Functional semantic types of speech description. What are the functional-semantic types of speech

29.09.2019

In appearance speech, in its structure, a lot depends on the task that the speaker sets himself, on the purpose of speech. Indeed, it is one thing to describe something, for example, autumn, a forest, mountains, a river, another thing is to talk about an event, an adventure, a third thing is to explain, interpret the causes of any phenomena - natural or social. Of course, in each of these cases, the structure of speech will change significantly. Centuries (if not millennia) of the development of language, thinking, and speech have developed the most expressive, economical and precise methods, schemes, verbal structures for the corresponding literary tasks. Therefore, such important, essential components of speech as description, narration, reasoning have long been distinguished, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of speech, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose of speech and its meaning.

This division dates back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, who considered these components in the section of private rhetoric as separate types of prose or elements of a prose composition.

The allocation of only three types is explained by the fact that the study of texts did not go beyond the scope of literary and artistic speech. If we keep in mind the whole variety of texts, then the list of functional and semantic types of speech can be expanded. So does, for example, V.V. Odintsov, who adds a definition (explanation) to the description, narration, reasoning, a characteristic as a kind of description and a message as a variant of narration.

Let us consider each of the functional-semantic types of speech separately, and then joint use.

Description

Description- one of the most common components of monologue author's speech. In logical terms, to describe an object, a phenomenon means to list its features.

"Description," we read in P.S. Kogan's "Theory of Literature" (1915), "consists in depicting a whole series of features, phenomena, objects, or events that must be imagined all at the same time."

Allocate static description, which interrupts the development of the action, and dynamic description- usually small in scope, which does not pause the action when included in the event. For example, the landscape is given through the perception of the character in the course of his movement ("Steppe" by A.P. Chekhov). Description as a type of speech depends on the point of view of the author or narrator, on the genre, style, the author's belonging to a particular literary movement.

AT fiction, journalism, description is the most important element of speech, which allows you to vividly, vividly, visually, figuratively present an object, person, event, phenomenon. Here characteristic example from the memoirs of K.I. Chukovsky about Repin:

Meanwhile, winter came. And the winter Kuokkala was not at all like the summer one. Summer Kuokkala, noisy, smart, colorful, teeming with fashionable dandies, multi-colored ladies' umbrellas, ice-cream workers, carriages, flowers, children, all disappeared with the onset of the first frosts and immediately turned into a deserted, gloomy, abandoned by everyone. In winter it was possible to go through it all, from the station to the sea, and not meet a single person. For the winter, all the dachas were boarded up, and only the janitors remained with them, sleepy, gloomy people who rarely got out of their cramped and stuffy lairs ...

Description as a type of speech is closely connected with the person (portraitization), with the place, as in the example just given (stage character), with the conditions (situation) in which the action takes place. Descriptions can be portrait, landscape, event, etc. Weaving into the author's speech, they perform a variety of stylistic functions.

Thus, the landscape description depicts the atmosphere of the action. It either coincides with the inner world of the hero, or is dissonant with it, given by contrast. The range of shades here is very diverse.

The ocean roared behind the wall in black mountains, the blizzard whistled strongly in the heavy gear, the steamer trembled all over, overcoming both it and these mountains, - as if with a plow, tearing apart their unsteady, now and then boiling and foamy tails, huge masses, the siren choked with mist moaned in mortal anguish, the watchmen on their watch tower froze from the cold and went crazy from the unbearable strain of attention, to the gloomy and sultry bowels of the underworld, its last, ninth circle was like the underwater womb of the steamer, - the one where the gigantic furnaces devouring with their red-hot mouths of heaps of coal, with a roar thrown into them, drenched in acrid, dirty sweat and waist-deep naked people, purple from the flames; and here, in the bar, they carelessly threw their legs on the arms of their chairs, sipped cognac and liqueurs, floated in waves of spicy smoke, everything in the dance hall shone and poured out light, warmth and joy, couples either spun in waltzes, or bent into tango - and the music insistently, in sweet, shameless sadness, she prayed all about one thing, all about the same ... (I.A. Bunin).

The landscape can also recreate a cheerful, cheerful major picture, as in Pushkin's poem "Winter Morning":

Frost and sun; wonderful day!

You are still dozing, my lovely friend, -

It's time, beauty, wake up!

Open eyes closed by bliss

Towards the northern Aurora,

Be the star of the north!

Evening, do you remember, the blizzard was angry,

There was a haze in the cloudy sky:

The moon is like a pale spot

Turned yellow through the gloomy clouds,

And you sat sad -

And now... look out the window.

Under blue skies

splendid carpets,

Shining in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river under the ice glitters.

An important function of description is the creation of figurative pictures: the situation, the atmosphere of events, which is often achieved by selecting bright details, listing them long:

Farewell, witness of fallen glory,

Petrovsky castle. Well! don't stand

Let's go! Already the pillars of the outpost

Turn white; here on Tverskaya

The wagon rushes through the potholes.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

This description from "Eugene Onegin" expressively paints a picture fast driving. And the main means of imagery is enumeration, in which there are booths and women, boys and lanterns nearby. This is how Tatyana Larina perceives the situation from a rapidly rushing cart.

It is difficult to name all the stylistic functions of description in work of art- they are too diverse and depend on the individual style, genre, specific segment of the text in which the description is used. But it is important to emphasize that description is always an essential component of the verbal and artistic fabric.

A somewhat different character has a description in journalism. Let's take as an example an excerpt from M. Sturua's report "Morning Star over Ferrindon Road":

I know Ferrindon Road as flaky. This comparison is arbitrary. On it, most of the houses have peeling facades. This is usually warehouses, offices, garages, workshops. Here the London Underground comes to the surface and runs in a dry bed of a non-existent river, past the warehouses of the company that produces the famous English jeep brand "Boots". The bare urban picture is brightened up only by a string of carts on which second-hand booksellers lay out their unique goods - books touched by the golden yellowness of time. The salesmen - old men and women in blue coats and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains.

This is the first paragraph, the beginning of the report. The purpose of the description is to introduce the reader into the situation of the action, to make him a spectator, an eyewitness of what is happening. The description is given not "detached", objectified, but through the perception of the author, directly and openly revealing his I narrator (I know Ferrindon Road as flaky.) The subjective, emotional nature of the description brings the reader closer to the situation of events, making the description an element of reporting. Here I-not a kind of stylization, not an artistic device, but a genuine I author, journalist. This is what distinguishes a reportage or, more broadly, publicistic description from a fictional one, where it is plausible, but does not have the character of authenticity, reliability, being colored by the mood of the hero and performing an artistic and compositional role. The function of description in journalism is a documentary, accurate reproduction of the situation, such as the author saw it.

