What are the type criteria? Lesson View. Species criteria Physiological biochemical species criteria Animal examples
Nature has created the living world in such a way that each type of organisms differs from the other in the way of feeding, as well as in the territory of residence. If we take, for example, birds, we can see that there are visible differences between the tit, the chickadee, and the blue tit in the choice of insects for providing themselves with food, as well as in the processes of obtaining food. Someone seeks out food for himself in the bark of a tree, and someone - in the leaves of plants. Moreover, they all belong to the genus of tits.
Of course, ecological criterion is not multifunctional in terms of features, because science has proven that some animals various kinds may have identical properties according to this criterion. For example, everyone eats small crustaceans, and their way of life also coincides, although they live in different seas.
What is a view?
Let us examine in detail what he means. In the scientific world, he assumes a set of living beings and plants that have the ability to interbreed with each other, as well as have offspring.
The species falls under the definition because today it is precisely a group of related organic formations that have the same root cause of occurrence, but in this moment they are endowed with certain features of a morphological, physiological and biochemical nature, separated by natural or artificial selection from other species groups and adapted to a specific habitat.
Formation of new species
How are views created? - the main engines of the formation of new types. In the first case, the emergence of qualitatively new family groups and orders, which appeared as a result of long-term microevolutionary changes, is implied. In the second one, it happens difficult process mutations that gradually separate entire families and orders, forming new species. And in this case they become a separate complex of organisms.
That is, thanks to microevolution, which is also defined as "supraspecific", species are even more divided in terms of their qualities, transforming into groups with the same set of features. This can be understood by the example of the ecological criterion of species: there exists and hard grade, which means that in a general sense it is a genus of wheat, but there are grains of rye, wheat and barley, and they are all representatives of the cereal family. From this we can conclude that all samples of any families are descended from some common ancestor, thanks to the microevolutionary processes that happened in the population of this progenitor itself.
What is the ecological criterion of a species
The definition is a complex impact ecological signs seen in its range. These signs are divided into groups: biotic factors(when living organisms influence each other, for example, by pollinating plants by bees), abiotic factors (the influence of temperature, humidity, light, topography, soil, water salinity, wind, and so on on the development of living organisms) and anthropogenic factors(human impact on surrounding flora and fauna).
In all species of the animal and plant world, constructive signs of adaptation to environment during evolution, and the nature of the habitat for the entire species is the same. What examples of the ecological criterion of a species can be given if it is considered from this point of view? The unity of the species is associated with the free crossing of individuals. Plus, historical development shows that over time, a species may develop a completely new adaptation, for example, giving certain signals to each other when a situation arises, or the appearance of a group defense against enemies.
An example of an ecological criterion for a species would be isolation. That is, when ecological conditions are different for the same species, differences in their behavior and morphological structure will be significant. A good illustration are urban and rural swifts. If they are planted in one cell, then there will be no offspring, because during their life in different ecological conditions, individuals of this species have developed various morphological, physiological and other characteristics. But they continue to be under the "roof" of the same species, and this is an example of the ecological criterion of an animal species.
Flora in ecological criteria
Examples of the ecological criterion of a species in plants are those that can form several ecotypes, some of them will live in the plains, and others in highlands. These include, for example, St. John's wort, some species of which, thanks to microevolution, quickly adapted to new growing conditions.
The influence of the external environment on the evolution of the species
The famous researcher Lamarck believed that greatest influence on a living organism has an inorganic environment, that is, its physical and chemical compositions(temperature, climatic conditions, water resources, soil composition, etc.). Everything that fell under their influence could change the types of living organisms, giving them the characteristics inherent in a given ecological niche. Due to forced adaptation, the animal (plant) began to change, thereby forming the new kind or subspecies. This can be called an example of the ecological criterion of a species.
Temperature regime within the ecological criterion
An example of a species according to an ecological criterion can be a living organism adapted to different temperature regimes. During adaptation, a biochemical change occurs internal organs and fabrics. Due to the fact that animals can live in low, high or fluctuating temperatures, they are divided into groups: cold-blooded, warm-blooded and heterothermal.
Given that heat sources are both external and internal factors, then, considering the first group using the example of lizards, you can see that they prefer to bask in the sun rather than hide in the shade. This means that their internal ability to thermoregulate is very low. Being under the heat flow, they increase the body temperature quickly enough. However, by evaporating the accumulated moisture, the lizard can reduce it to a comfortable level. Such species are organisms inferior development. But despite this, to exist low temperatures without external heat they cannot.
From examples of biology: the ecological criterion for the species of a warm-blooded group includes almost all mammals and birds. Thermoregulation in their bodies occurs on the physical (breathing, evaporation, etc.) and chemical (intensity in metabolism) plan. In addition, warm-blooded organisms can shiver, thereby raising their body temperature, in animals with feathers and undercoat, thermal insulation occurs when they are raised. Cold wind or hot sun, such organisms have to look for an alternative: a shade of coolness or good shelter from frostbite.
The third group is an intermediate stage between the first two. This usually includes species of primitive animals and birds, as well as those living organisms that have their own hibernation period, that is, they themselves can control body temperature, reduce or increase it. As an example, we can take a marmot, which in winter, falling into hibernation, lowers its body temperature to six degrees, and during the active period of life raises it to human.
