View criteria is the most convenient and simple sign. What are the type criteria? What have we learned

View (lat. species) - a taxonomic, systematic unit, a group of individuals with common morphophysiological, biochemical and behavioral characteristics, capable of interbreeding, giving fertile offspring in a number of generations, regularly distributed within a certain range and similarly changing under the influence of factors external environment. A species is a really existing genetically indivisible unit of the living world, the main structural unit in the system of organisms, a qualitative stage in the evolution of life.

For a long time it was believed that any species is a closed genetic system, that is, there is no exchange of genes between the gene pools of two species. This statement is true for most species, but there are exceptions to it. So, for example, lions and tigers can have common offspring (ligers and tigers), the females of which are fertile - they can give birth both from tigers and lions. In captivity, many other species interbreed, which in natural conditions do not interbreed due to geographic or reproductive isolation. Crossing (hybridization) between different species can also occur in natural conditions, especially with anthropogenic disturbances of the habitat that violate environmental mechanisms isolation. Especially often plants hybridize in nature. A noticeable percentage of higher plant species is of hybrid origin - they were formed during hybridization as a result of partial or complete merging of parental species.

Basic view criteria

1. Morphological criterion of the species. Based on existence morphological features characteristic of one species but absent in other species.

For example: in an ordinary viper, the nostril is located in the center of the nasal shield, and in all other vipers (nosed, Asia Minor, steppe, Caucasian, viper) the nostril is shifted to the edge of the nasal shield.
At the same time, there are significant individual morphological differences within species. For example, the common viper is represented by a variety of color forms (black, gray, bluish, greenish, reddish and other shades). These features cannot be used to distinguish species.

2. geographical criterion. It is based on the fact that each species occupies a certain territory (or water area) - a geographical area. For example, in Europe, some species of the malarial mosquito (genus Anopheles) inhabit the Mediterranean, others - the mountains of Europe, Northern Europe, Southern Europe.

However, the geographical criterion is not always applicable. Areals different types can overlap, and then one view smoothly passes into another. In this case, a chain of vicarious species (superspecies, or series) is formed, the boundaries between which can often be established only through special studies (for example, herring gull, black-backed gull, western, Californian).

3. ecological criterion. Based on the fact that two species cannot occupy the same ecological niche. Therefore, each species is characterized by its own relationship with the environment.

However, within the same species, different individuals can occupy different ecological niches. Groups of such individuals are called ecotypes. For example, one ecotype of Scotch pine inhabits swamps (marsh pine), another - sand dunes, the third - leveled areas of forest terraces.

A set of ecotypes that form a single genetic system (for example, capable of interbreeding with each other to form full-fledged offspring) is often called an ecospecies.

4. Molecular genetic criterion. Based on the degree of similarity and difference in nucleotide sequences in nucleic acids. As a rule, "non-coding" DNA sequences (molecular genetic markers) are used to assess the degree of similarity or difference. However, DNA polymorphism exists within the same species, and different species can be characterized by similar sequences.

5. Physiological and biochemical criterion. It is based on the fact that different species can differ in the amino acid composition of proteins. At the same time, protein polymorphism exists within a species (for example, intraspecific variability of many enzymes), and different species can have similar proteins.

6. Cytogenetic (karyotypic) criterion. It is based on the fact that each species is characterized by a certain karyotype - the number and shape of metaphase chromosomes. For example, all hard wheats have 28 chromosomes in the diploid set, and all soft wheats have 42 chromosomes. However, different species can have very similar karyotypes: for example, most species of the cat family have 2n=38. At the same time, chromosomal polymorphism can be observed within the same species. For example, in elks of Eurasian subspecies 2n=68, and in elks of North American species 2n=70 (in the karyotype of North American elks there are 2 less metacentrics and 4 more acrocentrics). Some species have chromosome races, for example, in a black rat - 42 chromosome (Asia, Mauritius), 40 chromosome (Ceylon) and 38 chromosome (Oceania).

7. reproductive criterion. It is based on the fact that individuals of the same species can interbreed with each other with the formation of fertile offspring similar to their parents, and individuals of different species living together do not interbreed with each other, or their offspring are sterile.

However, it is known that interspecific hybridization is often common in nature: in many plants (for example, willows), a number of fish species, amphibians, birds and mammals (for example, a wolf and a dog). At the same time, within the same species, there may be groupings that are reproductively isolated from each other.

8. ethological criterion. Associated with interspecies differences in behavior in animals. In birds, song analysis is widely used for species recognition. By the nature of the sounds produced, different types of insects differ. Different types of North American fireflies differ in the frequency and color of light flashes.

9. Historical (evolutionary) criterion. Based on the study of the history of a group of closely related species. This criterion is complex in nature, since it includes a comparative analysis of modern species ranges (geographical criterion), a comparative analysis of genomes (molecular genetic criterion), a comparative analysis of cytogenomes (cytogenetic criterion), and others.

None of the considered species criteria is the main or the most important one. For a clear separation of species, they must be carefully studied according to all criteria.

Due to unequal environmental conditions, individuals of the same species within the range break up into smaller units - populations. In reality, a species exists precisely in the form of populations.

Species are monotypic - with poorly differentiated internal structure, they are endemic. Polytypic species are characterized by a complex intraspecific structure.