This goal is served by an abundance of specific details, among which visual ones predominate: flaky facades; nude urban painting; books touched golden yellowness time; old men and women in blue gowns and black berets sitting like owls.

Probably, the visually perceived landscape, the situation is a characteristic feature of the reportage description. The characterization of the scene of action through visual perception most sharply, vividly, intelligibly draws a picture of what is happening. This is due to one of the most important features of the genre - to show, depict, reproduce. The reporter describes what appears before his eyes, what he sees, and the reader sees what is happening with him.

The language of description, its syntax, and vocabulary are also subordinated to this task. Present tenses (has peeling facades; the subway comes to the surface etc. - "real constant") give a static picture, as if a snapshot of the situation and, due to their timeless nature, have an emphatically descriptive meaning. Artistic and figurative speech concretization (the term of M.N. Kozhina) is also very important. One could write: Sellers sit and doze off. But how much more expressive, more figurative (due to concretization) the author has: Sellers - old men and women in blue coats and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains. Dozing - it is a fixation of an action; dozing, shuddering from the roar of passing trains - this is a picture, a description.

The specificity of the description in reporting and journalism in general is in its documentary, authenticity, authenticity. This character of the description determines restraint, moderation in the use of visual means. Reportage description, apparently, is alien to too bright, too "fictional" means and new formations. All this is contrary to the nature of the description in the report and in newspaper speech in general. But as inclusions, linguistic metaphors, epithets and other means of expressiveness successfully encrust the verbal fabric and enliven the narrative. Here is how the well-known journalist V. Orlov wrote: “Probably, it is impossible to formulate the indisputable ideal of the newspaper form. One can only express personal tastes. It is dangerous to overdo it by pressing on the formal moment. Poems in prose lie strangely on the newspaper sheet. walking on pointe shoes at a trade union meeting. Behind any finds, it seems to me, cursive writing should be felt. Even jewelry must be woven into a modest business fabric that is organic to a newspaper page."

A kind of description in non-fiction prose - characteristic, a special case of which is technical description. Here is a typical example:

Tape recorder "Seagull" is a device designed to record and play music and speech at home. The tape recorder provides the ability to record from a microphone, sound pickup, as well as recording from another tape recorder, radio broadcast network, radio or TV.

Tape recorder "Seagull" is made in a decorative portable box. The design of the entire device consists of the following nodes ... All controls of the tape recorder, with the exception of the fuse, input and output jacks, are located on the top panel "...

Here, as we see, artistic and aesthetic tasks are completely excluded. The main thing is to clearly define technical specifications, characterize the model, design, etc.

What is the role of description in fiction, journalism, business speech?

Narration

storytelling, as "Theory of Literature" defines, as opposed to description, "there is a depiction of events or phenomena that do not occur simultaneously, but follow one after another or determine each other."

Apparently, the shortest example of narration in world literature is the famous story of Caesar: "I came, I saw, I conquered" (Veni, vidi, vici). It vividly, condensedly conveys the very essence of the narrative, semantic and linguistic - this is a story about what happened, happened. The main means of such a story is the perfective past tense verbs replacing each other and naming actions. Figuratively, we can say that the narration is a kind of speech science.

So, the narrative reveals closely related events, phenomena, actions as objectively taking place in the past. The sentences of narrative contexts do not describe actions, but narrate about them, that is, the event itself, the action, is transmitted. For example:

Several weeks passed... Suddenly the father receives a letter from St. Petersburg from our relative, Prince B**. The prince wrote to him about me. After an ordinary attack, he announced to him that the suspicions about my participation in the plans of the rebels, unfortunately, turned out to be too thorough, that an exemplary execution should have befallen me, but that the Empress, out of respect for the merits and advanced years of her father, decided to pardon the criminal son and , saving him from a shameful execution, ordered only to be exiled to a remote region of Siberia for an eternal settlement.

This unexpected blow almost killed my father. He lost his usual firmness, and his grief (usually mute) poured out in bitter complaints (L.S. Pushkin).

The narrative can be considered the main, main part of the author's monologue speech. Narration, story - the essence, the soul of literature. A writer is, first of all, a storyteller, a person who knows how to tell interesting, exciting stories. Like other functional sense types speech, the narrative is a reflection of the reality in which the story, story, novel takes place. Narration intimately associated with space and time. Designations of a place, action, names of persons and non-persons performing actions, and designations of the actions themselves are language tools through which the story is told.

The stylistic functions of the narration are diverse, associated with the individual style, genre, subject of the image. Narration can be more or less objectified, neutral, or, on the contrary, subjective, permeated with the author's emotions.

The last type of narration is also typical for many journalistic genres. Here is an excerpt from the already quoted report by M. Sturua:

On that day - it was April 24 - when I got to Ferrindon Road, I could not help noticing a change here. Outwardly, everything was in its place. And yet something was missing, something without which, as it seemed earlier, Ferrindon Road was simply unthinkable. I saw the clue right away: the letters that read “Daily Worker” were removed from the facade of house number 75. In their place were others: the Morning Star.

In this text, the plan of the past tense prevails, which is typical for a story about events, facts of the past. At the same time, it is significant that the verb forms of the perfect form denote actions that replace each other (notice, see) and are dynamic in nature, and the verbal forms of the imperfect form denote actions that take place in the same time plane and are of a static nature (elements of description). The narration is given from the author, the events are passed through the author's perception, as evidenced by the use I, colloquial syntax, cf., for example, triple use what in one sentence (Still, something was missing, something without which, as it seemed earlier, Ferrindon Road was simply unthinkable).

Message as a kind of narration - mainly the sphere of newspaper speech.

The thief who stole a shopping bag from a 29-year-old resident of Los Angeles while she was ordering lunch at the counter of a local diner showed a certain nobility towards his victim. He took the money, of course, but then threw the bag over. And in the bag was an expensive silicone prosthesis of the left hand of the robbed citizen, which she lost in a car accident four years ago. The skilful work of the prosthetists, apparently, impressed the crook so much that he did not even begin to remove the expensive amethyst and diamond ring from the index finger of the prosthesis. A woman tries not to wear her prosthesis in hot weather due to discomfort.