The influence of soil on the development of the species
In addition to climatic conditions, it is very important for the species soil environment range. In this case, representatives of underground inhabitants can be taken as an example of the ecological criterion of a species. Little "diggers" have only one function for survival - it is to dig their own dwelling as best and as deep as possible so that not a single predator can get them.
They use their limbs, which are adapted for certain kind soil, that is, with a change in the place of residence in the form of soil, the limbs must adapt from time to time. All living organisms like the mole have a similar paw structure, and living underground has adapted the animal to lack of oxygen and suffocation, and this is an inevitable situation.
The value of atmospheric precipitation on the example of the ecological criterion of the species
Special differences in the structure of the body are possessed by creatures that have adapted to snow cover, frequent rainfall, hail, high humidity and so on. In biology, the ecological criterion of a species will be the change in the animal cover to match the color of the snow. This happens in birds, hares, for example white partridge turns really white, changing feather plumage.
Winter "clothing" is much warmer, and constant exposure to snow increases heat transfer. How? It turns out that under a layer of snow the air temperature is much higher than outside. Therefore, hibernating bears endure the winter perfectly, spending the night in snow dens. Organisms develop special adaptations on their limbs for movement on snow, whether it be sharp claws for walking on ice or webbed feet for moving through tropical flooded forests.
Since the ecology on the planet is constantly changing, the processes of microevolution, during which living beings adapt to new living conditions, continue.
A species is a collection of individuals that are similar in terms of the criteria of the species to such an extent that they can vivo interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
A fertile offspring is one that can reproduce itself. An example of infertile offspring is a mule (a hybrid of a donkey and a horse), it is sterile.
View criteria- these are signs by which 2 organisms are compared to determine whether they belong to the same species or to different ones.
- Morphological - internal and external structure.
- Physiological and biochemical - how organs and cells work.
- Behavioral - behavior, especially at the time of reproduction.
- Ecological - a combination of factors external environment necessary for the life of the species (temperature, humidity, food, competitors, etc.)
- Geographic - area (distribution area), i.e. the area in which the species lives.
- Genetic-reproductive - the same number and structure of chromosomes, which allows organisms to produce fertile offspring.
View criteria are relative, i.e. one cannot judge the species by one criterion. For example, there are twin species (in malarial mosquito, in rats, etc.). They do not differ morphologically from each other, but have different amount chromosomes and therefore do not produce offspring. (That is, the morphological criterion does not work [relatively], but the genetic-reproductive one works).
1. Establish a correspondence between the trait of a honey bee and the criterion of the species to which it belongs: 1) morphological, 2) ecological. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
BUT) public image life
B) the difference in the size of males and females
C) development of larvae in combs
D) the presence of hair on the body
D) feeding on nectar and pollen of flowers
E) compound eyes
Answer
2. Establish a correspondence between the trait that characterizes the agile lizard and the species criterion: 1) morphological, 2) ecological
A) the body is brown
B) eats insects
B) is inactive at low temperatures
D) respiratory organs - lungs
D) breeds on land
E) the skin does not have glands
Answer
3. Establish a correspondence between the sign of a quick lizard and the criterion of the species that it illustrates: 1) morphological, 2) ecological
A) winter torpor
B) body length 25-28cm
B) spindle-shaped body
D) differences in the color of males and females
D) living on the edges of forests, in ravines and gardens
E) feeding on insects
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4. Establish a correspondence between the sign of the mole and the criterion of the species to which this sign belongs: 1) morphological, 2) ecological. Write the numbers 1 and 2 in the correct order.
A) the body is covered with short hair
b) very small eyes
B) digs a passage in the soil
D) front paws are wide - digging
D) eats insects
E) breeds in the nesting chamber
Answer
1. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the species wild pig(boar) and the criterion of the species to which this characteristic is referred: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological. Write down the numbers 1, 2 and 3 in the correct sequence.
A) The number of piglets in a brood depends on the fatness of the female and her age.
B) Pigs are active during the day.
C) Animals lead a herd life.
D) The color of individuals is from light brown or gray to black, the piglets are striped.
D) The method of obtaining food is digging the earth.
E) Pigs prefer oak and beech forests.
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2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the common dolphin species (dolphin-dolphin) and the criterion of the species to which this characteristic belongs: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological
A) Predators, they feed on different types of fish.
B) Males are 6-10 cm larger than females.
C) Animals have mastered aquatic environment a habitat.
D) The size of the body is 160-260 centimeters.
E) Pregnancy of females lasts 10-11 months.
E) Animals lead a herd life.
Answer
3. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the Asian Porcupine species and the criterion of the species to which it belongs: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological. Write the numbers 1, 2 and 3 in the correct order.
A) Paws are equipped with long claws.
b) Animals eat plants.
C) Pregnancy of females lasts 110-115 days.
D) The longest and sparser needles grow on the lower back of animals.
E) The female secretes milk after the birth of the cubs.
E) Animals are nocturnal.