Within species, subspecies can be distinguished - geographically or ecologically isolated parts of a species, individuals of which, under the influence of environmental factors in the process of evolution, have acquired stable morphophysiological features that distinguish them from other parts of this species. In nature, individuals of different subspecies of the same species can freely interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

species name

The scientific name of a species is binomial, that is, it consists of two words: the name of the genus to which the given species belongs, and the second word, called the species epithet in botany, and the species name in zoology. The first word is a noun singular; the second is either an adjective in the nominative case, agreed in gender (masculine, feminine or neuter) with a generic name, or a noun in the genitive case. The first word is written with capital letter, the second - with lowercase.

• Petasites fragrans - scientific name species of flowering plants from the genus Butterbur ( Petasites) (the Russian name of the species is Fragrant Butterbur). The adjective is used as a specific epithet Fragrans("fragrant").
• Petasites fominii- the scientific name of another species from the same genus (Russian name - Fomin Butterbur). The Latinized surname (in the genitive case) of the botanist Alexander Vasilyevich Fomin (1869-1935), a researcher of the flora of the Caucasus, was used as a specific epithet.

Sometimes entries are also used to designate indeterminate taxa at species rank:

• Petasites sp.- the entry indicates that the taxon at the rank of species, belonging to the genus, is meant Petasites.
• Petasites spp.- entry means that all taxa in the rank of species included in the genus are meant Petasites(or all other taxa in the rank of species included in the genus Petasites, but not included in any given list of such taxa).

Superorganism systems. Evolution organic world

evolutionary doctrine

Basic concepts:

species, species criteria, population, taxonomy, classification, history of evolutionary ideas, synthetic theory of evolution, driving forces of evolution, forms natural selection, population waves, genetic drift, artificial selection, types of struggle for existence, results of evolution, microevolution, speciation, isolation, fitness, relative nature fitness, forms and directions of evolution, biological progress and regression, macroevolution, aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration, evidence of evolution

There are about 2 million species of animals on Earth, more than 500 thousand species of plants, hundreds of thousands of species of fungi, microorganisms. A species is a collection of organisms that actually exists in nature.

View – This is a collection of individuals that are similar in structure, have a common origin, freely interbreed with each other and give fertile offspring. All individuals of the same species have the same karyotype - a set of chromosomes of a somatic cell (2n), similar behavior, occupy a certain territory - area (from Latin area - area, space). Carl Linnaeus (17th century) introduced the concept of "view".

A species is one of the main forms of organization of living things. Each type of living organisms can be described based on the totality characteristic features, properties, which are called features. Species features that distinguish one species from another are called species criteria.

View criteria - a set of characteristic features, properties and features by which one species differs from another. There are six general species criteria most commonly used: morphological, physiological, genetic, biochemical, geographical, and ecological. At the same time, none of the criteria is absolute; to determine the type, the presence of the maximum number of criteria is necessary.

Morphological criterion- description of external (morphological) features and internal (anatomical) structure of individuals that are part of a particular species. By appearance, size and color of plumage, for example, it is easy to distinguish a large spotted woodpecker from a green one, a great tit from a crested one. By the appearance of the shoots and inflorescences, the size and arrangement of the leaves, the types of clover are easily distinguished: meadow and creeping. The morphological criterion is widely used in taxonomy. However, this criterion is not sufficient to distinguish between species that have significant morphological similarities. For example, in nature there are twin species that do not have noticeable morphological differences (black rats have two twin species - with a set of chromosomes 38 and 42, and the malarial mosquito used to be called six similar species only one of which carries malaria).

Physiological criterion lies in the similarity of life processes, primarily in the possibility of crossing between individuals of the same species with the formation of fertile offspring. There is a physiological isolation between different species. At the same time, interbreeding is possible between certain types of living organisms; in this case, fertile hybrids can be formed (canaries, hares, poplars, willows, etc.)

Geographic criterion- each species occupies a certain territory - range. Many species occupy different ranges. But many species have coinciding (overlapping) or overlapping ranges, some have a broken range (for example, linden grows in Europe, is found in the Kuznetsk Alatau and the Krasnoyarsk Territory). In addition, there are species that do not have clear distribution boundaries, as well as cosmopolitan species that live on vast expanses of land or ocean. Cosmopolitans are some inhabitants of inland waters - rivers and freshwater lakes (duckweed, reed). There are cosmopolitans among weeds, synanthropic animals (species that live near a person or his dwelling) - a bed bug, a red cockroach, a house fly, as well as a medicinal dandelion, a field yarutka, a shepherd's purse, etc. Thus, a geographical criterion, like others, is not absolute.

Environmental criterion is based on the fact that each species can exist only under certain conditions: each species occupies a certain ecological niche. For example, the caustic buttercup grows in floodplain meadows, the creeping buttercup grows along the banks of rivers and ditches, the burning buttercup grows in wetlands. However, there are species that do not have a strict ecological criterion; synanthropic species are an example.

Genetic criterion based on the difference between species according to karyotypes, i.e., according to the number, shape and size of chromosomes. The vast majority of species are characterized by a strictly defined karyotype. However, this criterion is not universal. For example, in many different species, the number of chromosomes is the same and their shape is similar. So, many species from the legume family have 22 chromosomes (2n = 22). Also, within the same species, individuals with a different number of chromosomes can occur (the result of genomic mutations): goat willow has a diploid (38) and tetraploid (76) number of chromosomes; in silver carp there are populations with a set of chromosomes 100, 150,200, while their normal number is 50. Thus, on the basis of a genetic criterion, it is not always possible to determine whether individuals belong to a particular species.