Not everyone will swim across the Vyatka with their feet and hands tied

Anatoly Dormachev, a 47-year-old resident of Kirovo-Chepetsk, with a large crowd of onlookers, swam across the Vyatka on the most turbulent stretch of the river. The athlete's legs were tied, and he clasped his hands behind his back. Vyatsky Houdini swam on his stomach, making movements reminiscent of the butterfly style. Throughout the route, Anagolia was accompanied by a boat with rowers for insurance. Eleven minutes later, the brave swimmer overcame a distance of more than 300 meters and went ashore, Euro-Asian News reports.

As a functional-semantic type of speech, the message is distinguished by laconic presentation, informative richness, and strict composition.

Messages are not limited to newspaper speech or radio, television. They are also possible in historical literature. Here is a typical illustration from the history of the siege of the Trinity Monastery by the Poles (an example of V.V. Odintsov):

Having received a decisive refusal to surrender the fortress, the pans on September 30 made an attempt to take it by storm. The attack was made from four sides at once, but was repulsed with great damage to the attackers. Sapega was finally convinced that it was impossible to take the fortress without a proper siege, and from October 3 he undertook an almost continuous shelling of the monastery that lasted more than six weeks. Preparing to storm the fortress, the interventionists led a dig against the coal, the so-called Pyatnitskaya tower.

This text speaks only of the most significant moments of the siege. But if we add here the details, the details of less significant, then the message will turn into a narrative that is well known to us.

Write about the same event in the form of a narrative-story and in the form of a message.

reasoning

"Reasoning... aims to elucidate some concept, to develop, prove or refute some idea. "This is how the old "Theory of Literature" defines reasoning.

From a logical point of view, reasoning is a chain of conclusions on some topic, presented in a consistent form. Reasoning is also called a series of judgments related to a question, which follow one after another in such a way that others necessarily follow from previous judgments, and as a result we get an answer to the question posed. So, the reasoning is based on the conclusion, for example:

All frogs are amphibians.

All amphibians are vertebrates.

All frogs are vertebrates.

However, inference is rarely found in speech in its pure form, more often it appears in the form of reasoning. V.V. Odintsov distinguishes between two types of reasoning. In the first of them, concepts and judgments are directly related to each other (but not in the form of a syllogism - this is the similarity and difference between reasoning and inference), for example:

And one more important circumstance. While the ways of encoding hereditary properties are now well studied, much less is known about the ways that link the code with specific phenotypic traits (especially morphological ones). So long as this is the case, one must be careful in judging what can and cannot be in heredity. After all, heredity is not only a code, but also a reading mechanism.

In the second type of reasoning, concepts, judgments are related to facts, examples, etc. Here is a typical example:

Striving for balance is one of the main laws of development of the world around us. Violation of at least one link in the chain causes a response of all the components connected together. The growth of population in river basins, the increase in sown areas lead to an increase in water consumption, a reduction in river flow, which leads to a decrease in sea level, which in turn causes an increase in salinity sea water, salinization of spawning grounds, consequently, a reduction in fish catches, etc. These connections are multi-valued and have many side links.

As can be judged even by our examples, the main area of use of reasoning is scientific, popular science speech. And this is natural, because here it is most often necessary to prove, develop, confirm or refute an idea.

However, reasoning is also widely encountered in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose. The heroes of literary works not only act, perform certain actions, but also talk about life, death, the meaning of being, God, morality, art. The topics are truly endless. And the method, the manner of reasoning, its subject, on the one hand, undoubtedly characterize the hero, on the other hand, allow the author to express very important thoughts, supplement the artistic image with conceptual information, and in this way the reader receives, one might say, a three-dimensional representation: the event is depicted and explained philosophically. Remarkable in this regard is the story of L. Tolstoy "Cutting the Forest", where there is also vivid description, storytelling, and deep reasoning. Here is one of them:

I have always and everywhere, especially in the Caucasus, noticed a special tact in our soldier in times of danger to keep silent and bypass those things that could have an unfavorable effect on the spirit of comrades. The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based in the same way as the courage of the southern peoples - on an enthusiasm that quickly ignites and cools down: it is just as difficult to kindle it as it is to make it lose heart. He does not need effects, speeches, warlike cries, songs and drums; on the contrary, he needs calmness, order and (the absence of everything strained. In a Russian, a real Russian soldier, you will never notice boasting, arrogance, a desire to be fooled, get excited in time of danger, on the contrary, modesty, simplicity, and the ability to see in danger quite different from danger are the distinguishing features of his character.I saw a soldier wounded in the leg, who for the first minute regretted only a broken new sheepskin coat, a rider crawling out from under a horse killed under him and unfastening his girth to take his saddle. Who does not remember the incident during the siege of Gergebil, when a tube of a stuffed bomb and fireworks caught fire in the laboratory? He ordered two soldiers to take a bomb and run to throw it into a cliff, and how the soldiers did not throw it in the nearest place near the colonel's tent , standing over a cliff, but carried on so as not to wake the gentlemen who were sleeping in a tent, and both were torn to pieces.

The reasoning begins with the "personal" observation of the author (I always and everywhere ... noticed ...), smoothly introducing the following reflection into the general context of the story. Then comes the already generalized thought-maxim (The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based like that...). And then there is a transition from a generalized characterizing position to its detail: an enumeration of the features of a Russian soldier that reveals his spirit (calmness, love of order, etc.) is given. Further reflection imperceptibly passes into the narrative. This is the structure of the argument. Naturally woven into the context, it emphasizes the leading theme of the story, which is revealed in the images, and in the pictures, and in the dialogues, and in the descriptions, and in the narratives. This theme is the spirit of the Russian soldier. It is characteristic that in the previous chapters there were already elements of reasoning that directed the reader's attention to this idea. Thus, Chapter II begins with the words: "There are three predominant types of soldiers in Russia"... detailed description trait of each type. In the passage cited above, this theme receives the most complete, concentrated expression in the form of reasoning, organically supplementing the artistic and aesthetic information and, as a result, giving a relief, three-dimensional disclosure of the theme.