Answer
4. Establish a correspondence between the signs of the tapeworm and the criteria of the species: 1) morphological, 2) ecological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1, 2, 3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) body size up to 3 m
B) on the head, in addition to suckers, there are hooks
C) an adult worm lives in small intestine human
D) reproduces parthenogenetically
D) larvae develop in the body of domestic and wild pigs
E) pork tapeworms are highly prolific
Answer
5. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of the blue whale species and the criteria for the species: 1) morphological, 2) physiological, 3) ecological. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) Females breed every two years.
B) The female produces milk for seven months.
C) Whale lice and barnacles settle on the skin of whales.
D) Whalebone plates are pitch black.
E) The length of some individuals reaches 33 meters.
E) Sexual maturity of individuals occurs at four to five years.
Answer
6. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of a quick lizard and the criterion of the species to which it belongs: 1) morphological, 2) ecological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) ground type limbs
B) the presence of horny scales on the skin
B) the development of the embryo in the egg
D) laying eggs on land
D) fluctuating body temperature
E) feeding on insects
Answer
1. Establish a correspondence between examples and types of adaptation: 1) morphological, 2) ethological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1, 2, 3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) deaf nettle resembles stinging nettle
B) a chipmunk stores food for the winter
C) the bat falls into a state of winter dormancy
D) when threatened, the opossum freezes
D) the shark has a torpedo-shaped body
E) bright coloring dart frogs
Answer
2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics of organisms and types of adaptations: 1) behavioral, 2) morphological, 3) physiological. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) knotty stick insect
B) freezing in danger in an opossum
C) crystals of potassium oxalate on the hairs of leaves and shoots of stinging nettle
D) incubation of eggs in the mouth by tilapia
D) bright coloring of poison dart frogs
E) removal of excess water through the kidneys in the form of weakly concentrated urine by crayfish
Answer
Choose one, the most correct option. What characteristic of the species Rosyanka rotundifolia should be attributed to the physiological criterion?
1) the flowers are regular, white, collected in an inflorescence brush
2) uses insect proteins as food
3) distributed in peat bogs
4) leaves form a basal rosette
Answer
Choose one, the most correct option. Find the name of the view criterion in the specified list
1) cytological
2) hybridological
3) genetic
4) population
Answer
1. Select from the text three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. (1) The housefly is a two-winged insect that serves as food for insectivorous birds. (2) Her oral apparatus licking type. (3) Adult flies and their larvae feed on semi-liquid food. (4) Female flies lay their eggs on rotting organic matter. (5) The larvae are white, have no legs, grow rapidly and turn into red-brown pupae. (6) The adult fly develops from the pupa.
Answer
2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the plant species Pemphigus vulgaris. In your answer, write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Pemphigus vulgaris is mainly found in the Mediterranean region of Europe and Africa. (2) Pemphigus vulgaris grows in ditches, ponds, stagnant and slow-flowing water bodies, swamps. (3) Leaves of plants are dissected into numerous thread-like lobes, leaves and stems are provided with vesicles. (4) Pemphigus flowers from June to September. (5) Flowers are colored in yellow, sit 5-10 on the peduncle. (6) Pemphigus vulgaris is an insectivorous plant.
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3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the house mouse species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated in the table. (1) The house mouse is a mammal of the genus Mouse. (2) Original range - North Africa, tropics and subtropics of Eurasia. (3) Settles mainly near human habitation. (4) Leads a nocturnal and twilight lifestyle. (5) A litter usually has 5 to 7 babies. (6) Under natural conditions it feeds on seeds.
Answer
4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criteria for the fieldfare thrush species. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Fieldfare thrush is a large bird. (2) Thrushes live in middle lane Russia. (3) Fieldfare thrushes settle on forest edges, in city squares and parks. (4) They feed on the ground, looking for earthworms, slugs and insects under dry leaves and moss. (5) In winter, they feed on the fruits of mountain ash, hawthorn and other berries that ripen on the bushes. (6) Fieldfare thrushes nest in small colonies ranging from 2-3 to several dozen nests.
Answer
5. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the African ostrich species. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (one) African ostrich- a large plate weighing up to 90 kg and growing up to 3 m. (2) Lives in open savannahs and semi-deserts, to the north and south of the zone equatorial forests. (3) The beak is straight, flat, with a horny "claw" on the mandible, the eyes are large - the largest among land animals, with thick eyelashes on the upper eyelid. (4) The legs are powerful, two-toed, the plumage is loose, the barbs of the feathers do not interlock with each other and do not form feather plates. (5) The usual food is plants - shoots, flowers, seeds, fruits, but on occasion it also eats small animals - insects (locusts), reptiles, rodents and the remains of the meals of predators. (6) The African ostrich can go without water for a long time, getting moisture from the plants it eats, but on occasion it likes to drink and likes to bathe.
Answer
6. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion for the species of the cabbage white butterfly. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The cabbage white butterfly has a mealy-white color on the upper side of the wings. (2) There are dark spots on the front pair of wings. (3) In spring and summer, the butterfly lays its eggs on the leaves of cabbage or other cruciferous plants. (4) The eggs hatch into yellow caterpillars that feed on plant leaves. (5) Caterpillars become a bright blue-green color as they grow. (6) A grown caterpillar crawls onto a tree, turns into a chrysalis, which hibernates.