Biochemical criterion is the composition and structure of certain proteins, nucleic acids and other substances. For example, the synthesis of certain macromolecular substances is inherent only certain types: alkaloids are formed by plant species of the nightshade and lily families. But this criterion does not find wide application- it is laborious and not always universal. There is a significant intraspecific variability in almost all biochemical parameters (sequence of amino acids in protein molecules and nucleotides in individual sections of DNA). At the same time, many biochemical features are conservative: some are found in all representatives of a given type or class.

Thus, none of the criteria alone can serve to determine the species: to determine the species, it is necessary to take into account the totality of all criteria. In addition to these features, scientists identify historical and ethological criteria.

Characteristics of the type criteria

View- a set of individuals characterized by a common origin, having a hereditary similarity of morphological, physiological and biochemical characteristics, freely interbreeding and producing fertile offspring, adapted to existing living conditions and occupying a certain territory - area. All species are composed of populations, that is, a population is the structural unit of a species.

Populations – These are groups of organisms of the same species, relatively isolated from each other, with the ability to freely interbreed with each other and produce fertile offspring.

View - a set of individuals that have common morphophysiological features and are united by the ability to interbreed with each other, forming a system of populations that form a common area.

Populations are characterized by certain properties:

1) abundance - the total number of organisms in the population;

2) birth rate - the rate of population growth;

3) mortality - the rate of reduction in numbers as a result of the death of individuals;

4) age composition - the ratio of the number of individuals different ages(correlation of age groups);

5) sex ratio - based on the genetic definition of sex, the sex ratio in the population should be 1:1, the violation of this ratio leads to a decrease in the population size;

6) population dynamics - under the influence various factors periodic and non-periodic fluctuations in the number and size of the range are possible, which can affect the nature of crossings;

7) population density - the number of individuals per unit of space occupied by the population.

Populations do not exist in isolation: they interact with populations of other species, forming biotic communities.

Studying nature, scientists discovered and described previously unknown organisms, giving them names. At the same time, it often turned out that different scientists called the same organism differently. The more materials accumulated, the more difficulties appeared in using the accumulated knowledge. There was a need to bring all the diversity of living organisms into a single system. The branch of biology that deals with the description and classification of organisms is called taxonomy .

The first systems were artificial, as they were built on several arbitrarily taken signs. One of the classification systems for plants and animals was proposed by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778). The merit of the scientist is not only in creating the system, but also in the fact that he introduced double species names: the first word is the name of the genus, the second - the species, for example, Aurelia aurita - eared jellyfish, Aurelia cyanea - polar jellyfish. This system of names still exists today. Subsequently, the system of the organic world, proposed by K. Linnaeus, was significantly changed. At the core modern classification, which is natural, the principle of kinship of species with both living and extinct lies.

Thus, the goal of natural classification- creation of a unified system of living organisms, which would cover all the diversity of living organisms, reflect the origin and history of their development. AT modern system Organisms are classified into groups based on relationships between them by origin. Systematic categories, or taxa, are the names of groups of living organisms that are united by similar characteristics. For example, the class Birds are highly organized vertebrates, the body of which is covered with feathers, and the forelimbs are turned into wings. The largest systematic categories of organisms are empires (precellular and cellular organisms). Empires are divided into kingdoms.

organic world

Kingdom Viruses

Kingdom of Prokaryotes Kingdom of Eukaryotes

(non-nuclear) (nuclear)

Kingdom Bacteria

Kingdom Plants Kingdom Animals Kingdom Fungi Kingdoms in animals unite types, and in plants departments. Examples of systematic categories:

Systems in which higher categories consistently include lower and lower categories are called hierarchical (from the Greek hieros - sacred, arche - power), that is, systems whose levels obey certain rules.

An important milestone development of biology was the period of formation of systematization, which is associated with the name Carl Linnaeus(1707-1778). K. Linnaeus believed that living nature was created by the Creator, the species are immutable. The scientist based the classification on signs of similarity, and not relationship between species. Despite the mistakes made by K. Linnaeus, his contribution to the development of science is enormous: he streamlined ideas about the diversity of flora and fauna.

At the end of the 18th century, changes took place in views on the origin of life: ideas appeared about the origin of modern organisms from distant ancestors.

The idea of ​​the evolution of the organic world is expressed by Jean Baptiste Lamarck(1744-1829). The main merits of Lamarck include the following:

Introduced the term "biology";

Improved the classification already existing at that time;

He tried to determine the causes of the evolutionary process (according to Lamarck, the cause of evolution is the desire for self-improvement - an exercise and not an exercise of organs);

He believed that the process of historical change occurs from simple to complex; species change under the influence of environmental conditions;

He expressed the idea of ​​the origin of man from ape-like ancestors.

Lamarck's fallacies include:

The idea of ​​internal striving for self-improvement;

The assumption of the inheritance of changes that have arisen under the influence of the external environment.

The merit of Lamarck is the creation of the first evolutionary doctrine.

In the 19th century, science, industry, and agriculture were intensively developing. The successes of science and the practical activity of man laid the foundation on which evolutionary theory developed.