Apparently, the artist often feels a deep need for a direct, direct expression of his thoughts, views, the need not only artistically, but also philosophically to comprehend reality. And then philosophical, aesthetic digressions are born - reasoning, such as, for example, the famous reflection of N.V. Gogol about writers:

Happy is the writer who, past boring, nasty characters, striking in their sad reality, approaches characters that show the high dignity of a man, who from the great pool of daily revolving images chose only a few exceptions, who never changed the sublime order of his lyre, did not descend from the top his to his poor, insignificant brothers and, not touching the earth, all plunged into his images far torn away from her and exalted. His wonderful destiny is doubly enviable: he is among them, as in his own family; and meanwhile his glory is far and loudly carried. He fumigated people's eyes with an intoxicating smoke, he miraculously flattered them, hiding the sadness in life, showing them a wonderful person. Everyone, applauding, rushes after him and rushes after his solemn chariot. They call him the great world poet, soaring high above all other geniuses of the world, as an eagle soars above other high-flying ones. At his name alone, young passionate hearts are already filled with trembling, response tears shine in all eyes ... There is no equal to him in strength - he is a god! But such is not the destiny, and another is the fate of the writer, who dared to bring out everything that is every minute before his eyes and that indifferent eyes do not see - all the terrible, amazing mire of trifles that have entangled our life, the whole depth of the cold, fragmented, everyday characters with which ours is teeming. an earthly, sometimes bitter and boring road, and with the strong strength of an inexorable chisel that dared to expose them convexly and brightly to the eyes of the people! He cannot gather popular applause, he cannot see the grateful tears and the unanimous delight of the souls excited by him, a sixteen-year-old girl with a dizzy head and heroic enthusiasm will not fly towards him, he will not forget in the sweet charm of the sounds he uttered; finally, he cannot escape from the modern court, the hypocritically insensitive modern court, which will call the creatures cherished by him insignificant and low, will allot him a contemptible corner in the row of writers who insult humanity, will give him the qualities of the heroes depicted by him, will take away his heart, and soul, and the divine flame of talent. For the modern court does not recognize that the glasses are equally wonderful, looking around the suns and conveying the movements of unnoticed insects; for the modern court does not recognize that much depth of soul is needed in order to illuminate the picture taken from a contemptible life and elevate it to the pearl of creation; for the modern court does not recognize that high enthusiastic laughter is worthy to stand next to high lyrical movement and that there is a whole abyss between it and the antics of a farce buffoon! The modern court does not recognize this and will turn everything into a reproach and reproach to the unrecognized writer, without division, without answer, without participation, like a familyless traveler, he will be left alone in the middle of the road. Severe is his field, and he will bitterly feel his loneliness.

And for a long time yet it is determined by my wonderful power to go hand in hand with my strange heroes, to survey the whole vastly rushing life, to survey it through laughter visible to the world and invisible, unknown to it tears! And the time is still far away when, like a different spring, a menacing blizzard of inspiration will rise from a head clothed in holy horror and brilliance and smell in the confused trembling the majestic thunder of other speeches...

The author's reasoning can be expressed in the form of deep philosophical generalizations, maxims, and sometimes in the form of comic conclusions and conclusions, such as the reflections of A.P. Chekhov about sneezing in the story "The Death of an Official":

One fine evening, a no less fine executor, Ivan Dmitritch Chervyakov, was sitting in the second row of seats and looking through binoculars at the Corneville Bells. He looked and felt himself on top of bliss. But suddenly ... In the stories, this "but suddenly" is often found. The authors are right: life is so full of surprises! But suddenly his face frowned, his eyes rolled up, his breathing stopped ... he took the binoculars away from his eyes, bent down and ... apchhi !!! Sneezed, as you can see. Sneezing is not forbidden to anyone and nowhere. The peasants sneeze, and the police chiefs, and sometimes even secret advisers. Everyone is sneezing. Chervyakov was not at all embarrassed.

Definition as a functional-semantic type of speech, it is widespread mainly in the scientific literature and lies in the fact that the concept being defined is correlated with the closest genus to which it belongs, while signs (or a sign) are given that are special for this concept(species difference).

For example:

Flotation is one of the ways to enrich minerals, based on the principle of floating the crushed parts of the fossil to the surface along with air bubbles.

The definition is revealed, developed in explanation. Here, for example, is an explanation of the concept of flotation:

The essence of flotation is to bring heavy mineral particles to the surface of the bath. This is done by air bubbles, which stick well only to useful substances. And the empty rock goes to the bottom. But it is not enough to bring a "useful" particle up; it still needs to be kept afloat. And if the bubbles did not have strong walls and foamy clothes, if they burst, as ordinary air bubbles burst, enrichment plants could not work.

The definition is more common in scientific texts, the explanation - in popular science, in the language of mass communication. But often they act together - the definition is accompanied by an explanation.

So far we have considered functional types speeches separately. However, in reality, for example in a work of art, purely descriptive or purely narrative contexts are very rare. This can be seen in the examples above. Much more common is the combination of narrative and description. Complementing each other, they often merge so organically that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. Here is a typical example. The context begins with a declarative sentence and immediately goes into a description:

One day, returning home, I accidentally wandered into some unfamiliar estate. The sun was already hidden, and evening shadows were stretched on the flowering rye. Two rows of old, closely planted, very tall firs stood like two solid walls, forming a gloomy beautiful alley.

I easily climbed over the fence and walked along this alley, sliding along the spruce needles, which here covered the ground by an inch.

It was quiet, dark, and only high on the peaks a bright golden light trembled here and there and shimmered like a rainbow in the webs of a spider. There was a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles.

Then again the action followed by the description.

Then I turned down a long linden alley. And there is also desolation and old age, last year's foliage rustled sadly underfoot, and in the twilight shadows hid between the trees. (A.P. Chekhov).

As you can see, the elements of narrative and description are organically merged. Without such a merger, the text would acquire a protocol character. I. R. Galperin rightly believes that the synthesis of narrative and descriptive contexts is feature the language of artistic prose.

But what determines the change, the alternation of narration and description? First of all, imagery. Analyzing the cited Chekhov passage, I. R. Galperin writes: "The reader, as it were, walks along with the character and observes the changing pictures of the surrounding nature. This figurativeness is achieved by almost reliable temporal and spatial characteristics, as well as by a synesthetic effect -" it smelled strongly, stuffy of pine needles " .