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7. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the ecological criterion of the species Cornflower blue (sowing). Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Blue cornflower is a weed plant of the Compositae family, found in fields in grain crops. (2) Often the plant lives along roads, near forest belts. (3) An upright cornflower stem reaches up to 100 cm in height. (4) The flowers are bright blue. (5) Blue cornflower is a light-loving plant. (6) The flowers contain essential oils, tannins and other substances.
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Choose one, the most correct option. To apply an ecological criterion to the description of an animal species means to characterize
1) variability of signs within the normal range of reaction
2) a set of external signs
3) the size of its range
4) a set of intended feed
Answer
1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the rhinoceros beetle species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The rhinoceros beetle lives in the European part of Russia. (2) Its body is brown. (3) Sexual dimorphism is well expressed. (4) Rhinoceros beetle larvae develop in compost heaps. (5) Males have a horn on their heads. (6) Beetles can fly into the light.
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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the shrub cherry species. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Shrub cherry is a low shrub or small tree 3-6 m high. (2) Brown bark, ellipse-shaped leaves, pointed. (3) Bush cherry is one of the ancestors of common cherry varieties. (4) Grows in Russia in the European part of the country and in the south of Western Siberia. (5) The flowers are white, collected 2-3 in an umbel inflorescence. (6) Cherry blossoms in April-May, and the fruits ripen in early summer.
Answer
3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion for the species of oak veronica. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Veronica oak grows in forest clearings, meadows, hillsides. (2) The plant has a creeping rhizome and a stem 10-40 cm tall. (3) Leaves with serrated edges. (4) Veronica oakwood blooms from late May to August. (5) Pollinated by bees and flies. (6) The flowers are small, blue, collected in a raceme inflorescence.
Answer
4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the species Field Sparrow. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The field sparrow is distributed throughout Eurasia, excluding Far North, northeast and southwest Asia. (2) The field sparrow is somewhat smaller than the house sparrow, but has a more slender body, brown crown and black spots on white cheeks. (3) Individuals of the species weigh approximately 20–25 g. (4) Sparrows nest along the edges of groves, in light forests, and parks. (5) The clutch usually consists of five or six eggs. (6) The eggs are white or greyish in color with numerous small dark speckles.
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5. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the morphological criterion of the species of Scots pine. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated.(1) Scotch pine is a photophilous plant. (2) When its seed germinates, five to nine photosynthetic cotyledons appear. (3) Pine is able to develop on any soil. (4) Green pine leaves are needle-shaped and arranged in pairs on short shoots. (5) The elongated shoots are arranged in whorls that form once a year. (6) Pollen from the male cones is carried by the wind to the female cones, where fertilization takes place.
Answer
1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the genetic criteria for a species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) There are a number of criteria by which one species differs from another. (2) Each species has its own specific karyotype. (3) An important feature of a species is its habitat. (4) In individuals of the same species, chromosomes have a similar structure. (5) Human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes. (6) Most mammals are sexually dimorphic.
Answer
2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the genetic criterion for the Black Rat animal species. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) It has been established that two species are hidden under the name "black rat": rats with 38 and 42 chromosomes. (2) The black rat lives in Europe, in most countries of Asia, Africa, America, Australia; its distribution is not continuous, but is associated mainly with human dwellings in port cities. (3) The ranges of such species may overlap geographically, and in the same area outwardly indistinguishable individuals of black rats may live side by side without breeding. (4) Differences in karyotype different types provide isolation during interspecific crossing, because they cause the death of gametes, zygotes, embryos or lead to the birth of infertile offspring. (5) In Europe, two races of the black rat are approximately equally distributed, of which one has a typical black-brown fur color, darker than that of the gray rat, and the other is practically blond, with a white belly, similar in color to ground squirrels. (6) Studies of the number, shape, size and structure of chromosomes make it possible to reliably distinguish twin species.
Answer
Choose two correct answers from five and write down the numbers under which they are indicated. Which of the following is not a type criteria?
1) Genetic
2) Biocenotic
3) Cellular
4) Geographic
5) Morphological
Answer
1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criteria for the type of yellow ground squirrel. Write down the numbers under which the selected statements are indicated. (1) Yellow ground squirrel lives in desert uncultivated lands. (2) The ground squirrel feeds on the succulent parts of the steppe grasses, plant bulbs and seeds. (3) It also eats insects: locusts, grasshoppers, beetles and caterpillars. (4) A female gives birth to an average of seven cubs. (5) During the heat of summer and winter, it hibernates. (6) During hibernation, the body temperature of the animal drops to 1-2 ° C, the heart beats at a frequency of 5 beats per minute.
Answer
2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criterion for the type of animal Terrible poison dart frog. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) One of the most venomous vertebrates on Earth, these small tree frogs found in a small area of southwestern Colombia, mainly in the lower tiers of rain rainforest. (2) They have bright, contrasting coloration, males and females are of the same size. (3) The skin glands of the dire dart frog secrete a mucus containing a strong poison, batrachotoxin. (4) The poison protects the animal both from fungi and bacteria and from natural enemies who can receive fatal poisoning if the dart frog venom gets on the skin or mucous membranes. (5) Dart frogs are diurnal, in nature they feed mainly on ants, other small insects and ticks. (6) Animals are very active, and fasting for 3-4 days can not only weaken a healthy, well-fed individual, but also cause her death.