The belonging of individuals to a particular species is determined on the basis of a number of criteria.

View criteria- these are various taxonomic (diagnostic) characters that are characteristic of one species, but are absent in other species. The set of features by which one species can be reliably distinguished from other species is called the species radical (N.I. Vavilov).

Type criteria are divided into basic (which are used for almost all types) and additional (which are difficult to use for all types).

Basic view criteria

1. Morphological criterion of the species. It is based on the existence of morphological features characteristic of one species, but absent in other species.

For example: in an ordinary viper, the nostril is located in the center of the nasal shield, and in all other vipers (nosed, Asia Minor, steppe, Caucasian, viper) the nostril is shifted to the edge of the nasal shield.

Species-twins. Thus, closely related species may differ in subtle characters. There are twin species that are so similar that it is very difficult to use morphological criteria to distinguish them. For example, the malarial mosquito species is actually represented by nine very similar species. These species differ morphologically only in the structure of reproductive structures (for example, the color of eggs in some species is smooth gray, in others - with spots or stripes), in the number and branching of hairs on the limbs of the larvae, in the size and shape of wing scales.

In animals, twin species are found among rodents, birds, many lower vertebrates (fish, amphibians, reptiles), many arthropods (crustaceans, ticks, butterflies, Diptera, Orthoptera, Hymenoptera), mollusks, worms, coelenterates, sponges, etc.

Notes on sibling species (Mayr, 1968).

1. There is no clear difference between ordinary species (“morphospecies”) and twin species: it is just that in twin species, morphological differences are minimally expressed. Obviously, the formation of sibling species follows the same patterns as speciation as a whole, and evolutionary changes in groups of sibling species occur at the same rate as in morphospecies.

2. Species-twins, when subjected to careful study, usually show differences in a number of small morphological characters (for example, male insects belonging to different species clearly differ in the structure of copulatory organs).

3. Reorganization of the genotype (more precisely, the gene pool), leading to mutual reproductive isolation, is not necessarily accompanied by visible changes in morphology.

4. In animals, twin species are more common if morphological differences have less effect on the formation of mating pairs (for example, if smell or hearing is used for recognition); if animals rely more on sight (most birds), then twin species are less common.

5. The stability of the morphological similarity of twin species is due to the existence of certain mechanisms of morphogenetic homeostasis.

At the same time, there are significant individual morphological differences within species. For example, the common viper is represented by a variety of color forms (black, gray, bluish, greenish, reddish and other shades). These features cannot be used to distinguish species.

2. Geographical criterion. It is based on the fact that each species occupies a certain territory (or water area) - a geographical area. For example, in Europe, some species of the malarial mosquito ( genus Anopheles) inhabit the Mediterranean, others - the mountains of Europe, Northern Europe, Southern Europe.

However, the geographical criterion is not always applicable. The ranges of different species may overlap, and then one species smoothly passes into another. In this case, a chain of vicarious species (superspecies, or series) is formed, the boundaries between which can often be established only through special studies (for example, herring gull, black-backed gull, western, Californian).

3. Ecological criterion. Based on the fact that two species cannot occupy the same ecological niche. Therefore, each species is characterized by its own relationship with the environment.

For animals, instead of the concept of "ecological niche", the concept of "adaptive zone" is often used. For plants, the concept of "edapho-phytocenotic area" is often used.

adaptive zone- this is certain type habitats with a characteristic set of specific environmental conditions, including the type of habitat (aquatic, terrestrial-air, soil, organism) and its particular features (for example, in the terrestrial-air habitat - the total number solar radiation, precipitation, relief, atmospheric circulation, distribution of these factors by season, etc.). In the biogeographic aspect, adaptive zones correspond to the largest subdivisions of the biosphere - biomes, which are a collection of living organisms in combination with certain conditions of their habitat in vast landscape-geographic zones. However various groups organisms use the resources of the environment in different ways, adapt to them in different ways. Therefore, within the biome of the coniferous-broad-leaved zone of temperate forests, adaptive zones of large guarding predators (lynx), large catching predators (wolf), small tree-climbing predators (marten), small terrestrial predators (weasel), etc. can be distinguished. Thus, the adaptive zone is ecological concept, which occupies an intermediate position between the habitat and the ecological niche.

Edapho-phytocenotic area is a set of bioinert factors (first of all, soil ones, which are integral function mechanical composition of soils, topography, the nature of moisture, the impact of vegetation and the activity of the microorganism) and biotic factors(first of all, the totality of plant species) of nature, which constitute the immediate environment of the species of interest to us.

However, within the same species, different individuals can occupy different ecological niches. Groups of such individuals are called ecotypes. For example, one ecotype of Scots pine inhabits swamps (marsh pine), another - sand dunes, the third - leveled areas of forest terraces.

A set of ecotypes that form a single genetic system (for example, capable of interbreeding with each other to form full-fledged offspring) is often called an ecospecies.

Additional View Criteria

4. Physiological and biochemical criterion. It is based on the fact that different species can differ in the amino acid composition of proteins. Based on this criterion, for example, some types of gulls are distinguished (silver, klusha, western, Californian).

At the same time, within a species, there is variability in the structure of many enzymes (protein polymorphism), and different species may have similar proteins.