Description-brush strokes not only create an artistic depiction of the movement of the character, but also indirectly indicate to some extent a slow pace of movement. In the semantics of words accidentally, wandered, unfamiliar, as I.R. Halperin, contains meaning components expressing caution, attentiveness. These words, as it were, predetermine the slow pace of the narrator's movement, which allows him to stop looking at the details of an unfamiliar situation. Spatial and temporal parameters are woven into the narrative-descriptive context:

a) movement in space: returning home, wandered ... into the estate, climbed over the fence, along this alley, turned into a long linden alley; b) movement of time: the sun was already hiding, the evening shadows, it was quiet, dark, in the twilight ... shadows were hiding.

The change of functional and semantic types of speech (description, narration, reasoning) depends on the individual inclinations of the writer, on the prevailing literary ideas of the era, on the content of the work. For example, in Hemingway's stories, description is relatively rare, narration is given most often in the form of a background, and dialogue occupies a predominant place. On the other hand, in those stories in which the reader's attention is directed to events, actions in their course, narrative and description occupy a significant place.

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In the external appearance of speech, in its structure, a lot depends on the task that the speaker sets for himself, on the purpose of speech. Indeed, it is one thing to describe something, for example, autumn, a forest, mountains, a river, another thing is to talk about an event, an adventure, a third thing is to explain, interpret the causes of any phenomena - natural or social. Of course, in each of these cases, the structure of speech will change significantly. Centuries (if not millennia) of the development of language, thinking, and speech have developed the most expressive, economical and precise methods, schemes, verbal structures for the corresponding literary tasks. Therefore, such important, essential components of speech as description, narration, reasoning have long been distinguished, which in linguistics are usually called functional-semantic types of speech, which emphasizes their dependence on the purpose of speech and its meaning.

This division dates back to the rhetoricians of the 19th century, who considered these components in the section of private rhetoric as separate types of prose or elements of a prose composition.

Let us consider each of the functional-semantic types of speech separately, and then joint use.

Description

Description- one of the most common components of monologue author's speech. In logical terms, to describe an object, a phenomenon means to list its features.

"Description," we read in P.S. Kogan's "Theory of Literature" (1915), "consists in depicting a whole series of features, phenomena, objects, or events that must be imagined all at the same time."

In fiction, journalism, description is the most important element of speech, which allows you to vividly, vividly, visually, figuratively present an object, person, event, phenomenon. Here is a typical example from the memoirs of K.I. Chukovsky about Repin:

The landscape can also recreate a cheerful, cheerful major picture, as in Pushkin's poem "Winter Morning":

Frost and sun; wonderful day!

You are still dozing, my lovely friend, -

It's time, beauty, wake up!

Open eyes closed by bliss

Towards the northern Aurora,

Be the star of the north!

Evening, do you remember, the blizzard was angry,

There was a haze in the cloudy sky:

The moon is like a pale spot

Turned yellow through the gloomy clouds,

And you sat sad -

And now... look out the window.

Under blue skies

splendid carpets,

Shining in the sun, the snow lies;

The transparent forest alone turns black,

And the spruce turns green through the frost,

And the river under the ice glitters.

An important function of description is the creation of figurative pictures: the situation, the atmosphere of events, which is often achieved by selecting bright details, listing them long:

Farewell, witness of fallen glory,

Petrovsky castle. Well! don't stand

Let's go! Already the pillars of the outpost

Turn white; here on Tverskaya

The wagon rushes through the potholes.

Flickering past the booth, women,

Boys, benches, lanterns,

Palaces, gardens, monasteries,

Bukharians, sleighs, vegetable gardens,

Merchants, shacks, men,

Boulevards, towers, Cossacks,

Pharmacies, fashion stores,

Balconies, lions on the gates

And flocks of jackdaws on crosses.

This description from "Eugene Onegin" expressively paints a picture of fast driving. And the main means of imagery is enumeration, in which there are booths and women, boys and lanterns nearby. This is how Tatyana Larina perceives the situation from a rapidly rushing cart.

It is difficult to name all the stylistic functions of description in a work of art - they are too diverse and depend on the individual style, genre, specific segment of the text in which the description is used. But it is important to emphasize that description is always an essential component of the verbal and artistic fabric.

A somewhat different character has a description in journalism. Let's take as an example an excerpt from M. Sturua's report "Morning Star over Ferrindon Road":

I know Ferrindon Road as flaky. This comparison is arbitrary. On it, most of the houses have peeling facades. These are, as a rule, warehouses, offices, garages, workshops. Here the London Underground comes to the surface and runs in a dry bed of a non-existent river, past the warehouses of the company that produces the famous English jeep brand "Boots". The bare urban picture is brightened up only by a string of carts on which second-hand booksellers lay out their unique goods - books touched by the golden yellowness of time. The salesmen - old men and women in blue coats and black berets - sit like owls on high chairs and doze, shuddering from the roar of passing trains.

A kind of description in non-fiction prose - characteristic, a special case of which is technical description. Here is a typical example:

Here, as we see, artistic and aesthetic tasks are completely excluded. The main thing is to accurately indicate the technical parameters, characterize the model, design, etc.

What is the role of description in fiction, journalism, business speech?

Narration

This unexpected blow nearly killed my father. He lost his usual firmness, and his grief (usually mute) poured out in bitter complaints (L.S. Pushkin).

The narrative can be considered the main, main part of the author's monologue speech. Narration, story - the essence, the soul of literature. A writer is, first of all, a storyteller, a person who knows how to tell interesting, exciting stories. Like other functional and semantic types of speech, narration is a reflection of reality in which a story, story, novel takes place. Narrative is intimately connected with space and time. Designations of place, action, names of persons and non-persons performing actions, and designations of the actions themselves are the language means by which the narration is conducted.

The last type of narration is also typical for many journalistic genres. Here is an excerpt from the already quoted report by M. Sturua:

Message as a kind of narration - mainly the sphere of newspaper speech.

Not everyone will swim across the Vyatka with their feet and hands tied

As a functional-semantic type of speech, the message is distinguished by laconic presentation, informative richness, and strict composition.

Write about the same event in the form of a narrative-story and in the form of a message.

reasoning

"Reasoning... aims to elucidate some concept, to develop, prove or refute some idea. "This is how the old "Theory of Literature" defines reasoning.

All frogs are amphibians.

All amphibians are vertebrates.

All frogs are vertebrates.

