot, characters. You can ask the question to the text - what happened?
The basis of the narrative is a story about events, actions, deeds. To narrate means to tell about what is happening, to report events in a certain sequence.

Text structure:
The plot is the beginning of a contradiction (conflict) that forms the basis of the plot, the initial episode, the moment that determines the sequential deployment of the action.
The main part: the development of the action, the climax is the highest point of tension in the development of the action.
The denouement is the outcome of events, the resolution of contradictions (conflict).
Narrative functions are diverse, associated with the individual style, genre, subject of the image.
Linguistic and stylistic features of the narration
The connection between sentences is chain. Sentences are maximally dependent on each other, especially adjacent ones: they are related to each other on the basis of either lexical repetition, or with the help of demonstrative and other pronouns, or synonymous replacement.
The story can be told in the first person or in the third person.
We find the author's narration, for example, in A.I. Kuprin's story "Olesya". Working with this text It is necessary to prove that the text is a narrative type.
(In the process of joint analysis of the text with students, we conclude - a text of the type of speech is a narrative)
I was writing a letter one day and suddenly I felt that someone was standing behind me. Turning around, I saw Yarmola approaching, as always, soundlessly in his soft sandals.
- What do you want, Yarmola? I asked.
- Yes, I'm surprised how you write. If only I could. No, no, not like you,” he hurried in embarrassment, seeing that I was smiling. - I would only have my last name
-Why do you need it? - I was surprised. Why do you need to be able to write a surname?
And you see, what a deal, panych, - Yarmola answered unusually softly, - there is not a single literate person in our village. When you need to sign some kind of paper, or it’s a matter in the volost, or something no one can do, the headman only puts a seal, but he himself does not know what is printed in it, It would be good for everyone if someone could sign.
Such solicitude of Yarmola - a notorious poacher, a careless vagabond, whose opinion the village assembly would never even think to consider - such concern for the public interest of his native village for some reason touched me. I myself offered to give her lessons. And what hard work it was, all my attempts to teach him to read and write consciously.

REASONING

Reasoning - verbal presentation, clarification of any thought; aims to clarify some concept; develop, prove, or disprove an idea.
The world in cause-and-effect relationships - the causes of phenomena and events are outlined. In general, a thesis is proved or refuted, a conclusion or generalization is made. To the text, you can ask the question - why?
The basis of reasoning is a listing of facts, arguments that substantiate the conclusion to which the author seeks to lead the reader.
Reasoning structure:
thesis is the main idea.
proof (or refutation) of this idea, i.e. arguments with examples.
conclusion or conclusion.
The main area of ​​use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. However, reasoning is also widely encountered in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose. Reasoning can be constructed as a proof of the truth or, conversely, the falsity of the thesis put forward. The argument may contain all the elements (thesis, proof, conclusion), or there may be no conclusion that is already contained in the thesis.
Linguistic and stylistic features of reasoning
In the text between the thesis and arguments, as well as between individual arguments, a logical and grammatical connection is established. All facts presented must be convincing and confirm the thesis put forward.
The relationship between sentences is mixed. Characteristic is the use of verbs in the form of the present or future tense, perhaps the presence in the text of impersonal verbs or personal verbs in impersonal form.
An example of reasoning is an excerpt from the story of K.G. Paustovsky “The Art of Seeing the World” (book “ Golden Rose"). Working with text, it is necessary to prove that the text is a type of reasoning.
(In the process of joint analysis of the text with students, we draw a conclusion - the text of the type of speech is reasoning)
The knowledge of poetry enriches the language of the prose writer most of all.
Poetry is amazing. She returns the word to its original, virgin freshness. The most erased, completely “spoken” words by us, having completely lost their figurative qualities for us, living only as a verbal shell, in poetry begin to sparkle, ring, and smell sweet!
How to explain this, I do not know. I suppose that the word comes to life in two cases.
First, when he gets back his phonetic (sound power). And to do this in melodious poetry is much easier than in prose. Therefore, both in a song and in a romance, words act on us more strongly than in ordinary speech.
Secondly, even an erased word, placed in verse in a melodic musical sequence, is, as it were, saturated with the general melody of the verse and begins to sound in harmony with all other words.
And finally, poetry is rich in alliterations. This is one of her precious qualities. Prose has the right to alliteration.
But that's not the point.
The main thing is that prose, when it reaches perfection, is essentially, genuine poetry.