5. Cytogenetic (karyotypic) criterion. It is based on the fact that each species is characterized by a certain karyotype - the number and shape of metaphase chromosomes. For example, all hard wheats have 28 chromosomes in the diploid set, and 42 chromosomes in all soft wheats.

However, different species can have very similar karyotypes: for example, most species of the cat family have 2n=38. At the same time, chromosomal polymorphism can be observed within the same species. For example, in elks of Eurasian subspecies 2n=68, and in elks of North American species 2n=70 (in the karyotype of North American elks there are 2 less metacentrics and 4 more acrocentrics). Some species have chromosome races, for example, in a black rat - 42 chromosome (Asia, Mauritius), 40 chromosome (Ceylon) and 38 chromosome (Oceania).

6. Physiological and reproductive criterion. It is based on the fact that individuals of the same species can interbreed with each other with the formation of fertile offspring similar to their parents, and individuals of different species living together do not interbreed with each other, or their offspring are sterile.

However, it is known that interspecific hybridization is often common in nature: in many plants (for example, willows), a number of fish species, amphibians, birds and mammals (for example, a wolf and a dog). At the same time, within the same species, there may be groupings that are reproductively isolated from each other.

Pacific salmon (pink salmon, chum salmon, etc.) live for two years and spawn just before death. Consequently, the descendants of individuals that spawned in 1990 will breed only in 1992, 1994, 1996 (the “even” race), and the descendants of individuals that spawned in 1991 will breed only in 1993, 1995, 1997 (“ odd" race). An "even" race cannot interbreed with an "odd" race.

7. Ethological criterion. Associated with interspecies differences in behavior in animals. In birds, song analysis is widely used for species recognition. By the nature of the sounds produced, different types of insects differ. Different types of North American fireflies differ in the frequency and color of light flashes.

8. Historical criterion. Based on the study of the history of a species or group of species. This criterion is complex in nature, since it includes a comparative analysis of modern species ranges, analysis

A species is a collection of individuals that are similar in terms of the criteria of the species to such an extent that they can vivo interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

A fertile offspring is one that can reproduce itself. An example of infertile offspring is a mule (a hybrid of a donkey and a horse), it is sterile.

View criteria- these are signs by which 2 organisms are compared to determine whether they belong to the same species or to different ones.

• Morphological - internal and external structure.
• Physiological and biochemical - how organs and cells work.
• Behavioral - behavior, especially at the time of reproduction.
• Ecological - a set of environmental factors necessary for the life of a species (temperature, humidity, food, competitors, etc.)
• Geographic - area (distribution area), i.e. the area in which the species lives.
• Genetic-reproductive - the same number and structure of chromosomes, which allows organisms to produce fertile offspring.

View criteria are relative, i.e. one cannot judge the species by one criterion. For example, there are twin species (in the malarial mosquito, in rats, etc.). They do not differ morphologically from each other, but have different amount chromosomes and therefore do not produce offspring. (That is, the morphological criterion does not work [relatively], but the genetic-reproductive one works).

1. Establish a correspondence between the trait of a honey bee and the criterion of the species to which it belongs: 1) morphological, 2) ecological. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
BUT) public image life
B) the difference in the size of males and females
C) development of larvae in combs
D) the presence of hair on the body
D) feeding on nectar and pollen of flowers
E) compound eyes

Answer

2. Establish a correspondence between the trait that characterizes the agile lizard and the species criterion: 1) morphological, 2) ecological
A) the body is brown
B) eats insects
B) is inactive at low temperatures
D) respiratory organs - lungs
D) breeds on land
E) the skin does not have glands

Answer

3. Establish a correspondence between the sign of a quick lizard and the criterion of the species that it illustrates: 1) morphological, 2) ecological
A) winter torpor
B) body length 25-28cm
B) spindle-shaped body
D) differences in the color of males and females
D) living on the edges of forests, in ravines and gardens
E) feeding on insects

Answer

4. Establish a correspondence between the sign of the mole and the criterion of the species to which this sign belongs: 1) morphological, 2) ecological. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) the body is covered with short hair
b) very small eyes
B) digs a passage in the soil
D) front paws are wide - digging
D) eats insects
E) breeds in the nesting chamber

Answer

1. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the species Wild pig (boar) and the criterion of the species to which this characteristic belongs: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological. Write down the numbers 1, 2 and 3 in the correct sequence.
A) The number of piglets in a brood depends on the fatness of the female and her age.
B) Pigs are active during the day.
C) Animals lead a herd life.
D) The color of individuals is from light brown or gray to black, the piglets are striped.
D) The method of obtaining food is digging the earth.
E) Pigs prefer oak and beech forests.

Answer

2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the common dolphin species (dolphin-dolphin) and the criterion of the species to which this characteristic belongs: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological
A) Predators, they feed on different types of fish.
B) Males are 6-10 cm larger than females.
C) Animals have mastered aquatic environment a habitat.
D) The size of the body is 160-260 centimeters.
E) Pregnancy of females lasts 10-11 months.
E) Animals lead a herd life.

Answer

3. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the Asian Porcupine species and the criterion of the species to which it belongs: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological. Write the numbers 1, 2 and 3 in the correct order.
A) Paws are equipped with long claws.
b) Animals eat plants.
C) Pregnancy of females lasts 110-115 days.
D) The longest and sparser needles grow on the lower back of animals.
E) The female secretes milk after the birth of the cubs.
E) Animals lead night image life.

