Theoretical and applied, general and particular phonetics. B.11. Basic phonetic processes
Because speech sounds are pronounced in a sound chain of connected speech, then sounds 1) can affect each other, especially neighboring ones (when the recursion of the previous sound interacts with the excursion of the next one), 2) can be influenced by general conditions -th pronunciation (influence of the beginning / end of the word, the nature of the syllable, the position is under the beat). The influence of sounds on each other causes combinatorial changes, carried out in the background. processes of accommodation, assimilation, dissimilation, diaeresis, epenthesis, haplology, etc. The influence of the total. conditional pronunciation-I causes positional changes (the appearance of a prosthesis at the beginning of a word, the stunning of voiced consonants at the end of a word, the reduction of unude vowels, etc.)
combinatorial process- articulatory change in sound in the flow of speech under the influence of neighboring sounds. (Assimilation, dissimilation, accommodation.)
I Assimilation - Assimilation of sounds to each other. Occurs between sounds of only one type (vowel-vowel; consonant-agreement). Distinguish complete and incomplete assimilation – 2 diff. sounds can become completely similar and become the same .
1. Complete - when one sound absorbs another. Pr: sew- [shut "], from wool-sound [h] is absorbed by sound [w]
2. Partial- one sound is partially likened to another (by sonority-deafness, hardness-softness, etc.) Ex: Vodka (votk) - a deafeningly voiced consonant. Request (proz'b) - voicing of a deaf consonant. Demolished (c'n'oc) - softening of the consonant.
Assimilation happens progressive and regressive.
1. Regressive assimilation occurs when the subsequent sound affects the previous sound. Pr: Hand over (zdat ’) - voicing (s) under the influence of the subsequent (d); Boat (lotk) - stunning (d) under the influence of the subsequent (k).
2. Progressive assimilation occurs when the preceding sound affects the subsequent . In Russian lang. progressive assimilation is very rare, for example, the dialectal pronunciation of the word "Vanka" as "Vanka". Often found in it. and eng. languages. guns - voiced [n] affects s and it is pronounced like a [z] sound.
3. Progressive-regressive (mutual)- when the first sound affects the second, and the second, in turn, affects the first. For example, twins - - voiceless [t] partially stuns sonant [w], at the same time rounded [w] makes [t] rounded.
Also have contact and distact(meeting rarely) assimilation:
1. Distact- one sound affects another at a distance, although they are separated from each other by other sounds. Rus. hooligan - hooligan (colloquial), eng. foot "foot" - feet "feet", goose "goose" - geese "geese".
2. At contact Assimilation interacting sounds are in direct contact. Pr: fairy tale- ska [sk] a.
II Dissimilation is the opposite of assimilation. It represents the distribution of sounds. Occurs between sounds of the same type (the same or similar - gl-mi or accord-mi). From 2 identical or similar sounds, 2 different or less similar sounds are obtained. Dissimilations may concern chiefs; contact(at neighboring stars) and distact(for sounds separated by other sounds), regressive and progressive; from the same or similar stars; by different signs: for accord-x - in place and spos., for gl-x - for lifting.
February turned into February (cf. English February, German Februar, French fevrier), corridor - collidor - examples of dissimilation dissimilation. Contact dissimilation is observed in the words easy [easy], boring [boring].
(Assimilations do not change the phonetic appearance of the language in such a way, therefore, LA-m is more widely allowed; dissimilations change the background image of the language more dramatically and therefore are more common in irregular speech (dialects, vernacular, children's speech).
III Accommodation (adaptation) - partial change in articulation, assimilation between sounds different classes(ch.+ acc.; acc. +ch.). It consists in the fact that the excursion of the subsequent star. adapts to the recursion of the previous one. - this is progressive accommodation, or, conversely, the recursion of the previous one. sound adapts to the subsequent excursion - this regressive accom-i; in this case, sliding transitional sounds may occur - glides (for example, if you listen carefully to the word will, you can hear a very short “y” between in and o)
Excursion- the beginning of articulation. recursion- End of articulation. Some processes are manifested in the adaptation of a vowel to a consonant, others - vice versa. For example, in Russian, the vowels A, O, U in the excursion after soft consonants become more forward: five, pes, luk, and before labialized vowels, on the contrary, the consonants become rounded: voz, vuz. In English, labial consonants require rounding of the following vowel (what, was, quarrel).
Other sound processes are based either on assimilative or dissimilative tendencies.
Positional Process- these are changes in sounds due to their position in the word, caused by the presence of special conditions (position at the end of a word or in an unstressed syllable.)
Reduction- weakening of the sound, weakening and changing the sound of unstressed syllables and, above all, the syllabic sounds of these syllables. The quality of the reduction is determined by the stress.
quantitative– shortening the duration of the sound. The vowel sounds shorter and weaker in an unstressed position than under stress. In Russian, vowels and, s, u undergo quantitative reduction: soup - soups; rear-in the rear-rear.
quality- weakening and changing the sound of vowels in an unstressed syllable, accompanied by the loss of certain signs of their timbre, for example, head [b]. Qual. vowels o, a, e are subjected to reduction.
In languages with longitude stress - red.quantitative. In languages with power - qualitative. In the RJ there are 2 steps of reduction: 1 stupas. - 1 shock. syllable/uncovered. unud., 2 steps. - everything else.
Consequences of phonetic processes:
Haplology- syllable dropout, sound absorption: tragicomedy - tragicomedy, standard-bearer-standard-bearer.
Epenthesis(insert) - insert a sound in the middle of a word: incident, cocoa. More often on dissim. basis (for example, insertion according to, for example, between the chapters in the case of “gaping”: LariVon, RadiVon, and also in in ok singular adj: cunningly)
Diareza(discard) - loss of sound when pronouncing a word : sun, sad. More often they have assim. basis, e.g. elimination iota between vowels (sometimes), dissim. basis - pronunciation-e piece-shn (something)
Metathesis(permutation) - permutation of syllables: bear - bear, tvarushka-cheesecake, plate - talerka (Polish-tallerz, German-teller). When a word from one language passes into another, the development of new words by children, when a word moves from urban. LA into dialects, etc.
Prosthesis(supercharge) - insert a sound at the beginning of a word: eight - in eight, spicy-sharp.
substitution- sound replacement: lo and ka, Hitler-Hitler(the sound corresponding to the German “h” is not in Russian). As a consequence of assimilation, dissimilation, reduction.