Teacher: It should be noted that the types of speech considered are rarely found in isolation. Most often in the text fragments different types speeches are presented in conjunction, and sometimes in such close proximity that it is difficult to distinguish between them. Consider an excerpt from A.P. Chekhov's story "A House with a Mezzanine".
Task: It is necessary to determine the type of speech of the given text. Work with text.
(The context begins with a declarative sentence and immediately turns into a description).

One day, returning home, I accidentally wandered into some unfamiliar estate. The sun was already hiding, and evening shadows were stretched on the flowering rye. Two rows of old, closely planted firs stood like two solid walls, forming a gloomy beautiful alley.
(Next follows the narration again):
I easily climbed over the fence and walked along this alley, sliding along the spruce needles, which here covered the ground by an inch.

(Then again the description):
It was quiet, dark, and only high on the peaks in some places a bright golden light trembled and shimmered like a rainbow in the webs of a spider. There was a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles.

Work on the table "How to determine the type of speech" (memo), we use a multimedia installation.

HOW TO DEFINE THE TYPE OF SPEECH (MEMO)

The function of speech (description - describe; narration - tell; reasoning - prove).
The semantic basis of the type of speech (the simultaneity of phenomena, signs - in the description; the sequence of phenomena, actions - in the narrative; causal relationship - in reasoning).
The nature of the message (an enumeration of simultaneous, constant signs, phenomena - in the description; a message about changing, successive actions - in the narrative; a message in the form of a conclusion, evidence - in the argument).
Characteristic features of the type of speech:
static - in the description;
dynamism - in the story;
the presence of a provision that needs to be proven.
Language signs:
verbs in one form of tense, definitions - in the description;
Verbs different forms time, moods - in the narrative;
introductory words, unions, impersonal verbs- in discussion.
Description - WHAT IS IT?
Narrative - WHAT'S HAPPENING?
Reasoning - THESIS - JUSTIFICATION - CONCLUSION

Summary of the lesson. Generalization of the studied material.
Homework: determine the type of speech of the text (According to Belov).

Original text for homework

(1) The winter, defeated by April, is gone, worn out. (2) Here, in the disturbing darkness, the universal, no longer layered, but tight, dense heat was born and moved, turning itself into a powerful and even wind. (3) The trees ready to bloom trembled, the clouds darkening in the sky collided with their broad foreheads. (4) Dim spring lightning fell into the warm darkness of the forest, and the first crackling thunder boldly swept.
(5) A terrible silence languishes in the forest after this roar. (6) The wind does not blow, but presses completely, everything freezes.
(7) The rain hissed in the night profusely and briefly. (8) Everywhere in the scurrying, disappearing crown of the head, the earth smelling of roots is snuffling: grass sprouts are stirring in myriad numbers, raising and plowing open last year's leaves, needles and rotting twigs.
(9) In the morning, golden pillars of vapor rise in the clearings of the forest; like good signs, they silently and quickly change their gigantic contours. (10) On the birches, the branches come to life barely audibly; from bursting buds, they also change. (11) The sun comes out very quickly. (12) Furiously new, with indefinite outlines, it warms the still pale, but thickening with every minute green birch forest. (13) The birds sing excitedly, the earth continues to sniff and squeak, everything changes its image every minute. (14) Everywhere in the world life and freedom, and the heart sympathizes. (15) May there be no end to freedom and joy! .. (According to Belov)

Depending on the content of what we say, philologists divide our speech into three types of functional-semantic speech: reasoning, description, narration. Each of them has its own distinctive features.

In our outer speech shell, in its unique structure much depends precisely on the task that we set ourselves in the presentation of thoughts. It is one thing to talk about something, it is quite another to describe some object or area, and the third is to interpret, explain something. Of course, in each of the above cases, the system will constantly change. For far from the first century, scientists have been trying to develop the great and powerful language of Mother Russia. Over all these centuries, the most expressive methods, schemes for certain literary tasks, as well as various verbal structures, have been developed.

Actually, because of this, such functional and semantic types of speech stand out “from the crowd”: description, narration, reasoning. In the field of linguistics they are called functional-semantic types of Russian speech.

Linguists explain the selection of only three types by the fact that all studies were carried out purely for literary and artistic speech. In the event that we have in mind absolutely all diverse texts, the list of such functional and semantic types can increase significantly. So did V. V. Odintsov, who added to the narrative, reasoning, description also a definition (in other words, an explanation). It is difficult to call his actions somehow wrong or something like that, because he is, in fact, right. But now we will not talk about Odintsov, but about functional and semantic types of speech.