Answer

4. Establish a correspondence between the signs of the tapeworm and the criteria of the species: 1) morphological, 2) ecological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1, 2, 3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) body size up to 3 m
B) on the head, in addition to suckers, there are hooks
C) an adult worm lives in the human small intestine
D) reproduces parthenogenetically
D) larvae develop in the body of domestic and wild pigs
E) pork tapeworms are highly prolific

Answer

5. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the blue whale species and the criteria for the species: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) Females breed every two years.
B) The female produces milk for seven months.
C) Whale lice and barnacles settle on the skin of whales.
D) Whalebone plates are pitch black.
E) The length of some individuals reaches 33 meters.
E) Sexual maturity of individuals occurs at four to five years.

Answer

6. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of a quick lizard and the criterion of the species to which it belongs: 1) morphological, 2) ecological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) ground type limbs
B) the presence of horny scales on the skin
B) the development of the embryo in the egg
D) laying eggs on land
D) fluctuating body temperature
E) feeding on insects

Answer

1. Establish a correspondence between examples and types of adaptation: 1) morphological, 2) ethological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1, 2, 3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) deaf nettle resembles stinging nettle
B) a chipmunk stores food for the winter
AT) bat goes into winter dormancy
D) when threatened, the opossum freezes
D) the shark has a torpedo-shaped body
E) bright coloring dart frogs

Answer

2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of organisms and types of adaptations: 1) behavioral, 2) morphological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) knotty stick insect
B) freezing in danger in an opossum
C) crystals of potassium oxalate on the hairs of leaves and shoots of stinging nettle
D) incubation of eggs in the mouth by tilapia
D) bright coloring of poison dart frogs
E) removal of excess water through the kidneys in the form of weakly concentrated urine by crayfish

Answer

Choose the one most correct option. What characteristic of the species Rosyanka rotundifolia should be attributed to the physiological criterion?
1) the flowers are regular, white, collected in an inflorescence brush
2) uses insect proteins as food
3) distributed in peat bogs
4) leaves form a basal rosette

Answer

Choose one, the most correct option. Find the name of the view criterion in the specified list
1) cytological
2) hybridological
3) genetic
4) population

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1. Select from the text three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. (1) The housefly is a two-winged insect that serves as food for insectivorous birds. (2) Her oral apparatus licking type. (3) Adult flies and their larvae feed on semi-liquid food. (4) Female flies lay their eggs on rotting organic matter. (5) Larvae white color, have no legs, grow rapidly and turn into red-brown pupae. (6) The adult fly develops from the pupa.

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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the plant species Pemphigus vulgaris. In your answer, write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Pemphigus vulgaris is mainly found in the Mediterranean region of Europe and Africa. (2) Pemphigus vulgaris grows in ditches, ponds, stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies, swamps. (3) Leaves of plants are dissected into numerous thread-like lobes, leaves and stems are provided with vesicles. (4) Pemphigus flowers from June to September. (5) Flowers are colored in yellow, sit 5-10 on the peduncle. (6) Pemphigus vulgaris is an insectivorous plant.

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3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the house mouse species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. (1) The house mouse is a mammal of the genus Mouse. (2) Original range - North Africa, tropics and subtropics of Eurasia. (3) Settles mainly near human habitation. (4) Leads a nocturnal and twilight lifestyle. (5) A litter usually has 5 to 7 babies. (6) Under natural conditions it feeds on seeds.

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4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criteria for the fieldfare thrush species. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Fieldfare thrush is a large bird. (2) Thrushes live in middle lane Russia. (3) Fieldfare thrushes settle along forest edges, in city squares and parks. (4) They feed on the ground, looking for earthworms, slugs and insects under dry leaves and moss. (5) In winter, they feed on the fruits of mountain ash, hawthorn and other berries that ripen on the bushes. (6) Fieldfare thrushes nest in small colonies ranging from 2-3 to several dozen nests.

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5. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the African ostrich species. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (one) African ostrich- a large plate weighing up to 90 kg and growing up to 3 m. (2) Lives in open savannahs and semi-deserts, to the north and south of the zone equatorial forests. (3) The beak is straight, flat, with a horny "claw" on the mandible, the eyes are large - the largest among land animals, with thick eyelashes on the upper eyelid. (4) The legs are powerful, two-toed, the plumage is loose, the barbs of the feathers do not interlock with each other and do not form feather plates. (5) The usual food is plants - shoots, flowers, seeds, fruits, but on occasion he eats small animals - insects (locust), reptiles, rodents and the remains of the meals of predators. (6) African ostrich can long time do without water, getting moisture from the plants eaten, however, on occasion, he willingly drinks and loves to swim.

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6. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion for the species of the cabbage white butterfly. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The cabbage white butterfly has a mealy-white color on the upper side of the wings. (2) There are dark spots on the front pair of wings. (3) In spring and summer, the butterfly lays its eggs on the leaves of cabbage or other cruciferous plants. (4) The eggs hatch into yellow caterpillars that feed on plant leaves. (5) Caterpillars become a bright blue-green color as they grow. (6) A grown caterpillar crawls onto a tree, turns into a chrysalis, which hibernates.