B.12. Phoneme and its features.
Phoneme theory originated in the middle of the 19th century. thanks to Baudouin de Courtenay (Kazan Linguistic School), a follower of Shcherba, etc. The main ones were developed. state about phonemes as components of morphemes, about the variety of sounds combined in 1 morpheme. The variety of the main stars in the united-Xia in each. lang-e is limited. number of basic sound units - phonemes; sounds are united by functionality. community, i.e. if, depending on the conditional pronunciation (har-ra of the syllable, proximity to those / in. sounds), the sounds are pronounced differently, but vyp-t the same function (image-t the same root, the same grammatical element of a word (prist-ku, suf.) are varieties of the same phoneme. from one sound, but also from two (for example, about diphthongs in English: house, fly, German-Aezen (iron).
Phoneme (dr. Greek “sound”) - (the minimum unit of the sound structure of the language, which serves to add up and distinguish between significant units of the language: morphemes, words. To fulfill this role, phonemes must be opposed to each other in the system yaz-a, so. opposition. Every the phoneme is opposed to zero (i.e., the absence of a given phoneme), for example, cattle-cat, portage-wolf (differentiation of words by the presence / absence according to / ch.), chair-chair (distinguishing f-we of words) .
Phonemes are minimal. ed-tsy yaz-a. because it is impossible to divide them further in a way that can be divided, for example, prepositions are impossible (Pr-e - into words, words - into morphemes, morphemes - into phonemes, etc.). But the phoneme is complex. yavl-e, because consists of a number of features that do not exist outside of phonemes. Not all signs in comp. phonemes are the same. Essence differential (distinctive) -signs by which a phoneme differs from othersand non-differential / indistinguishable .. (integral) features -common features that cannot be used to distinguish between phonemes .
The real content of phonemes is given. I am for – the scoop makes sense. features in their composition, due to which it is the same. different sounds. lang-in how the phonemes are different. For the same phoneme, m.b. diff. implementation. (Approx. Russian and French in Ref-m -p.215-216)
Phonemes of nouns in lang-e as part of measures, syllables, phrases, and so fall into different. pronounces conditions, the distribution of phonemes according to these conditions is called distribution (in some he pronounces. conditional phonemes do not change their sound, in others they change, for example, in Russian in the beginning of the word under the ud-m - willow, after the vowel - naive, but - under the willow (s) in some pu they change the meaning, in others - no, for example, in Russian under the ud-m difference - forest-fox, catfish-sam, in the same pose - fox breeder or forester?). Pronounces. conditional name positions. They are strong(favorable for the phoneme to fulfill its functions) and weak(unfavorable, 1. positions of neutralization, 2. fall-out of phonemes, the rest of the positions are strong) . Phonemes issue 2 functions - perceptual and significative, hence-> in relation to percept. f-ii strong pos-i - the one in which the phoneme appears in its main. look weak. - in k-th f changes its sound depending on the position and acts as hue or variation of a phoneme .(examples -P, p.219). In relation to the signific. f-ii strong. pos-i - that, in k-th phoneme save opposition, weak. - in k-th opposite phonemes coincide in the same way. sound-ii, cease to differ and distinguish significantly. units of language; thus, the opposite is neutralized, this indistinguishability may not coincide with one of the opposite phonemes, for example. deaf and ringing. at the end of the word in RY - onion-meadow (other - 219). Variations do not affect the meaning and are usually not noticed by the speakers, and the options are directly reflected in the understanding, thanks to the coincidence of the sounds I am different. ed-ts, leading to homophony, thereby options - the sound of significatively weak positions differs from variations – sounds of perceptually weak positions.
Neutralization is the elimination of differences between phonemes in certain positional conditions. (For example, phonemes<з>and<с>differ in the position before the vowel in the words goats and braids, but is neutralized at the end of the word [s], coinciding in one sound).
Sounds that appear as varieties of the same phoneme are calledphoneme variants, or allophones. Within the same morpheme, but in its different morphs, allophone alternations are noted - different [a] in "da-l" and "da-m" ([a]~[a~]).
Types of allophones:
variations (or shades of a phoneme, according to L.V. Shcherba), or "sound synonyms" - positional modifications of phonemes that do not lose their distinctive function and are identical to the main type of phoneme; appear in strong
phoneme positions;
variants, or "sound homonyms" - such modifications of a phoneme that do not differ from another phoneme, coinciding with it in their quality; lose part of their ability to distinguish the meanings of words; appear in weak position phonemes.
(Archiphoneme - phoneme positions. neutralization, only for the weak. poses , syntagmophoneme - background., characterize with full stop. sp-I her position. signs , paradigmophoneme - a number of signs, positionally alternating in one. and the same phoneme (mountains-mountain, water-water) , hyperphoneme - (in the word head, that / supports).
Prosody is everything that does not have its own site (oud, longitude, etc.). El-you prosodius - prosodems (ud-I in yaz-x with a different type; the difference in meaning is flour-torment). Intonation can make a word different. meaning-e -> maybe this is a prosodema ... syllable, its selection. acc. (see abstract!). Phonology - semantic properties of segmental units, prosodemic el-you (ud-i, longitude, the ability to express em-ii).
B.13. Historical variability of the phonetic structure of the language. Maslov - ch.5, p.5, Ref. – item 90-…?
The sound image of individual words and morphemes, their phonemic composition, their stress changes: for example, other Russian. February turned into February. The rules for the distribution of phonemes are changing, which no longer affects individual words, but their entire classes; Thus, in the Old Russian language there were combinations of gy, ky, hy, and in modern Russian such combinations within a word are not allowed (with the exception of some recently borrowed words like akyn), although the phonemes /g/, /k/, /x/, and the phoneme /ы/ continue to exist in Russian. More profound changes are also observed: the set of phonemes of the language and the system of differential features, according to which phonemes are opposed to each other, are changing. So, in the Russian language, the nasal vowels that once existed in it (and, consequently, the DP nasality of vowels), the phoneme, denoted in the Old Russian texts by the letter [yat], and some other vowel phonemes, disappeared. On the other hand, palatalized consonants, which were originally combinatorial variants, turned into separate phonemes (and, accordingly, the sign of palatalization turned into a DP, which is very important for the system as a whole). Finally, over long periods, the nature of the stress and the syllabic organization of the speech flow and language units change. So, from the free verbal stress of the common Slavic era, the Czech and Slovak languages moved to the stress fixed on the initial, and Polish - to the stress fixed on the penultimate syllable of the word. The early development of the Proto-Slavic language was associated with the elimination of closed syllables inherited from the common Indo-European era; all closed syllables were rebuilt into open ones in one way or another, but later the “law of an open syllable” began to be violated (already in Old Church Slavonic), and in modern Slavic languages the closed syllable is again a normal (albeit less frequent) type of syllable.