Answer
3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criteria for the thermophilic bacterium Thiobacillus thermophilica. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) An ecologically distinct group in nature is represented by thermophilic microorganisms living in nature at temperatures from 40 to 93 degrees. (2) Hot springs North Caucasus, rich in hydrogen sulfide, are abundant with thermophilic species of thionic bacteria, such as the thiobacterium Thiobacillus thermophilica. (3) This thermophilic bacterium is capable of division and development at temperature regime from 40 to 70-83 degrees. (4) The membranes of thermophilic bacteria have high mechanical strength. (5) Thermophilic bacteria have enzymes that can function when high temperatures providing the necessary speed chemical reactions in a cage. (6) Spores of thermophilic bacteria are much more heat resistant than spores of mesophilic forms, and maximum speed colony growth occurs at an optimal temperature of 55-60 degrees.
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4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the physiological criterion of the species Silver Poplar. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Poplars grow very quickly, reaching their final height at the age of forty. (2) The height of poplar trees ranges from 30 to 60 meters. (3) The plant does not live long, mostly up to eighty years. (4) Poplar roots are thick, strong, in many species located superficially. (5) Kidney cells form a sticky, resinous substance. (6) The wood of the tree is soft and very light, the trunk is straight, the crown can have a variety of shapes.
Answer
Answer
2. Establish a correspondence between the characteristics and criteria of the species: 1) physiological, 2) ecological. Write down the numbers 1 and 2 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) herbivore
B) pregnancy within one month
B) nocturnal
D) the birth of several cubs
D) high heart rate
Answer
1. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the type of tuatara. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) The only modern representative of the beak-headed reptiles. (2) Outwardly similar to a lizard, up to 75 cm long, along the back and tail there is a crest of triangular scales. (3) Before the arrival of Europeans, inhabited the North and South Islands of New Zealand. (4) At the end of the 19th century, it was exterminated and survived only on nearby islands in a special reserve. (5) Listed in the Red Book International Union nature conservation and natural resources(IUCN). (6) Successfully bred at the Sydney Zoo.
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2. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the type of plant Siberian cedar pine. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Siberian cedar pine, or Siberian cedar - one of the species of the genus Pine; evergreen tree, reaching 35-44 m in height and 2 m in trunk diameter. (2) Cedar is very common in Western Siberia throughout the forest belt from 48 to 66 degrees N, and in Eastern Siberia in connection with permafrost the northern border of the range deviates sharply to the south. (3) In Siberia, it prefers sandy and loamy soils, but can also grow on stony substrates and sphagnum bogs. (4) In Central Altai, the upper boundary of Siberian pine distribution lies at an altitude of 1900-2000 m above sea level. (5) Siberian cedar also grows in Mongolia and northern China. (6) Siberian cedar pine is frost-resistant, shade-tolerant, demanding on heat, air and soil moisture, avoids soils with close occurrence of permafrost.
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3. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the type of animal European grayling. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) European grayling - freshwater fish subfamilies of graylings of the salmon family, weighing up to seven kilograms. (2) The life of these fish is associated with a certain water temperature, so grayling is not found in grassy places, deep coastal bays and fiords. (3) This species of fish lives in the basins of the White and Baltic Seas, in the basin of the North Arctic Ocean, from Finland to the Tyumen region. (4) Smaller graylings live in the rivers, their weight barely reaches the weight of more than 1 kg. (5) Pisces, making seasonal migrations in search of food, they reach the upper reaches of the Dniester, Volga and Ural rivers. (6) Grayling is also found in the large northern lakes of the European part of Russia - Onega, Ladoga and some other reservoirs, in which it chooses rocky, less often sandy shallows.
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4. Read the text. Choose three sentences that describe the geographical criterion for the species of the Song Thrush. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Song Thrush - small songbird from the thrush family, living in Europe, Asia Minor and Siberia. (2) The song thrush inhabits different types forests and equally numerous in deciduous forests and in the taiga. (3) Adult birds feed on invertebrates, song thrushes feed their young on various insects and small worms, and in autumn they eat various berries and fruits. (4) The range of the song thrush characterizes it as a northern, cold-resistant bird, choosing forests with young spruce or juniper for nesting sites. (5) Actively inhabits the northern regions of the Scandinavian Peninsula and is numerous in the East European forest tundra, penetrating even into the tundra, actively spreading to the east. (6) Absent in Southern Europe, on the islands of the Mediterranean Sea, although there are biotopes suitable for song thrushes.
Answer
1. Read the text. Select three sentences that describe the biochemical criterion for the species Stinging nettle. Write down the numbers under which they are indicated. (1) Stinging nettle is a perennial herbaceous plant with a strong root and a long horizontal branching rhizome. (2) Nettles are protected from being eaten by herbivores by stinging hairs found on all parts of the plant. (3) Each hair is a large cell. (4) The wall of the hair contains silicon salts, which make it brittle. (5) The content of formic acid in the cell sap of the hairs does not exceed 1.34%. (6) Young nettle leaves contain many vitamins, so they are used as food.
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1. Establish a correspondence between the characteristic features of the type Bittersweet nightshade and the criteria of the species to which they are referred: 1) morphological, 2) ecological, 3) biochemical. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) Poisonous substances are formed and accumulated in the plant.
B) Ripe berries contain a lot of sugar.