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7. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the species Cornflower blue (sowing). Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Blue cornflower is a weed plant of the Compositae family, found in fields in grain crops. (2) Often the plant lives along roads, near forest belts. (3) An upright cornflower stem reaches up to 100 cm in height. (4) The flowers are bright blue. (5) Blue cornflower is a light-loving plant. (6) The flowers contain essential oils, tannins and other substances.

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Choose one, the most correct option. To apply an ecological criterion to the description of an animal species means to characterize
1) variability of signs within the normal range of reaction
2) a set of external signs
3) the size of its range
4) a set of intended feed

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1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe morphological criterion species of rhinoceros beetle. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The rhinoceros beetle lives in the European part of Russia. (2) Its body is brown. (3) Sexual dimorphism is well expressed. (4) Rhinoceros beetle larvae develop in compost heaps. (5) Males have a horn on their heads. (6) Beetles can fly into the light.

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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the shrub cherry species. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Shrub cherry is a low shrub or small tree 3-6 m high. (2) Brown bark, ellipse-shaped leaves, pointed. (3) Bush cherry is one of the ancestors of common cherry varieties. (4) Grows in Russia in the European part of the country and in the south of Western Siberia. (5) The flowers are white, collected 2-3 in an umbel inflorescence. (6) Cherry blossoms in April-May, and the fruits ripen in early summer.

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3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion for the species of oak veronica. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Veronica oak grows in forest clearings, meadows, hillsides. (2) The plant has a creeping rhizome and a stem 10-40 cm tall. (3) Leaves with serrated edges. (4) Veronica oakwood blooms from late May to August. (5) Pollinated by bees and flies. (6) Flowers are small, of blue color collected in inflorescence raceme.

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4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the species Field Sparrow. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The field sparrow is distributed throughout Eurasia, excluding Far North, northeast and southwest Asia. (2) The field sparrow is somewhat smaller than the house sparrow, but has a more slender body, brown crown and black spots on white cheeks. (3) Individuals of the species weigh approximately 20–25 g. (4) Sparrows nest along the edges of groves, in light forests, and parks. (5) The clutch usually consists of five or six eggs. (6) The eggs are white or greyish in color with numerous small dark speckles.

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5. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the species of Scots pine. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.(1) Scotch pine is a photophilous plant. (2) When its seed germinates, five to nine photosynthetic cotyledons appear. (3) Pine is able to develop on any soil. (4) Green pine leaves are needle-shaped and arranged in pairs on short shoots. (5) The elongated shoots are arranged in whorls that form once a year. (6) Pollen from the male cones is carried by the wind to the female cones, where fertilization takes place.

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1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the genetic criteria for a species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) There are a number of criteria by which one species differs from another. (2) Each species has its own specific karyotype. (3) An important feature of a species is its habitat. (4) In individuals of the same species, chromosomes have a similar structure. (5) somatic cells Humans have 46 chromosomes. (6) Most mammals are sexually dimorphic.

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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the genetic criterion for the Black Rat animal species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) It has been established that two species are hidden under the name "black rat": rats with 38 and 42 chromosomes. (2) The black rat lives in Europe, in most countries of Asia, Africa, America, Australia; its distribution is not continuous, but is associated mainly with human dwellings in port cities. (3) The ranges of such species may overlap geographically, and in the same area outwardly indistinguishable individuals of black rats may live side by side without breeding. (4) Differences in the karyotype of different species provide isolation in interspecific crossing, because they cause the death of gametes, zygotes, embryos, or lead to the birth of infertile offspring. (5) In Europe, two races of the black rat are approximately equally distributed, of which one has a typical black-brown fur color, darker than that of the gray rat, and the other is practically blond, with a white belly, similar in color to ground squirrels. (6) Studies of the number, shape, size and structure of chromosomes make it possible to reliably distinguish twin species.

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Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Which of the following is not a type criteria?
1) Genetic
2) Biocenotic
3) Cellular
4) Geographic
5) Morphological

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1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe physiological criterion species of yellow ground squirrel. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Yellow ground squirrel lives in desert uncultivated lands. (2) The ground squirrel feeds on the succulent parts of the steppe grasses, plant bulbs and seeds. (3) It also eats insects: locusts, grasshoppers, beetles and caterpillars. (4) A female gives birth to an average of seven cubs. (5) During the heat of summer and winter, it hibernates. (6) During hibernation, the body temperature of the animal drops to 1-2 ° C, the heart beats at a frequency of 5 beats per minute.

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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criterion for the type of animal Terrible poison dart frog. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) One of the most venomous vertebrates on Earth, these small tree frogs found in a small area of ​​southwestern Colombia, mainly in the lower tiers of tropical rainforests. (2) They have bright, contrasting coloration, males and females are of the same size. (3) The skin glands of the dire dart frog secrete a mucus containing a strong poison, batrachotoxin. (4) The venom protects the animal both from fungi and bacteria, and from natural enemies that can get fatal poisoning if the dart frog venom gets on the skin or mucous membranes. (5) Dart frogs are diurnal, in nature they feed mainly on ants, other small insects and ticks. (6) Animals are very active, and fasting for 3-4 days can not only weaken a healthy, well-fed individual, but also cause her death.