Sound changes are divided into: regular and sporadic. sporadic changes are presented only in separate words or morphemes and are explained by some special conditions their functioning. So, words that are semantically little "weighty" and at the same time widely used (standard appeals, politeness formulas, greetings at a meeting and parting) are subjected to especially strong phonetic destruction: they are often pronounced quickly, casually, since their content is already clear. Therefore, the old English farewell formula God be with you! "God be with you" turned into Good-bye "Goodbye" Much more important, of course, are the regular changes that appear in relation to a certain phonetic position or phonological unit in all or almost all cases when such a position or unit is present in the language, regardless of the specific words and forms in which it occurs. It is in the presence of such a regular change that one speaks of a sound (phonetic) law. Thus, the replacement of the above-mentioned Old Russian combinations gy, ky, hy with modern gi, ki, hi fits the concept of sound law, since it affected all words with such combinations, leaving no exceptions. Instead of gyb (s) nuti, goddess, spit, Kiev, cunning, hysch (s) nik, legs, arms, etc., we everywhere have perish, goddess, boil, Kyiv, cunning, predator, legs, hands ...
According to Osipov: 1) The composition of phonemes has historically changed: 1. Convergence of phonemes (combining 2 or several phonemes into one); 2. Divergence of phonemes (disintegration of 1 phoneme into several); 2) Changes in the ways of implementing phonemes (hard phonemes before /e/ (front vowel) were in soft and semi-soft positions); 3) Changing the position of phonemes (for the position /o/ it was necessary to replace it /e/ with a phoneme (field-field / field) (see abstract!).
The reasons for the change might be internal (assim-I, dissim-I, reduction) and external. (mutual with other languages).
B. 14. The concept of orthoepy. Ruformatsk. item 41
Orthoepy (literally means correct pronunciation, the science of correct pronunciation of words) is a set of rules oral speech establishing a uniform literary pronunciation. Based on the knowledge of phonetics is given. yaz-a, i.e. on knowledge of the composition of phonemes and the laws of their distribution in positions with resulting in weak. positions by variations and variants, orphrepy gives the individual. norms for different cases and chooses from the existing pronunciation options that is more consistent with accepted traditions, trends in the development of the language and consistency in the system.
Orthoepic norms cover the phonetic system of the language, i.e. the composition of phonemes distinguished in the modern Russian literary language, their quality and changes in certain phonetic positions. In addition, the content of orthoepy includes the pronunciation of individual words and groups of words, as well as individual grammatical forms in cases where their pronunciation is not determined by the phonetic system, for example, the pronunciation [shn] at the place of the combination ch (sku [sh] but) or [in ] in place of r at the end of the -th - -his (that - that [in] o, his - e [in] o).
The pronunciation system of modern literary language in its basic and defining features, it does not differ from the pronunciation system of the pre-October era. The differences between the first and second are of a private nature. The changes and fluctuations that have arisen in modern literary pronunciation concern mainly the pronunciation of individual words and their groups, as well as individual grammatical forms. So, for example, the pronunciation of a soft sound [s] in the affix -s - -sya (my [s "], washed [s "b]) with the old norm (my [s"] - washed [s "b]) does not contribute any changes in the system of consonant phonemes of the modern Russian language. The strengthening of the new pronunciation variant of the affix -s - -sya (boyu[s"]) as a modern orthoepic norm brings pronunciation closer to spelling, which was not the case with the old pronunciation variant (boyu[s]), and therefore it is quite expedient.
Orthoepy also includes the place of stress in words and forms (Otherwise or otherwise, far or far, into the river or into the river, etc.). An auxiliary section of orthoepy is the so-called pronunciation instructions for reading letters and their combinations in cases where the letter and language do not correspond to each other, for example, reading ok adj-x -ogo-ova / ava, h in which, of course, buckwheat.
According to Osipov: Phonetic norm - > why??--- 1) single a standard is necessary to ensure understanding (in RL the pronunciation of words is not very different, so we understand each other, but, for example, Germans have many different dialects, so it comes to the point that Germans from different localities do not understand other others); 2) it is necessary that the form of speech does not distract from the content (alien pronunciation distracts from the meaning of speech; samples. speech does not surprise anyone, but I deal with local speech).
Where does the norm come from??--> most often for samples. the pronunciation is taken from the cultural and historical pronunciation. data center people. Speech of Russia->Moscow! (although it was not always the center of the Russian state, it united the Russian people of kul-no, ist-ki, “Russian dialect”). In the beginning. formed-Xia Moscow. dialect as the norm of LA, in Germany osn. dialect - Berlin, England - London, in China - Beijing dialect. Compromise - the union of the most common, compr-e traits diff. dialects.
B.15. The concept of the meaning and significant elements of the language.wt. – ch.3, p.1, ch.4, p.1, Ref. - item 7
Meaning- associative relationship between the sign and the subject of designation; the attachment of any sound complex to any image of any fragment of reality in our minds. Meaning - this is the prevailing in dan. lang-e fixedness defined. the sound complex behind this or that way of reality in our minds; connection not with the object, but with its image. An indication contained in a significant word to one or another grammatical categories, is called grammatical meaning(of a given word or its separate form). (in the word warm(in the given word form) gram. meaning is an indication of gender (feminine), number (ed), case (im), and also (in any word form - warm, warm, warm etc.) per gram. class of words, i.e. part of speech (adjective). Grammar deals with grammatical meanings. An indication of a certain content contained in a word, which is peculiar only to this word, in contrast to all other words, is called lexical meaning .
LZ usually remains the same in all grammatical forms of the word. (LZ words warm- this is the meaning by which this word differs from all other words of the Russian language, primarily from those that are correlative in meaning (i.e., from cold, hot, cool, lukewarm) and then from all the rest. Research LZ is engaged in lexicology and lexic. semasiology.