In the second type of reasoning, concepts, judgments are related to facts, examples, etc. Here is a typical example:

Striving for balance is one of the main laws of development of the world around us. Violation of at least one link in the chain causes a response of all the components connected together. Population growth in river basins, an increase in sown areas lead to an increase in water consumption, a reduction in river flow, which leads to a decrease in sea level, which in turn causes an increase in sea water salinity, salinization of spawning grounds, and consequently, a reduction in fish catches, etc. These connections are multivalued, have many side chains.

However, reasoning is also widely encountered in fiction, especially in intellectual, psychological prose. The heroes of literary works not only act, perform certain actions, but also talk about life, death, the meaning of being, God, morality, art. The topics are truly endless. And the method, the manner of reasoning, its subject, on the one hand, undoubtedly characterize the hero, on the other hand, allow the author to express very important thoughts, supplement the artistic image with conceptual information, and in this way the reader receives, one might say, a three-dimensional representation: the event is depicted and explained philosophically. Remarkable in this regard is the story of L. Tolstoy "The Cutting of the Forest", where there is a vivid description, narration, and deep reasoning. Here is one of them:

The reasoning begins with the "personal" observation of the author (I always and everywhere ... noticed ...), smoothly introducing the following reflection into the general context of the story. Then comes the already generalized thought-maxim (The spirit of the Russian soldier is not based like that...). And then there is a transition from a generalized characterizing position to its detail: an enumeration of the features of a Russian soldier that reveals his spirit (calmness, love of order, etc.) is given. Further reflection imperceptibly passes into the narrative. This is the structure of the argument. Naturally woven into the context, it emphasizes the leading theme of the story, which is revealed in the images, and in the pictures, and in the dialogues, and in the descriptions, and in the narratives. This theme is the spirit of the Russian soldier. It is characteristic that in the previous chapters there were already elements of reasoning that directed the reader's attention to this idea. Thus, Chapter II begins with the words: "In Russia there are three predominant types of soldiers" ... Further, a detailed description of the features of each type is given. In the passage cited above, this theme receives the most complete, concentrated expression in the form of reasoning, organically supplementing the artistic and aesthetic information and, as a result, giving a relief, three-dimensional disclosure of the theme.

Definition as a functional-semantic type of speech, it is widespread mainly in the scientific literature and lies in the fact that the concept being defined is correlated with the closest genus to which it belongs, while signs (or signs) that are special for this concept (species difference) are given.

For example:

Flotation is one of the ways to enrich minerals, based on the principle of floating the crushed parts of the fossil to the surface along with air bubbles.

The definition is revealed, developed in explanation. Here, for example, is an explanation of the concept of flotation:

So far, we have considered the functional types of speech separately. However, in reality, for example in a work of art, purely descriptive or purely narrative contexts are very rare. This can be seen in the examples above. Much more common is the combination of narrative and description. Complementing each other, they often merge so organically that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish between them. Here is a typical example. The context begins with a declarative sentence and immediately goes into a description:

I easily climbed over the fence and walked along this alley, sliding along the spruce needles, which here covered the ground by an inch.

It was quiet, dark, and only high on the peaks a bright golden light trembled here and there and shimmered like a rainbow in the webs of a spider. There was a strong, stuffy smell of pine needles.

Then again the action followed by the description.

Then I turned down a long linden alley. And there is also desolation and old age, last year's foliage rustled sadly underfoot, and in the twilight shadows hid between the trees. (A.P. Chekhov).

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Oratorical speech is heterogeneous in its composition. In the process of thinking, it is natural for a person to reflect various objectively existing connections between the phenomena of reality, between objects, events, individual judgments. This finds expression in various functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning (reflection). At the same time, in various types of oratory there will be a different ratio of these types, because in reality they all mix, interact, and their isolation is very conditional.

Narration- This is a dynamic type of speech that expresses a message about actions or states developing in a temporal sequence and has specific language means. Narrative conveys changing actions or states that unfold over time. In narration, the speaker can speak as a participant in events; describe events from the words of a third person; model an event series without pointing to the source of information. Narrative dynamics are created through the use of verbs, which can express a quick change of events, the sequence of their development.

Description- this is a stating speech, as a rule, giving a statistical picture, an idea of the nature, composition, structure, properties, qualities of an object by listing both its essential and non-essential features at the moment. Descriptions are very diverse both in content and form. They can also be figurative, which brings speech closer to description in fiction. The description can be expanded, detailed and concise, brief; objectified, for example, the description of experience in academic speech, and subjective, in which the speaker expresses his attitude to the object, for example, a description of the situation in political speech. The center of the description is nouns with objective meaning, which give rise to a specific image in the minds of listeners, cause whole line associations.

Reasoning (or thinking)- this is a type of speech in which objects or phenomena are explored, their internal features are revealed, certain provisions are proved.

Reasoning is characterized by special logical relationships between its constituent judgments, which form inferences or a chain of inferences on a topic, presented in a logically consistent form. This type of speech has a specific language structure, depending on the logical basis of reasoning or on the meaning of the statement, and is characterized by cause-and-effect relationships. Reasoning allows you to involve listeners in the process of speech, which leads to the activation of their attention, causing interest in what is being reported.

Can be distinguished proper reasoning- a chain of conclusions on any topic, set out in a logically consistent form, its goal is the derivation of new knowledge; proof, the purpose of which is to substantiate the truth or falsity of the statements made; explanation, the purpose of which is the disclosure, concretization of the stated content, the establishment of the reliability of judgments regarding any obscure case.

A special case of reasoning is common places- abstract reasoning, inspired by the topic of speech, not fixed to a specific situation, which reinforce the argumentation of the main presentation, are used to emotionally strengthen the arguments and provisions. These considerations for common topics, for example, about nobility and decency, justice and humanity, about the attitude towards people, etc. A well-chosen general idea serves as one of the main elements of the composition and a support for a specific material. Connection common places with specific material increases the content orientation of speech.

(cm.). In the history of the development of rhetoric, poetics, and stylistics, they had different names: methods of presentation, types of text, verbal and stylistic unities, compositional and speech forms, etc. The term F.-s. t. r. introduced into scientific circulation by O.A. Nechaeva (1974).