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3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criteria for the thermophilic bacterium Thiobacillus thermophilica. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) An ecologically distinct group in nature is represented by thermophilic microorganisms living in nature at temperatures from 40 to 93 degrees. (2) Hot springs North Caucasus, rich in hydrogen sulfide, are abundant with thermophilic species of thionic bacteria, such as the thiobacterium Thiobacillus thermophilica. (3) This thermophilic bacterium is capable of dividing and developing at temperatures ranging from 40 to 70-83 degrees. (4) The membranes of thermophilic bacteria have high mechanical strength. (5) Thermophilic bacteria have enzymes that can function when high temperatures, providing the necessary rate of chemical reactions in the cell. (6) Spores of thermophilic bacteria are much more heat resistant than spores of mesophilic forms, and maximum speed colony growth occurs at an optimal temperature of 55-60 degrees.

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4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criterion of the species Silver Poplar. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Poplars grow very quickly, reaching their final height at the age of forty. (2) The height of poplar trees ranges from 30 to 60 meters. (3) The plant does not live long, mostly up to eighty years. (4) Poplar roots are thick, strong, in many species located superficially. (5) Kidney cells form a sticky, resinous substance. (6) The wood of the tree is soft and very light, the trunk is straight, the crown can have a variety of shapes.

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2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and criteria of the species: 1) physiological, 2) ecological. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) herbivore
B) pregnancy within one month
B) nocturnal
D) the birth of several cubs
D) high heart rate

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1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the type of tuatara. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The only modern representative of the beak-headed reptiles. (2) Outwardly similar to a lizard, up to 75 cm long, along the back and tail there is a crest of triangular scales. (3) Before the arrival of Europeans, inhabited the Northern and southern islands New Zealand. (4) At the end of the 19th century, it was exterminated and survived only on nearby islands in a special reserve. (5) Listed in the Red Book of the International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural resources(IUCN). (6) Successfully bred at the Sydney Zoo.

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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the type of plant Siberian cedar pine. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Siberian cedar pine, or Siberian cedar - one of the species of the genus Pine; evergreen tree, reaching 35-44 m in height and 2 m in trunk diameter. (2) Cedar is very common in Western Siberia throughout the forest belt from 48 to 66 degrees N, and in Eastern Siberia due to permafrost, the northern border of the range deviates sharply to the south. (3) In Siberia, it prefers sandy and loamy soils, but can also grow on stony substrates and sphagnum bogs. (4) In Central Altai, the upper boundary of Siberian pine distribution lies at an altitude of 1900-2000 m above sea level. (5) Siberian cedar also grows in Mongolia and northern China. (6) Siberian cedar pine frost-resistant, shade-tolerant, demanding on heat, air and soil humidity, avoids soils with close occurrence of permafrost.

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3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the type of animal European grayling. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) European grayling - freshwater fish of the grayling subfamily of the salmon family, weighing up to seven kilograms. (2) The life of these fish is associated with a certain water temperature, so grayling is not found in grassy places, deep coastal bays and fiords. (3) This species of fish lives in the basins of the White and Baltic Seas, in the basin of the Northern Arctic Ocean, from Finland to the Tyumen region. (4) Smaller graylings live in the rivers, their weight barely reaches the weight of more than 1 kg. (5) Fish, making seasonal migrations in search of food, reach the upper reaches of the Dniester, Volga and Ural rivers. (6) Grayling is also found in the large northern lakes of the European part of Russia - Onega, Ladoga and some other reservoirs, in which it chooses rocky, less often sandy shallows.

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4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the species of the Song Thrush. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Song Thrush - small songbird from the thrush family, living in Europe, Asia Minor and Siberia. (2) The song thrush inhabits different types forests and equally numerous in deciduous forests, and in the taiga. (3) Adult birds feed on invertebrates, song thrushes feed their chicks with various insects and small worms, and in autumn they eat various berries and fruits. (4) The range of the song thrush characterizes it as a northern, cold-resistant bird, choosing forests with young spruce or juniper for nesting sites. (5) Actively inhabits the northern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula and is numerous in the East European forest-tundra, penetrating even into the tundra, actively spreading to the east. (6) Absent in Southern Europe, on the islands mediterranean sea, although there are biotopes suitable for song thrushes.

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1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe biochemical criterion nettle species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Stinging nettle is a perennial herbaceous plant with a strong root and a long horizontal branching rhizome. (2) Nettles are protected from being eaten by herbivores by stinging hairs found on all parts of the plant. (3) Each hair is a large cell. (4) The wall of the hair contains silicon salts, which make it brittle. (5) The content of formic acid in the cell sap of the hairs does not exceed 1.34%. (6) Young nettle leaves contain many vitamins, so they are used as food.

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1. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic features of the type Bittersweet nightshade and the criteria of the species to which they belong: 1) morphological, 2) ecological, 3) biochemical. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) Poisonous substances are formed and accumulated in the plant.
B) Ripe berries contain a lot of sugar.
C) The berries are bright red in color.
D) The flowers are lilac, have the correct shape.
D) Plants are common in vegetable gardens and river banks.
E) Plant height - 30-80 centimeters.

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2. Establish a correspondence between the features and criteria of the species Stinging nettle: 1) ecological, 2) morphological, 3) biochemical. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) a perennial plant with a strong root and a long rhizome
B) grows in forest clearings, in weedy places, along fences
C) ascorbic acid, carotene, vitamins B and K are formed in the leaves
D) nettle blooms from early summer to early autumn
D) flowers are small, unisexual, with a greenish perianth
E) potassium oxalate accumulates in leaf cells

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