The core of the LZ in most significant words is the mental reflection of one or another phenomenon of reality, an object (or class of objects) in the width. sense (including actions, properties, relationships, etc.). The object denoted by the word is called d e n o t a t o m, or referent, and the display of the denotation (class of denotations) - c o n c e p tual words, or designatom. In addition to the core in the LZ
includes the so-called c o n n o t a c and, or consciences - emotional, expressive, stylistic "additives" to the main meaning, giving the word a special color. In every yaz-e there are significant words for which the main meaning is the expression of certain emotions (for example, interjections like wow! Ugh/ or brrr!) or the transmission of commands - incentives to certain actions (stop! away! jump! on! in the sense of "take", etc.).
(LZ provides a connection with reality, it is individual, belongs only to a given word, GL serves to connect words with each other.)
In the lexical meaning of the word, there are three sides, or facets: 1) the relation to the denotation is the so-called subject relatedness of the word; 2) relation to the categories of logic, and above all to the concept, - conceptual relatedness; 3) relation to the conceptual and connotative meanings of other words within the corresponding lexical system - this aspect of the meaning is sometimes called s h i m o s t y.
Significance- the relationship of the sign to other signs within the framework language system. From the point of view of F. de Saussure, who proposed the concept of significance, significance is determined by the opposition of a given sign to others, their mutual limitation.
Among the significant units, the language stood out playable elements(morphemes, words, stable phrases) and produced(free e-you: phrase-e, sentence-e, they are sometimes also called units of the language).
Modern ideas about the language system are connected, first of all, with the doctrine of its levels, their units and relationships. Language levels are subsystems (tiers) of the general language system, each of which has a set of its own units and rules for their functioning. Traditionally, the following main levels of the language: phonemic, morphemic, lexical, syntactic.
Each of the levels of the language has its own, qualitatively different units that have different purposes, structure, compatibility and place in the language system: the phonemic level consists of phonemes, the morphemic one - morphemes, the lexical one - words (lexemes), the syntactic one - phrases and sentences.
In most languages of the world, the following units are distinguished: phoneme (sound), morpheme, word, phrase and sentence.
The simplest unit of language is phoneme, an indivisible and in itself insignificant sound unit of the language, which serves to distinguish between minimal meaningful units (morphemes and words).
Minimum significant unit - morpheme(root, suffix, prefix, ending). Morphemes have some meaning, but they cannot yet be used independently.
Has relative independence word- the next in terms of complexity and the most important unit of the language, which serves to name objects, processes, features or point to them. Words differ from morphemes in that they not only have any meaning, but are already capable of naming something, i.e. a word is the minimum nominative (naming) unit of a language. Structurally, it consists of morphemes and represents " construction material» for phrases and sentences. The word is a two-sided unit: it has an external form (a sound or a complex of sounds) and an internal content. Internal content word is its lexical meaning - the correlation of the word with a certain phenomenon of reality, fixed in the minds of the speakers of a given language.
Phrase - grammatically organized group words, which under certain conditions can be a sentence. It consists of the main and dependent words. The phrase is considered as a unit of syntax that performs a communicative function (included in speech) only as part of a sentence.
The most complex and independent unit of language, with the help of which it is possible not only to name some object, but also to report something about it, is sentence- the main syntactic unit that contains a message about something, a question or a prompt. The most important formal feature of a sentence is its semantic design and completeness. Kom.unit.
statement- a speech work created in the course of a specific speech act. It is considered in the context of this speech act as part of the discourse (text).
Two sides are distinguished in the statement: The plan of expression is the sound, material side of the statement, perceived by the ear (and in the written transmission of the statement - the material sequence of inscriptions, perceived by sight). The plan of content is the thought expressed in the statement, the information contained in it, certain emotional moments accompanying this information. The plan of expression and the plan of content are studied in linguistics in close connection with each other.
Vedina - p.121 and abstract!
B.16. Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. Types of morphemes.wt. - p.131 ... + abstract
Morphemics- a section of linguistics that studies the system of morphemes and the rules for their functioning as part of a word. This concept also means the morphemic structure of the language, that is, the totality and types of its morphemes.
Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language. This unit sometimes has both a significant and significant side. A morpheme is able to convey both lexical (root) and grammatical meaning (affixal). The concept of a morpheme was introduced by I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay as a unifying concept for the concepts of root, prefix, suffix, ending, i.e., as the concept of the minimum meaningful part of a word, linearly distinguished in the form of a certain “sound segment” (segment) in morphological analysis. characteristic feature morphemes is their repetition in the structure of different words (house, home, brownie or teacher, writer, reader, etc.), which allows you to identify the meaning of the morpheme, since it is determined only in a number of words containing this morpheme. Along with segment morphemes - parts of words - segment morphemes are distinguished that function as a whole word - service (for example, our prepositions to, on, unions and, but) or significant (here, alas, subway, stew). A lot of morphemes appear in the form of a series (on-
boron) language variants - allomorphemes (or allomorphs). In the text, in the flow of speech, the morpheme is represented by its specific speech instances - morphs. Since the morpheme is a two-sided unit, its linguistic variation turns out to be twofold. This may be a variation in terms of expression, i.e. exponential variation , or variation in terms of content, i.e., polysemy of a morpheme, similar to the polysemy of a word. ( An example of an expo nent o v a r i r o v a n and i: the verbal prefix over- in Russian appears in the variants /nad/, /nat/,/nado/,/ nada/ (cf., superstructure, torn, torn). An example of a meaningful statement: the same prefix introduces into the verb either the meaning of adding from above to something that already exists (I’ll draw, add , on the nose), or the value of penetration to a shallow depth, a short distance from the surface of the object (I cut, bite, tear).
The paradigm of a word is all the forms of that word. There are zero morphemes, which do not have a visible plan of expression, appearing, for example, in the forms im. and. units h. house, table or genus. n. pl. h. places, cases(zero endings).
Values passed by the morpheme:
Lexical - its carrier is the root morpheme, expressing the most semantically rich part of the meaning of the word, since it is the root that refers to the concept underlying the lexical meaning of the word;
Grammatical - its carrier is service morphemes: inflectional morphemes -i, -ite, conveying the meaning of the imperative mood;
Derivative (if the word is derivative), clarifying the meaning of the root - it is introduced by an affix: the meaning is "a weak degree of manifestation of a feature", transmitted by the suffix -ovat in the words greenish, yellowish, etc.).