Description

A description in linguistics is a functional-semantic type of speech that describes any image, action, object or appearance of the hero (face, eyes, etc.). Take, for example, the case when we describe a portrait. Our attention focuses on the following features: posture and gait, height, eye and hair color, age, clothes, smile, and so on. When describing a room, we indicate its size, appearance, wall decoration, furniture features, number of doors and windows, and much more. If we describe the landscape, the main features will be trees, grass, rivers, sky, lakes, and so on. The common and main thing for all types of description, which will be discussed in more detail a little later, is the simultaneity of all signs. It is important to know that the role of description, as a functional and semantic type of speech, is that a person reading a particular work can imagine the subject described in the text.

As you know, the description is used in all speech styles of the Russian language, but not everything is so simple. In the scientific style, the description of the subject should be extremely complete and specific, but in the artistic text, the emphasis is on the brightest details. It is because of this that the language means of artistic and scientific styles are very different. In a literary text, one can find not only nouns and adjectives, but also adverbs, verbs, common comparisons and words used in a figurative sense.

reasoning

Reasoning, as a functional-semantic type of speech, is a verbal explanation or presentation that confirms or refutes a certain thought (guess).

The composition of this type of functional-semantic speech, like reasoning, is very simple. In the first part of the text there is some kind of thesis - a certain thought, by the end of the text that needs to be proved or refuted. In the second part of such a text, the author must substantiate the thought expressed in the first part, give arguments and evidence, supported by some examples. In the last (third) part of the text, the author draws a conclusion and completes his thought.

The thesis of this type of text must be clearly proven (so that no questions arise), clearly formulated, and the arguments and evidence are convincing in order to refute or prove the thesis put forward earlier. The thesis and its arguments are connected both logically and grammatically. For the correct grammatical connection between the proof (arguments) and the main thesis, most often the authors use introductory words: finally, therefore, firstly, secondly, thirdly, thus and others. In the reasoning text, sentences containing the following conjunctions are often used: despite the fact that, although, however, as well as others.

Narration

Narration is a functional and semantic type of speech, a story or message about an event with all temporal sequences. The narrative has its own peculiarity, which lies in the fact that each subsequent event follows from the previous one. All narrative texts (stories) are merged general scheme: the beginning of a certain event (in other words, the plot of the story), the development of the plot, the ending (denouement). The uniqueness of the narrative is that it can be conducted both in the first and in the third person.

Most often in narrative texts, the author uses a variety of perfective verbs in the past tense. However, in order to give the text expressiveness, others are used along with those verbs. The imperfect verb also in the past tense allows the author to highlight one certain action, while denoting its exact duration. Verbs in the present tense make it possible to present all the actions of the story in the form that everything is happening in reality (right in front of the reader). Forms of verbs with the particle "how" give the text a special surprise of a certain moment. Narration, as a functional and semantic type of speech, is most often used in such genres as letters and memoirs.

Description examples

To fully understand what a description is, to learn how to recognize it in the text, we need examples that we will now give. Example number 1 (description of the estate):

“Kochanovskaya estate is located on the river, opposite a small village. The estate is not rich at all, rather, even poor - the building is covered with wood chips, the gate connects the house with several outbuildings. The kitchen is on the left; barn, barn and barn - on the right. The largest window overlooks the river, but the river is not visible. Growing next to the house beautiful trees and bushes…

It is worth noting that the description may also include a sequence of so-called elliptical and nominative constructions. This creates the nominative style of presenting the text, which has become so popular lately, in which various scenes from the cinema are most vividly presented. dramatic works and entries resembling a diary. An example is the following text:

“A huge room, a corner of a building; our heroine lived here for more than ten years, and now she spends in this place most of your day. A rather large table for work, in front of it is a light armchair with an incredibly hard seat. A very large closet, a bright map and some other portrait are on the left side of the room ... "

Types of description

As mentioned above, the description is used in a detailed story about a phenomenon, a portrait, if necessary, give a certain characteristic in order to show a holistic image of a particular hero. As you already know, functional-semantic types of speech (description, reasoning and narration) are an integral part of the Russian language, and now more about types of speech types of description.

In all texts of this type, the authors almost always present readers with static pictures that are taking shape in our head in small pieces. The author always lists the objects, some of their features, a detailed description, due to which we imagine this or that situation (picture, landscape, etc.) in our head while reading. If you think a little, you can understand that in each next sentence of the text, some features of what was discussed in the previous one are clarified - this, by the way, is the main feature of the descriptive text. When writing them, you must strictly adhere to the following structure:

1. Introduction (first impression).
2. Description of all the details around.
3. Conclusion (assessment of events, final conclusion).