Each F.-s. t. r. characterized by a certain pragmatic function, certain type logical content and structure type. Description implements the task of the author to present objects in their qualitative certainty, by listing their features, narration - to present a sequence of events (these types of speech are combined into a group of representing, according to the classification of V.V. Odintsov), - to convince the reader of the existence of causal relationships between phenomena (argumentative type of speech). With general meaning synchronicity in description, diachronism in narration, causality in reasoning, the structural and compositional characteristics of F.-s. t. r.

When combining sentences into representing F.-s. t. r. an essential, structure-forming role is played by the aspect-temporal ratio of verbs in the text. The meaning of synchronicity is usually expressed by the verbs nes. type (most often present or past tense), due to their "non-limiting" a certain duration of actions is created, which allows the latter to be simultaneous. Owl verbs. species express the meaning of non-duration, changeability of actions, which corresponds to the narrative. Often, movement in time is expressed by changing the tense forms of the verb, past and present. The enumerative meaning of a descriptive text is usually conveyed by a parallel connection of sentences; in a narrative, successively occurring events are expressed using a chain connection.

Reasoning consists of a chain of interdependent judgments. An indicator of a close - causative - connection is a pronounced synsemancy of independent sentences, a high frequency of logical markers - introductory words therefore, so, thus, adverbs with the meaning of consequence, conclusion therefore, therefore, hence, then, subordinating unions because, since, because, so that and etc.

F.-s. t. r. have various modifications. By structure, they can be "classical" (close to the type), mixed, variational; undergo changes depending on the subject-thematic content of the work, funkts. style, genre, individual style of the author.

The traditional classification of types of speech arose within the framework of ancient rhetoric and includes the most common varieties speeches that are clearly distinguished by their essential features. In the 70s–90s. 20th century special treatment linguists to the problem of F.-s. tr., attracting as an object of study texts of various functional and stylistic varieties of lit. language led both to the allocation of new types of speech, for example. statements(media instructions(see), characteristic primarily for office-cases. spheres of communication, and to isolating subtypes within each F.-s. t. r.

Within the whole text, there are various variants of alternation and interaction of F.-s. t. river, including contaminated types of speech, possessing simultaneously signs of two (or more) F.-s. t. r. (without obvious dominance of one over the other) as a result of combining two (or more) communicative tasks. An example of a mixed F.-s. t.r: "At the time the theory was created, the Ξ-hyperons and the Ω-particle were not yet known. Resonances Ξ ... were discovered in 1962. The top of the pyramid remained unfilled. Gell-Mann predicted that the particle corresponding to it should have a spin equal to 3/2, a hypercharge Y \u003d -2 and a mass of about 1675 MeV ... Almost immediately, a systematic search began for this particle, called the Ω-hyperon. At the Brookhaven Laboratory, a 33 GeV accelerator and a two-meter bubble chamber containing 900 liters of liquid hydrogen were used for this purpose. It was done about 300,000 images before one of them recorded the creation and decay of an Ω particle in January 1964. Its properties, in particular its mass, exactly coincided with those predicted by theory.Thus, the discovery of the Ω hyperon was a triumph of the theory unitary symmetry"(I.V. Savelyev. Course of General Physics). The first communicative function of this text is to tell about the discovery of the Ω-hyperon. The second is to evaluate this discovery, to draw a conclusion about its role in confirming the correctness of the theory of unitary symmetry. As a result there is mixed F. - pages. t. r. (representing and arguing the content) with a common communicative task - to tell about the discovery, preparing the reader for a certain conclusion about this discovery, for its correct assessment. The story is a synthesis of the narrative (a striking sign of it are references to dates and adverbs with the meaning of time, for example: almost immediately) and descriptions (the course and results of research, device design). The argumentative component of this microtext - conclusion - contains an indicator of logical connection thus.

F.'s identification - page. t. r. is most effectively carried out in the context of the whole work. This allows us to see the change in types of speech, their functioning either in pure or contaminated form, to isolate the "elementary" F.-s. t. r. and larger structures absorbing them, up to the global logical structure, which is the framework of the entire work and is associated with the expression and confirmation of the main hypothesis of the scientist, the idea of the artist.

F.'s functioning - page. t. r. in one style or another, lit. language is largely due to the tasks of communication in the relevant field of communication.

In the artist texts are dominated by narration, shaping the story of events, the system of which makes up the plot of the work; the description is widely presented (landscape, portrait, etc.). Reasoning functions in the form of subjective reflections and differs significantly in structural and functional characteristics from scientific reasoning. For scientific works are typically logical reasoning with a clear, stereotyped structure, which serves to derive new knowledge. In the artist In the work, a freer form, individualized, emotional reasoning functions, leading, preparing the reader for the perception of judgment, which is important for expressing the author's aesthetic assessment of the depicted.

In scientific texts by leading F.-s. t. r. are description (static and dynamic) and reasoning (reasoning proper, etc.). The first serves to depict the external features of the object of study, i.e. for direct reflection of objective reality, which refers to the embodiment of the results of empirical research; the second is used to reflect the hidden connections and patterns of development of the objects of study, i.e. expresses results theoretical knowledge. With the development of science and theoretical thinking, the share of reasoning in scientific. texts is increasing.

The implementation of the traditional communicative tasks of journalism - informing and persuading influence - predetermines the predominant functioning in the texts of F.-s. t. r. narrative and reasoning, the latter - primarily in the form of evidence, but different from scientific evidence, carried out with the help of strict logical procedures. In public In the text, in order to convince the reader of the correctness of the author's judgments, factual and value arguments are used. Communicatively determined in public. the text - the text, the essential feature of which is dialogism, the calculation for a quick and obligatory reaction of the addressee, for the maximum degree of his understanding of the analyzed problems - is also the dedication of the reader to the causes of the phenomena under consideration () and the goals, motives (justification) of certain decisions, actions .

In the office. speech, the precept occupies a dominant position, which is associated with the implementation in the text of the main stylistic feature - the directiveness of the presentation, due to the regulatory, regulating function of law.