Morpheme types:
I) root and affix morphemes. Segment morphemes - parts of words (parts of simple, synthetic
tic word forms) - are divided into two large classes: 1) roots and 2) non-roots, or affixes 1. These classes are opposed to each other primarily by the nature of the expressed meaning and by their function in the composition of the word.
The root morpheme (root) is obligatory in a word (with the exception of several verbs), without it the word itself does not exist. The root morpheme carries a lexical meaning.
Affix- this is a service morpheme that modifies the meaning of the root or the relationship between words in sentences. The affixal morpheme carries grammatical and derivational meanings. In contrast to the root, either clarifies the LZ, which is expressed by the root, complements the words with shades, or expresses the GZ of the word.
Among the affixes are
1 ) Prefixes - morphemes standing before the root (prefixes). Affix. complicating root in preposition (most characteristic of a verb).
2 ) Postfixes - morphemes standing after the root (suffixes and inflection). An affix that complicates the root in postposition. Postfixes -> 1. suffix, 2. inflection (it is not always at the end)
Case inflection is an inflection corresponding to any case. Inflection does not go through the paradigm, unlike the suffix (that is, the endings change when the word is declined, but the suffixes do not). (suf. –t- in an indefinite form of the verb, because they don’t change, they have no paradigm; suf –at-, -onok- goes through the whole paradigm ??)
3 ) A confix is a binomial morpheme. Affix complicated by a suffix in preposition and postposition.
4 ) An infix is a morpheme inserted in the middle of a word. Infixes are used in a number of verb forms of ancient and some modern Indo-European languages (ancient Greek, Latin, Lithuanian), in Tagalog (on
Philippine Islands) and in some other languages.
5 ) An interfix is a morpheme located between two other morphemes; connecting morpheme.
6 ) A transfix is a morpheme whose parts are mixed with other parts of the root. In RJ absent, typical for Arabic. I am for.
There is also a zero morpheme - a morpheme that does not exist materially, but has a grammatical meaning. For example House [ _ ] - at home]
A morph is a type of morpheme. For example-[ dom][dom' ik][ dam' ishke]
Allomorphs are morphs of equal meaning, the use of which is determined by their position in the word form.
Variants are morphs that are equal in value and position. For example, water - water.
B. 17. The word as a subject of lexicology. Its nominative function. The cognitive role of the word.Ref. - Ch.2, p.7, Mas. – p.87-….
Lexicology- this is the "word about the word", or the science of words. The word is the most concrete unit of language. Language as an instrument of communication is, first of all, a “verbal instrument”, it is a “language of words”. The word is a significant independent unit of the language, the main function of which is nomination (naming); unlike morphemes, the minimum meaningful units of a language, a word on its own (although it can consist of one morpheme: suddenly, kangaroo), is grammatically designed according to the laws of a given language, and it has not only a real, but also a lexical meaning; unlike a sentence, which has the property of complete communication, a word, as such, is not communicative (although it can act as a sentence: It's dawning. No.), but it is from words that sentences are built for communication; at the same time, the word is always associated with the material nature of the sign, whereby words differ, forming separate units of meaning and sound (or graphic) expression. ( Lexicology is a science that studies the word and the vocabulary of the language as a whole. The word is the minimum unit that has positional independence. For lexicology, first of all, the meaning of the word is important, its relation to other words that have the same meaning, stylistic coloring (whether it is neutral or stylistically marked), the origin of this word (whether it is native or borrowed), the scope of its use, etc. .)
P o s i consists in the absence of a rigid linear connection with the words adjacent in the speech chain, in the possibility, in most cases, to separate it from the “neighbors” by inserting another or other words, in the wide mobility, movability of the word in the sentence. Wed at least the following simple examples: Today warm weather. Today is very warm and dry weather. The weather is warm today. Warm weather today.
A higher level of independence of the word - s n t a x i c h i c e s independence- lies in its ability to receive a syntactic function, acting as a separate single-word sentence or a member of a sentence (subject, predicate, object, etc.). Syntactic independence is not characteristic of all words. Prepositions, for example, cannot be separate sentences (exceptions like Without! as a response to
question Do you want it with or without sugar? singular), nor to themselves (without a significant word) by the members of the sentence 1. The same can be said about conjunctions, articles, particles, etc.
Content
Topic number 2. Basic concepts of phonetics. Phonetic processes
Topic number 3. Classification of vowels. Phonetic processes in the field of vowels
Topic number 4. Classification of consonants. Phonetic processes in the field of consonants
Topic number 5. Phonetic and historical alternations
Topic number 6. Phonology. Phoneme and its allophones
Topic No. 7. Strong and weak positions of phonemes. Phonemic-phonetic analysis of the word
Topic number 8. Graphics. Single and multi-digit letters
Topic number 9. Spelling principles and types of spelling
Topic number 10. Orthoepy
Literature
Foreword
The purpose of studying the section “Phonetics. Phonology. Graphic arts. Spelling. Orthoepy” is determined by its place in the system of university teaching, the nature of the material being studied and the requirements of the school. This course opens the synchronous study of the modern Russian literary language. An important task of teaching the disciplines of the first stage is not only to reveal the features of a particular language area, but also to develop the skills of linguistic analysis, as well as to expand the actual linguistic and cultural horizons of students.
The study of the phonemic-phonetic level of the language system requires a high degree of abstract thinking, therefore, in the course developments, much attention is paid to the internal logic of the analysis being carried out. The complexity of the object being studied by a linguist often dictates a choice among several reasoned opinions. On the basis of rather rigidly structured phonetics, which allows a minimum of alternative solutions, it is necessary to prepare students for analytical work with semantic language tiers.
The image of the teacher plays an important role in the process of shaping the personality of the pupil. The super task of the manual is to draw students' attention to the high examples of Russian culture and the statements of its authoritative representatives.
The material of the manual is arranged in accordance with the subject practical exercises. The emphasis, both in theoretical and practical terms, is placed on issues that cause the greatest difficulties and are not always amenable to unambiguous interpretation.
The theoretical part of each topic includes samples of practical analysis. All topics are provided with tasks for independent work. Tasks of increased complexity are marked with *.
Topic number 1. Phonetic articulation of speech
The speech stream breaks up into segments of various lengths, allocated for certain reasons.