C) The berries are bright red in color.
D) The flowers are lilac, have the correct shape.
D) Plants are common in vegetable gardens and river banks.
E) Plant height - 30-80 centimeters.
Answer
2. Establish a correspondence between the features and criteria of the species Stinging nettle: 1) ecological, 2) morphological, 3) biochemical. Write down the numbers 1-3 in the order corresponding to the letters.
A) a perennial plant with a strong root and a long rhizome
B) grows in forest clearings, in weedy places, along fences
C) ascorbic acid, carotene, vitamins B and K are formed in the leaves
D) nettle blooms from early summer to early autumn
D) flowers are small, unisexual, with a greenish perianth
E) potassium oxalate accumulates in leaf cells
Answer
© D.V. Pozdnyakov, 2009-2019
View. View criteria
Vertyanov S. Yu.
Distinguishing supraspecific taxa is, as a rule, quite easy, but a clear distinction between the species themselves encounters certain difficulties. Some species occupy geographically separated areas of habitat (ranges) and therefore do not interbreed, but in artificial conditions give fertile offspring. Linnean's brief definition of a species as a group of individuals that interbreed freely and produce fertile offspring does not apply to organisms that reproduce parthenogenetically or asexually (bacteria and unicellular animals, many higher plants), as well as to extinct forms.
The set of distinguishing features of a species is called its criterion.
The morphological criterion is based on the similarity of individuals of the same species in terms of a set of external and internal structure. Morphological criterion is one of the main ones, but in some cases morphological similarity is not enough. The malarial mosquito was previously referred to as six non-interbreeding similar species, of which only one carries malaria. There are so-called twin species. Two species of black rats, outwardly almost indistinguishable, live separately and do not interbreed. The males of many creatures, such as birds (bullfinches, pheasants), outwardly bear little resemblance to females. Adult male and female threadtail eels are so dissimilar that for half a century scientists placed them in different genera, and sometimes even in different families and suborders.
Physiological and biochemical criterion
It is based on the similarity of the life processes of individuals of the same species. Some species of rodents have the ability to hibernate, while others do not. Many related plant species differ in their ability to synthesize and accumulate certain substances. Biochemical analysis makes it possible to distinguish between types of unicellular organisms that do not reproduce sexually. Anthrax bacilli, for example, produce proteins that are not found in other types of bacteria.
The possibilities of the physiological-biochemical criterion are limited. Some proteins have not only species, but also individual specificity. There are biochemical signs that are the same in representatives of not only different species, but even orders and types. Physiological processes can proceed in a similar way in different species. Thus, the metabolic rate of some arctic fish the same as in other fish species of the southern seas.
Genetic criterion
All individuals of the same species have a similar karyotype. Individuals of different species have different chromosome sets, cannot interbreed and live in natural conditions separately from each other. Two twin species of black rats have a different number of chromosomes - 38 and 42. The karyotypes of chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans differ in the arrangement of genes in homologous chromosomes. The differences between the karyotypes of bison and bison, which have 60 chromosomes in the diploid set, are similar. Differences in the genetic apparatus of some species can be even more subtle and consist, for example, in different character turning individual genes on and off. The use of only a genetic criterion is sometimes insufficient. One species of weevil combines diploid, triploid and tetraploid forms, the house mouse also has different sets of chromosomes, and the gene of the human nuclear histone H1 protein differs from the homologous pea gene by only one nucleotide. Such variable DNA sequences have been found in the genome of plants, animals and humans that people can distinguish between brothers and sisters by them.
Reproductive criterion
(Latin reproducere reproduce) is based on the ability of individuals of the same species to produce fertile offspring. An important role in crossing is played by the behavior of individuals - the mating ritual, species-specific sounds (birdsong, grasshoppers chirping). By the nature of the behavior, individuals recognize the marriage partner of their species. Individuals of similar species may not interbreed due to inconsistencies in mating behavior or inconsistencies in breeding sites. So, females of one species of frogs spawn along the banks of rivers and lakes, and the other - in puddles. Similar species may not interbreed due to differences in mating periods or mating periods when living in different climatic conditions. Different periods of flowering in plants prevent cross-pollination and serve as a criterion for belonging to different species.
Reproductive criterion is closely related to genetic and physiological criteria. The viability of gametes depends on the feasibility of conjugation of chromosomes in meiosis, and hence on the similarity or difference in the karyotypes of crossing individuals. Difference in daily physiological activity (daytime or nocturnal lifestyle) sharply reduces the possibility of crossing.
The use of only the reproductive criterion does not always make it possible to clearly distinguish species. There are species that are clearly distinguishable by morphological criteria, but which, when crossed, give fertile offspring. From birds, these are some species of canaries, finches, from plants - varieties of willows and poplars. A representative of the order of artiodactyl bison lives in the steppes and forest-steppes North America and never in natural conditions is found with the bison living in the forests of Europe. In zoo conditions, these species produce fertile offspring. Thus, the population of European bison, which was practically exterminated during the world wars, was restored. They interbreed and give fertile offspring of yaks and large cattle, polar and brown bears, wolves and dogs, sables and martens. In the plant kingdom, interspecific hybrids are even more common, among plants there are even intergeneric hybrids.