Lit.: Vinogradov V.V. About the language of the artist. literature. - M., 1959; Nechaeva O.A. Functional-semantic types of speech ( , ). - Ulan-Ude, 1974; Her: Essays on syntactic semantics and stylistics of functional-semantic types of speech. - Ulan-Ude, 1999; Loseva L.M. How the text is built. - M., 1980; Mets N.A., Mitrofanova O.D., Odintsova T.B. The structure of scientific text and teaching monologue speech. - M., 1981; Grishina O.N. The ratio of narration, description and reasoning in art. text (based on English and American prose of the 20th century): Abstract dis.… cand. philol. Sciences. - M., 1982; Kozhin A.N., Krylova O.A., Odintsov V.V. Funkts. Russian types. speech. - M., 1982; Brandes M.P. Stylistics German language. - M., 1983; Kozhina M.N., Kyrkunova L.G. On the relationship of functional-semantic types of speech with the specifics of funkts. styles // Word in various fields speech. - Volgograd, 1988; Ismailova Zh.A. Semantic interaction of aspect-temporal forms of the verb with text types (on the material of V. Rasputin's story "Farewell to Mother"): Abstract dis.… cand. philol. Sciences. - L., 1990; Protopopova O.V., Trosheva T.B. Functional-semantic types of speech as a criterion for stylistic differentiation of scientific and technical texts // Essays on the history of scientific. Russian style. lit. language of the 18th–20th centuries. - Perm, 1998. Vol. 2. Part 2; Trosheva T.B. Formation of reasoning in the process of scientific development. Russian style. lit. language of the 18th–20th centuries. (compared with other functional varieties). - Perm, 1999.

T.B. Trosheva

Stylistic encyclopedic Dictionary Russian language. - M:. "Flint", "Science". Edited by M.N. Kozhina. 2003 .

Practice #6

Topic of the lesson: Spelling of alternating vowels in the root. Spelling of prefixes PRE, PRI.

1. In these words, highlight the roots and indicate the alternation of vowels and consonants.

Sample: close - close (s - (), catch - catch (v-vl).

Feed - feeding, face - face, sleep - sleep, buy - bought, marvel - surprise, captivate - captivate, friend - friends - friendship, forgive - forgiveness, freedom - liberation, place - landowner, offer - offer, refute - refutation, inventory - I will describe, isolate - isolation, day - day, I take - take.

2. Indicate the generating stem of each of these words.

Sample: artist - artist, mandatory - obligatory.

Fellow student, intruder, oatmeal, larch, musicality, discern, trunk, fluency, sawyer, engine, demanding, straw, unprincipled.

3. Determine in what way (attachment, suffix, attachment-suffix, non-suffix, addition) words are formed.

Anti-social, wallet, fidelity, pour in, water pump, university student, height, clayey, read up, legislator, scream, Moscow State University, public, steam locomotive, boletus, glass holder, vacuum cleaner, self-criticism, savings bank, darkness, Youth Theater.

4. Fill in the table: distribute the words depending on the method of word formation.

Thanks (for help) - thanks to (help), the above, edge (extreme) - edge (edge), braid (mow) - braid (pigtail), slightly wounded, illiteracy, ice cream, undersigned, unknown, wounded, straw, canteen, immediately , impenetrable, insane, ambition,

5. Build word-building chains and write them down, highlighting morphemes.

1. Pay, pay, pay, salary, deplorable.

2. Expensive, path, high cost, expensive, more expensive.

3. Laugh, mix, mix, funny, furry.

4. Herald, message, lead, notice, notify.

6. Make a morphemic and word-formation analysis of words.

Bus, car, inventor, someone, alms, millimeter, ministry.

7. Work with a textbook on compiling a table.

1. Prefix PRE- written in cases:

when she gives meaning to wordslimiting degree of actionexceeding any measure, orhighest quality: pre uplift, pre embroider, pre increase, pre ascend, pre be on time; pre sunrise, pre pretty, pre cute, pre nicely;

When she has the meaning of a prefixre-: pre fence (to fence off), pre to turn, pre cut, pre giving (to pass), pre step (step over) pre gate (inverted), pre emnik (adopt).

2. Prefix PRI- gives meaning to words

spatial proximity, adjacencies: at maritime, At amur, at breezier, at station, at manor;

additions, approximations, additions: at tend, at drive, at lead, at to knit, at to freeze at quilt;

incomplete action:at wither, at open, at lie down at lower, at subside;

completing an action, until a certain result:at search, at cum, at jam ( drown out completely), at learn, at think, at cut;

act in one's own interest, enhanced manifestation of action:at to look at pocket, at beckon, at dress up, at hide, at own, at listen;

concomitant action: at sing, at whistle at dance.

Notes:
1. Prefix pre- is Old Church Slavonic in origin. In Russian, it corresponds to a prefix with a full-vowel combination re-; compare: pre hail - pen town, pre to give - pen to give.

2. It is necessary to distinguish between spellings similar in sound, but different in meaning, words with prefixes pre- and pre-; cf: pre zeer (hate) and at zirat ( give shelter); cf. also: pre vision and at vision; pre bow (head) and at bend ( branch to the ground); pre create ( dream into reality) and at create (door), at going on ( sleeping); pre endure (discomfort) and at endure ( to inconvenience); pre walking (moment, cf. passing) and at walking (postman, participle from come).

3. It is necessary to distinguish between the spelling of words e multiply (strongly multiply), etc. and multiply ( add a small amount), although these meanings are often difficult to distinguish.

4. In following words former prefixes are no longer distinguished: limit, object, advantage, contradict, seduce, pass over, (signs of) punctuation, obstacle, obstacle, bicker, notorious, satiate, repel, stumbling (stumbling block), device, fastidious, comely, order, decent, primitive, claim, take communion , reason, affection.

5. In loanwordspossibly written as pre- and pre- (these elements, as a rule, are not prefixes):pre ambulance, pre wallow, pre zident, pre zidium, pre parath; at cotton, at madonna, at privilege, at mitive, at priority.

Questions for self-control:

Name the significant parts of the word. How are they designated (by example)?

What is an ending? How to determine the ending in a word? What null ending? Give examples. What is the end for?

What is the base word?

What is a word root? What are words with the same root called?

What is a prefix or suffix? What do they serve?

What is word formation, inflection? What parts of the word do they come from?

What three rules teach how to write the root of a word?

What is an attachment? What do you need to know about prefixes in order to write them correctly?

How to distinguish a preposition from a prefix?What are their similarities?

Literature

1.V.N. Spelling and punctuation: a reference book. - M .: "Neolit", 2007
2. Rosenthal D.E. Handbook of spelling and style. - St. Petersburg: IK "Komplekt", 2007

3. Rosenthal D.E. What better way to say it?: Book. For students Art. classes. – M.: Enlightenment, 2008.

Functional semantic types of speech description. What are the functional-semantic types of speech

Description

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