Sound – smallest unit speech, characterized by a set of 1) acoustic, 2) articulatory and 3) proper linguistic (social) characteristics. sound in it social aspect, is considered in phonology.
Syllable- the minimum pronunciation unit of speech, which is a sound or a combination of sounds, one of which is more sonorous. In Russian, the carrier of a syllable is a vowel sound or a sonorant consonant, as indicated by rhymes like ruble decline. In the word ruble between [ b] and [l '] due to the acoustic features of the latter (the predominance of tone over noise) there is an overtone of the vowel [b] - [rub ъ l ']
The syllable boundary is defined as follows. Indices are assigned to sounds in accordance with their sonority. Vowels, as the most sonorous, have a maximum index of 4, sonorants - 3, voiced - 2, deaf - 1. The syllabic boundary runs between sounds that are most contrasting in sonority. This takes into account that the syllable must contain one and only one vowel: ska 4 -h 1 to 1 a, but ska 4 l 3 -to 1 a. If it is impossible to determine the boundary between syllables by sonority indices, an additional criterion is used. According to the experimental data of St. Petersburg phoneticians, the intra-word syllables of Russian words, as a tendency, retain the Proto-Slavic law of openness: sa 4 -m 3 b 2 about, but not sa 4 m 3 -b 2 about. The exception is the most sonorous and regularly vocalized in unstressed syllables sonorant [j] ([th]), closing the syllable: that 4 th 3 -G 2 a.
phonetic word- a syllable or a group of syllables united by a common stress. The phonetic word most often coincides with the lexical one: sofa[d, Ivan]. However, on the one hand, it may include two or even three lexical words: on the couch[nd, ivan, bby]. On the other hand, one lexical word can be divided into two phonetic ones: sofa bed- [d, ivan] and [crvat,].
At a moderate pronunciation rate, the significant word attaches proclitic (prepositions and particle not) and enclitic (particle would) elements, forming one phonetic word with them: didn't take[n, and e took], didn't take would[n, and e bralba]. Postpositive particle whether is an independent phonetic word, as can be seen from examples like is it snowing[s, n, eql, and], is it raining[dosht, l, and] - consonants are not before the sonorant [l,], before which they would not be stunned, but at the end of the word, where only deaf ones are found in Russian words. Wed with particle would: snow would[s, n, egby].
Unions, in accordance with their connecting function, do not adjoin significant words: The words are not a boy, but a husband[... n, and e mal, h, ik / but husband]. In the case of a proclitic adjunction of the union, the vowel would be reduced in the union and homophones would arise: but husband and on her husband would coincide in one sound [n husband].
speech beat- a phonetic word or a group of words united by the intonation of a non-end of a sentence. In the flow of speech, a measure is a segment up to the first slight pause, after which the continuation of the utterance is expected: Weaved on the lake the scarlet light of dawn(S. Yesenin) - [vytkals, b noz, br, b / scarlet sv, et zr, and].
Phrase(syntagma) - a phonetic word, a speech measure or a group of measures united by the intonation of the end of a sentence. The end of the phrase is characterized by a deep pause, signaling the completion of one communicative act: Weaved out on the lake the scarlet light of dawn. Capercaillie are crying on the forest with bells- [vytkals, b noz, bl, b / scarlet sv, et zr, and // nbru withringing, and crying, ut deafr, and].
Punctuation marks within a sentence usually correspond to bar boundaries, and sentence end marks correspond to phrase boundaries. But sometimes a sign inside a complex sentence can coincide with the boundary between phrases: With a smile on your face and with tears You remained on the sea pier, And again the storm plays with sails and All my love and longing(N. Rubtsov) - […// and again a storm / play parusam'i / and fs'ey mey l'ubov'yu and tskoy]. And the end-of-sentence sign can coincide with a bar boundary: Russia, Russia! Save yourself, save yourself!(N. Rubtsov) - two sentences, but four measures: [rs’iy / rus’ / hrn’i s’i e b, a /hrn’i].
1. Transcribe the text, dividing it into syllables, phonetic words, measures and phrases: Today, I see your eyes are especially sad, And your hands are especially thin, hugging your knees. Listen: far, far, on Lake Chad Exquisite giraffe roams(N. Gumilyov).
2. Bring from memory poetic lines with proclitics and enclitics.
3. How many phonetic words are in the second line: And the cranes, sadly flying, No more regrets(S. Yesenin). Justify your answer.
4.* Which of the options for pronunciation of the word inter-institutional can be allowed? Why?
[m’ezhynst’…] [m’ezhynst’…]
[m’eshinst’…] [m’eshinst’…]
[m’zhynst’…] [m’zhinst’…]
[m’shynst’…] [m’shynst’…]
Topic number 2. Basic concepts of phonetics. Phonetic processes
Phonetic processes - due to the phonetic patterns of a given language, regular alternations of sounds in the flow of speech. In order to distinguish between the field of phonetics and orthoepy, it is advisable to distinguish between laws and trends among phonetic patterns.
phonetic law- excluding variability, the pattern of sound alternations in the same phonetic conditions. The law requires one pronunciation in all cases. For example, in Russian there is a law of non-distinguishing noisy from another noisy on the basis of sonority / deafness. Console once- will always be different pronounced before voiced and deaf: parted[rustvalis’] and resounded[razdvalis']. A special case of the same law: before [at] there can be both voiced and deaf, but their pronunciation is not optional, but mandatory: check[sv'er'] and the beast[z w'er'].
Trend- a phonetic pattern that allows variability within the orthoepic norm. It is necessary to distinguish between lexicalized and proper positional variation. In the first case, the tendency allows two variants of pronunciation of one word: repeat[t’v’i erd’it’] and [tv’i erd’it’]. In the second, it allows two variants of sound combinations, not allowing them in the same word: [th] and [sht] are equally valid in Russian phonetics, but in some words [th] is possible and [sht] is excluded ( something), in others - vice versa ( what). 1
Type examples repeat,door, power, where facultative pronunciation is observed, illustrate a continuing but declining trend of softening dental before soft labials. At the junction of the prefix ending in [d] / [t] and the root, the law is already in force, and not the trend: branch off[tv’etv’it’] and [tv’et’v’it’]; anticipate[pr'i e dv'id't']. Therefore, the pronunciation [t’v’etv’it’] and [pr’i e d’v’id’t’] is a violation of the phonetic law and, as a result, the orthoepic norm.