Ecological and geographical criterion
Most species occupy a certain territory (range) and an ecological niche. Buttercup caustic grows in meadows and fields, in more damp places another species is common - creeping buttercup, along the banks of rivers and lakes - burning buttercup. Similar species living in the same range may differ in ecological niches - for example, if they eat different foods.
The use of the ecological-geographical criterion is limited by a number of reasons. The range of the species may be discontinuous. The species range of the white hare is the islands of Iceland and Ireland, the north of Great Britain, the Alps and north-west Europe. Some species have the same range, such as two species of black rats. There are organisms that are distributed almost everywhere - many weeds, a number of insect pests and rodents.
The problem of species definition sometimes grows into a complex scientific problem and is solved using a set of criteria. Thus, a species is a set of individuals occupying a certain area and possessing a single gene pool, providing hereditary similarity of morphological, physiological, biochemical and genetic traits, in natural conditions interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.
Bibliography
For the preparation of this work, materials from the site http://www.portal-slovo.ru were used.
1. Biological species and its criteria.
All life on the planet is represented by separate species.
A species is a historically established set of individuals that have hereditary similarities in morphological, physiological and biochemical features; able to freely interbreed with each other and produce fertile offspring; adapted to certain environmental conditions and occupying a certain area.
Each type of organism can be described by a set of characteristic features and properties, which are called features of the species. Features of a species that distinguish one species from another are called type criteria.
The most commonly used general view criteria are: morphological, physiological, genetic, biochemical, geographical and ecological.
Morphological criterion - based on the external and internal similarity of individuals of the same species.
The morphological criterion is the most convenient and is therefore widely used in species taxonomy.
However, the morphological criterion is insufficient to determine the difference sibling species with significant morphological similarity.
Twin species practically do not differ in appearance, however, individuals of such species do not interbreed.
Species-twins are quite common in nature. About 5% of all species of insects, birds, fish, etc. have twin species:
- black rats have two twin species;
- the malarial mosquito has six twin species.
The use of a morphological criterion is also difficult in cases where individuals of the same species differ sharply from each other in appearance, the so-called polymorphic species.
The simplest example of polymorphism is sexual dimorphism, when there are morphological differences between males and females of the same species.
It is difficult to use the morphological criterion in the diagnosis of domestic animal species. Breeds bred by humans can differ significantly from each other, remaining within the same species (breeds of cats, dogs, pigeons).
Thus, the morphological criterion is insufficient to determine the species belonging of individuals.
The physiological criterion characterizes the similarity of life processes in individuals of the same species, primarily the similarity of reproduction.
Between individuals of different species there is a physiological isolation, which is manifested in the fact that individuals of different species almost never interbreed with each other. This is due to differences in the structure of the reproductive apparatus, the timing and places of reproduction, in the rituals of behavior during mating, etc.
If interspecific crossing does occur, then the result is interspecific hybrids that are characterized by reduced viability or are infertile and do not produce offspring:
For example, a hybrid of a horse and a donkey is known - a mule, which is quite viable, but barren.
However, in nature there are such species that can interbreed with each other and produce fertile offspring. (for example, some species of canaries, finches, poplars, willows, etc.).
Consequently, the physiological criterion is insufficient to characterize the species.
A genetic criterion is a set of chromosomes characteristic of each species, a strictly defined number, size and shape.
Individuals of different species cannot interbreed, as they have different sets of chromosomes, differ in number, size and shape:
- for example, two closely related species of black rats differ in the number of chromosomes (one species has 38 chromosomes, and the other 48) and therefore do not interbreed.
However, this criterion is not universal:
- first, in many different species, the number of chromosomes can be the same (for example, many species of the legume family have 22 chromosomes each);
- secondly, within the same species, individuals with a different number of chromosomes can be found, which is the result of mutations (for example, in silver carp there are populations with a set of chromosomes 100, 150, 200, while their normal number is 50).
Thus, on the basis of a genetic criterion, it is also impossible to reliably determine the belonging of individuals to a particular species.
The biochemical criterion makes it possible to distinguish species according to biochemical parameters (the composition and structure of certain proteins, nucleic acids, and other substances).
It is known that the synthesis of certain macromolecular substances is characteristic only of certain species ( for example, many plant species differ in their ability to form and accumulate certain alkaloids).
However, there is a significant intraspecific variability in almost all biochemical parameters, up to the sequence of amino acids in the molecules of proteins and nucleic acids.
Therefore, the biochemical criterion is also not universal. In addition, it is not widely used, as it is very laborious.
The geographical criterion is based on the fact that each species occupies a certain territory or water area.
In other words, each species is characterized by a specific geographical range.
Many species occupy different ranges, but most species have overlapping ranges.
There are species that do not have a specific geographical range, i.e. living on vast expanses of land or ocean, the so-called cosmopolitan species :
- some inhabitants of inland waters - rivers and freshwater lakes (many species of fish, reeds);
- Cosmopolitans also include medicinal dandelion, shepherd's purse, etc.;
- cosmopolitans are found among synanthropic animals - species that live near a person or his dwelling (lice, bedbugs, cockroaches, flies, rats, mice, etc.);
- Cosmopolitans also include indoor and cultivated plants, weeds, pets that are under human care.