For several years now, there have been several specific types of descriptive text:

• description of the surrounding nature;
• environment;
• a description that characterizes the personality of a particular person;
• portrait description.

This type is used in various areas of our life, and its parameters depend on the point of view of the author or the narrator, the style of writing, the genre of the text, and much more.

Reasoning example

Reasoning, as a functional and semantic type of speech in the Russian language, plays an important role in such a popular communicative and cognitive process. The type of speech now in question is pure inference latest knowledge, and also simply demonstrates both the author's train of thought and the way to solve the problem that has arisen. If you pay attention to the structure of such texts, you can understand that the story is a kind of chain of sequentially connected sentences. Example:

“Under the influence of various electromagnetic waves, an atom can go into a reduced energy state or vice versa, and the probability of one or the other outcome is equal. In the second case, the magnetic waves themselves will begin to weaken, and in the first situation, they will increase. In the case when the so-called paramagnet is located in a warm equilibrium, atomic particles slowly begin to be distributed over certain sublevels. This happens in accordance with the world-famous Boltzmann law. From the foregoing, it follows that the number of atomic units that are there in less energy, simply greatly exceeds the number of those atoms that have more energy.

Storytelling Example

Narrative texts reveal certain events that are related to each other. Sentences in narrative texts tell about a particular action, phenomenon, event, etc., but do not describe what is happening in any way. For example:

“In the Moscow region, a special interdepartmental operation called “Help a Child” was launched not so long ago. According to the plans made, it can be understood that the creators (organizers) want to help children who cannot obtain a certificate or passport of a citizen Russian Federation. In addition, specialists from the regions of the entire state with great pleasure agreed to help the parents of the children obtain the necessary documents ... "

In short, a narrative is considered a specific story about something - it is a kind of news presented in a magazine or book.

It is important to note that the narrative is considered the main (main) part of the entire text. Many philosophers argue that narration in literature plays the most important role, narration is the soul of all Russian literature. A writer is only a person who is able to present the material to the reader in an exciting and interesting way, and with the help of the narrative mood, this can be done much better.

In narrative texts, the date of what is happening is always accurately indicated, and sometimes also the time, which makes reading such texts much more interesting, because it seems that everything happened exactly as it is told in the book.

Trinity

Taking absolutely any work, and then scrolling through several dozen pages, you will find only three currently known types of Russian speech. This is especially true for novels. No one can write such a work without such functional and semantic types of speech as narration, reasoning and, of course, description. One way or another, in one of its forms, each type occurs in any text. However, some authors try to write a work using only one functional-semantic type of speech, which, of course, they still sometimes succeed, but it is simply impossible to read the text in this spirit. Even if you think about it, who wants to read 200 pages of a story that makes no sense, but it is about some building. The author describes one building on 200 pages - it's terribly boring. Few will want to read this, because most readers love dynamic stories with elements of character description, with certain suspicions, guesses that are revealed only at the end of the work.

The works, based only on the description, can easily be called "booklets" that are given out on every corner of your town. It is simply impossible to build an interesting and intriguing text on the description of something, and if something works out, then it is unlikely that anyone will like it. Therefore, functional-semantic types of speech are distinguished in the Russian literary language. Which ones, we examined in the article.

Functional-semantic types of speech - description, narration, reasoning - are used by authors when writing works. Some creators consider the description the most “inconvenient”, because it is impossible to create a masterpiece using only it. But, for example, you can write an interesting text about something in the style of narration or reasoning, and it is likely that many will like it. Functional-semantic types of speech are distinguished according to certain criteria, which were discussed in the article.

If you still want to read a work in a certain style, no one can forbid you to do this, but it’s better not to waste time on this, but to find a text in which the author used all three types of speech, you will really like this work.

Conclusion

It is worth noting that the problem of the Russian language, which was touched upon in the article, is of great importance in the lives of people who speak their own language. mother tongue. Many do not know at all what functional-semantic types of speech are, but this is the basis of the Russian language.

Now let's talk a little more about the development of a person's personality. Any process, including the development of a person's personality, the development of the ability to communicate with other people, is simply impossible when a person does not know the styles and functional-semantic types of speech. If people do not know how to analyze what they read, they cannot determine the type of this or that text, then what kind of development of mankind can we talk about? Everyone should be able to write texts using all three types of speech: description, narration and reasoning.

Well, now we can repeat that the functional-semantic types of monologue speech, expressed by some language means, are divided into three types: description, narration and reasoning. Detailed information about each of the types you can find in this article.

The functional-semantic types of speech and their examples, as well as the types into which they are divided, were listed above.