The appearance of different allophones of one phoneme in the same pronunciation conditions is due not to the operation of the phonetic law, but to the regulation of the orthoepic norm. For example, [w] in what[what] alternates with [h,] in the word form what[h, and e in]. To recognize the dissimilarity between [h, ] and the explosive as a law, one must make sure that dissimilation always occurs in this position. From the offer Postman Pechkin dreamed of a respectful daughter, where every word violates the supposed phonetic law, it is clear that this is not the case. Obviously, the affricate [h, ] (= [t, +sh, ]) before the plosive does not always lose the first phase of articulation, therefore, in Russian there is a tendency, and not a law of dissimilarity between the affricate and the plosive. The choice of [h, ] or [w] before the plosive is determined by social preferences and belongs to the field of orthoepy, not phonetics.
Phonetic processes are caused by two reasons: 1) position and 2) the influence of a neighboring sound. The processes caused by the first cause are called positional, and the processes caused by the second cause - combinatorial. There are two meanings of the term "position": 1) pronunciation conditions in general, i.e. the place of the sound in relation to neighboring sounds, as well as the place in relation to other pronunciation conditions: for vowels - to stress and to the absolute beginning of the word, for consonants - to the absolute end of the word; 2) in narrow sense position is understood only as the place of a sound in relation to pronunciation conditions that are not related to the influence of neighboring sounds.
Among the phonetic processes are menu and change, distinguishing them according to two criteria: 1) regularity / irregularity and 2) awareness / unconsciousness by native speakers. However, the first criterion does not stand up to scrutiny. According to him, accommodations should be called exchange, because occur regularly, but they relate to change. Assimilation by voicedness / deafness refers to me, and according to hardness / softness to change, although the assimilation of the tooth before the soft tooth is regular to the same extent as the assimilation of the deaf before the voiced: both types of assimilation are known for one exception - respectively before [l '] and before [in].
It seems possible to consider this issue in connection with allophone phonemes. Rejecting the criterion of regularity/irregularity and leaving the criterion of awareness/unconsciousness, we can propose to distinguish between the processes of change and change depending on the nature of the alternating sounds.
Mena- this is a process in which a phoneme is realized by its own version - an allophone, appearing in a weak position and coinciding with the sound of a semantic unit - another phoneme. The interphonemic alternation [r] //[k] is recognized by native speakers, because alternating sounds are important for semantic discrimination, because there is exactly the same interphonemic alternation // . Awareness of the results of the exchange is clearly visible in curiosities such as And your step weighed the earth(V. Bryusov) - with a fluent recitation [your donkey ...].
Change- this is a process in which a phoneme is realized by its variation - an allophone that appears in strong position and not coinciding with the sound of another phoneme. This allows our consciousness not to react to an intraphonemic modification that does not intersect with an interphonemic one.
With this approach, the very use of the terms "change" and "change" receives a more rational justification. Alternation [t] // [d] in a pair pond-pond[rod] - [pond] - exchange, because in a symbolic record of the process of stunning, in abstraction from a specific word, one can replace phoneme without breaking the meaning. The record [t] allows for an infallible reading if replaced by: [t]. Only an appeal to a strong position makes it possible to find out which record satisfies the process in a given word.
Alternation [y] //[y. ] paired with twig-twig– change, because replace in the recording of the accommodation process [y. ] impossible. Thus, change is recognized as a process more radical than change, in which our consciousness does not cease to recognize a given phoneme and, therefore, does not allow its substitution by another phoneme.
1. Classify text processes (positional/combinatorial and name/change): I'm tired of the twentieth century, From its bloody rivers. And I do not need human rights, I have long been no longer a man(V. Sokolov).
2. Establish whether the following phonetic patterns are the law or trend: stunning at the absolute end of a word; assimilation of the tooth before [l ’]; qualitative reduction of vowels; assimilation by deafness; hardness assimilation.
Topic number 3. Classification of vowels
All sounds of the Russian language can be characterized by acoustic and articulatory features. The most common division of sounds is into vowels and consonants.
Acoustic properties of vowels.
In the acoustic aspect, the physical properties of sounds are studied - pitch, longitude, strength and timbre. Vowels are composed of a pure tone resulting from periodic fluctuations vocal cords.
Articulatory properties of vowels. In the articulatory aspect, biological factors that contribute to articulate speech are studied. Articulation refers to the position of the organs of pronunciation necessary for the formation of sound. The articulatory characteristic of sound consists of two points: 1) which organs are involved in sound production and 2) what is the nature of their interaction (where and how the organs of pronunciation create the conditions for sound production).
During the formation of vowels, the air stream does not encounter obstacles in the oral cavity, and therefore, the articulatory characteristics of vowels are spoken of with a certain degree of conventionality. There are three articulatory characteristics of vowels:
1) row - part of the language involved in the formation of a vowel
2) rise - the degree of height of the tongue in the formation of a vowel
3) rounding - the participation of lips in the articulation of a vowel
Phonetic processes in the field of vowels.
Positional Processes. For vowels, position is determined by place in relation to stress. In a stressed position, the vowel of a full formation sounds, in an unstressed position, the vowel changes to one degree or another. The reduction process consists in weakening the sound of a vowel in an unstressed position. Quantitative reduction is reduced to a shortening of the length of the vowel, qualitative reduction is accompanied by a change in the individual timbre of the sound, which is no longer recognizable, coinciding in its articulatory characteristics with other sounds.
The sounds of a non-upper rise [e], [o], [a] alternate with the same sounds in the same positions. Sounds alternating with [e], [o], [a] are determined by the place in relation to the stress and the quality of the preceding consonant.
For [o], [a], [e] TV. Soft
I position and e
II position b b
Notes:
1. The sound [e] after a solid and at the absolute beginning of a word alternates with the sound [s e]: Wishing for the sixth floor[zhy elalshi estoy y et tash].
2. In some words, the orthoepic norm allows alternation [a] with [s e]: regret[zhy e l'et'] and its derivatives, twenty, thirty, horses.
Accommodation is the mutual adaptation of dissimilar sounds (vowels to consonants and vice versa) to each other. Vowel accommodation consists in adapting their articulation to the articulation of adjacent soft and hard consonants. Accommodate under the influence of soft consonants full vowels [i], [s], [y], [e], [o], [a]. For [y], [e], [o], [a], four cases are possible. Let's illustrate them with an example [a]:
1) mat[mat]
2) mint[m' . at]
3) mother[ma. t']
4) crush[m'at'].