In addition, there are species that do not have clear distribution boundaries or have a broken geographical range.
Due to these circumstances geographical criterion, like others, is not absolute.
The ecological criterion is based on the fact that each species can exist only under certain conditions, fulfilling its functional role in a particular biogeocenosis.
In other words:
Each species occupies a certain ecological niche in a complex system of ecological relationships with other organisms and factors of inanimate nature.
An ecological niche is a set of all environmental factors and conditions within which a species can exist in nature.
It includes the whole complex of abiotic and biotic environmental factors necessary for the organism to live, and is determined by its morphological fitness, physiological reactions and behavior.
The classic definition of an ecological niche was given by the American ecologist J. Hutchinson (1957).
According to the concept formulated by him, an ecological niche is a part of an imaginary multidimensional space (hypervolume), individual dimensions of which correspond to the factors necessary for the normal existence of a species (Fig. 1).
two-dimensional niche three-dimensional niche
Rice. 1. Ecological niche model according to Hutchinson
(F 1, F 2, F 3 - the intensity of various factors).
For example:
- for the existence of a terrestrial plant, a certain combination of temperature and importance is sufficient (two-dimensional niche);
- for a marine animal, temperature, salinity, oxygen concentration (three-dimensional niche) are necessary.
It is important to emphasize that the ecological niche is not just the physical space occupied by a species, but also its place in the community, determined by its ecological functions and its position relative to the abiotic conditions of existence.
According to the figurative expression of Y. Odum, an “ecological niche” is the “profession” of a species, its way of life, and “habitat” is its “address”. ”
For example, a mixed forest is a habitat for hundreds of species of plants and animals, but each of them has its own and only one "profession" - an ecological niche. Elk and squirrel have the same habitat, but their ecological niches are completely different.
Consequently, the ecological niche is not a spatial, but a functional category.
At the same time, it is important to realize that the ecological niche is not something that can be seen. An ecological niche is an abstract abstract concept.
An ecological niche defined only by the physiological characteristics of organisms is called fundamental and the one within which the species actually occurs in nature - implemented.
However, the ecological criterion is also insufficient to characterize the species.
Some different species in different habitats may occupy the same ecological niches:
- antelopes in the savannas of Africa, bison in the prairies of America, kangaroos in the savannas of Australia, marten in the European and sable in the Asian taiga lead the same way of life, have a similar type of nutrition, i.e. in different biogeocenoses they perform the same functions and occupy similar ecological niches.
It often happens the other way around - the same species in different habitats is characterized by different ecological niches. Most often this is due to the availability of food and the presence of competitors:
Moreover, the same view different periods of its development can occupy various ecological niches:
- so, the tadpole eats plant food, and the adult frog is a typical carnivore, so they are characterized by different ecological niches;
- migratory birds in connection with migrations are also characterized by different ecological niches in winter and summer;
- among algae there are species that function either as autotrophs or as heterotrophs. As a result, at certain periods of their lives, they occupy certain ecological niches.
Thus, none of these criteria can be used to determine whether an individual belongs to a particular species. It is possible to characterize a species only by the totality of all or most of the criteria.
In biology, a species is a certain set of individuals that have a hereditary similarity of physiological, biological and morphological features, are able to freely interbreed and produce viable offspring. Species are stable genetic systems, because in nature they are separated by some series of barriers from each other. Scientists distinguish between them according to a number of basic features. Usually, the following species criteria are distinguished: morphological, geographical, ecological, genetic, physico-biochemical.
Morphological criterion
Such signs are the main ones in this system. Morphological criteria of a species are based on external differences between individual groups of animals or plants. This condition subdivides into species organisms that clearly differ from each other in internal or external morphological features.
Geographic criteria of the species
They are based on the fact that representatives of each stable genetic system live within limited spaces. Such areas are called areas. However, the geographical criterion has some shortcomings. It is not versatile enough the following reasons. First, there are some cosmopolitan species that are distributed all over the planet (for example, the orca whale). Secondly, in many biological aggregates, the ranges coincide geographically. Thirdly, in the case of some too rapidly dispersing populations, the ranges are very variable (for example, a sparrow or a house fly).
Ecological criterion of the species
It is assumed that each species is characterized by certain characteristics, such as the type of food, timing of reproduction, habitat, and everything that determines the ecological niche it occupies. This criterion is based on the assumption that the behavior of some animals differs from the behavior of others.
Genetic criterion of the species
This takes into account the main property of any species - its genetic isolation from others. Plants and animals of different stable genetic systems almost never interbreed. Of course, a species cannot be completely isolated from the influx of genes from related species. However, at the same time, he generally retains the constancy of his genetic composition for a really long period of time. It is in the genetic component that the clearest differences between representatives of different biological populations lie.
Physico-biochemical criteria of the species
Such criteria also cannot serve as an absolutely reliable way to distinguish between species, since fundamental biochemical processes
occur in similar groups in the same way. And among everyone separate species there is a certain number of adaptations to certain living conditions, which affects the change in biochemical processes.
conclusions
Thus, according to some single criterion, it is very difficult to distinguish between species. The belonging of an individual to any particular species should be determined only through a comprehensive comparison according to a number of criteria - all or at least the majority. Individuals that occupy a certain territory and are able to freely interbreed with each other are a species population.