In the position between two soft front vowels [i] and [e] are pronounced more intensely, which is conveyed by the diacritical sign ^: mile[m'ul']
For [and] only the fourth case is possible, because [and] does not occur after a hard one, but in a position after a soft one before a hard one [and] does not accommodate, because its articulation occurs in the place of the palate where soft consonants are articulated. In other words, it is the usual articulation [and], which in an isolated form and at the absolute beginning of a word before a hard one sounds the same as after a soft one before a hard one. For [ы], the second and fourth cases are excluded, because [s] after soft is not found.
Accommodation after a solid is characteristic only for [and], which is realized in this position as [s], which in some cases also reflects spelling: Ira played alone[ir played bottom] - Irena will play with Ira[raw play iren].
1. Recognize the sound and give the word in which it occurs:
Back row, top rise, labialized, accommodating at the end of its duration
Medium rise, middle row, non-labialized
Anterior row, medium-upper rise, strongly reduced, non-labialized
Medium row, top rise, non-labialized
Non-upper lift, non-labialized
Anterior row, medium-upper rise, slightly reduced, non-labialized
Anterior row, non-labialized
Mid-back row, mid-upper lift, non-labialized
2. Why is identification impossible in some cases? What are differential and redundant signs of sound?
3. Transcribe the text and describe the phonetic processes in the area of vowels: I do not need odic ratis And the charm of elegiac undertakings. For me, everything in poetry should be out of place, Not like people do.(A. Akhmatova).
four*. Why don't native Russian speakers notice the quantitative reduction?
Topic number 4. Classification of consonants
Phonetic processes in the field of consonants
Any consonant is determined by four signs - one acoustic and three articulatory. According to the acoustic feature, consonants are divided into sonorous and noisy. Noisy - voiced and deaf.
Consonants have two main articulatory features (place and method of formation) and one additional, which may be absent (palatality, or softness).
In Russian, there are the following articulatory characteristics of consonants:
Place of education. This is a classification according to organs of pronunciation, forming a barrier to the air stream.
b n e
labial labial labial
[b/b’], [p/n’], [m/m’] [v/v’], [f/f’]
English
anterior lingual middle lingual posterior lingual
[j] [g/g’], [k/k’], [x/x’]
dental palatine
[d / d '], [t / t '], [s / s '], [s / s '], [w], [u], [g], [r / r '], [h ' /d'j']
[l/l’], [n/n’], [c/dz]
Way of education. This is a classification according to the nature of the barrier.
occlusive - the organs of pronunciation are completely closed: [b / b '], [p / p '], [d / d '], [t / t '], [g / g '], [c / c '].
slotted - a gap remains between the organs of pronunciation: [v / v '], [f / f '], [s / s '], [s / s '], [w], [u], [g], [x / x '].
Stop-slotted (affricates) - the initial phase of articulation is a bow, the final phase is a gap: [c / dz], [h '/ d'zh '].
Smuchno-passage - the bow and the gap are carried out simultaneously: nasal [m / m '] and [n / n '], lateral [l / l '] or alternately: trembling [r / r '].
It is more convenient to determine the articulatory signs of consonants by the muscular impressions during its pronunciation.
Full characteristic of the consonant:
[p] - 1. sonorous; 2. lingual, anterior lingual, palatal; 3. stop-through, trembling; 4. solid.
[in '] - 1. noisy, sonorous; 2. labial, labio-dental; 3. slotted; 4. soft.
[dz] - 1. noisy, sonorous; 2. lingual, anterior lingual, palatal; 3. lock-slit; 4. solid.
Positional Processes.
Stun at the absolute end of a word.
Noisy at the end of a Russian word can only be deaf: here will be garden city(V. Mayakovsky) - [z'd'es' bud't gort sat]. In the first two words, the final consonant is always voiceless, and in the second it alternates with voiced ones: garden city.
Vocalization- Acquisition of vowel features by consonants.
The consonant [j] occurs only in the position immediately before the stressed vowel: spruce. In other positions, it is realized as a consonant close to the vowel [and]: spruce[yi e lovy].
combinatorial processes.
Assimilation- assimilation of sounds in a speech stream. Depending on the acoustic-articulatory features by which sounds are likened, several types of assimilation are distinguished.
Assimilation according to acoustic features occurs most regularly and knows only one exception: voiced and voiceless consonants differ before a noisy voiced [v] / [v,]; deaf people do not acquire assimilative voicedness.
1. by voice: ask-request[proz'b]
2. for deafness: summarize-summary[snapshot]
Hardness/softness assimilation occurs inconsistently. Firstly, different combinations of consonants are pronounced differently: dental before soft dental, as a rule, softens - age[age], but grow[rs't'i], and the tooth before the soft labial softens optionally at the root and retains hardness at the junction of the prefix and the root - failure[crash] and knocked down[zb'il]. Secondly, the same combinations are pronounced differently in different words: January and September have a final [p'], but January pronounced [yi e nvarsky], and September- [s'i e n't'abr'sky].
There has been a steady trend to the loss of assimilation softness. AT spelling dictionary 1989 edition of the word constitution, institution have an optional pronunciation [st '] and [s't '], and in words fourth-year student, canvas pronunciation, [s't'] is given only as valid.
3. by softness: leaf-leaf[l'is't'ik]
4. by hardness (only at the junction of the root and suffix -n or a suffix starting with dental): blood-blooded, Russia-Russian, king-kingdom. There are exceptions here: January-January, but june yin.
Assimilation can occur in several ways: do[h, delat,] - sonority and softness; adviser[sv, ech, h, ik] - the method of formation, the place of formation and softness. The last case is called complete assimilation, because the previous sound has turned into the next one, becoming similar to it in all their differential features.
5. at the place of education (always complete): sew[shsht,].
Letter combination mid pronounced as [w, w,] or [w, h,], which reflects the process of assimilation in the place and method of education, and in the case of zch also in deafness. The phonetic process here is bidirectional: both progressive and regressive assimilation takes place simultaneously. Before the affricate [h,] voiced, dental and hard [h], remaining fricative, acquires deafness, palate and softness, and [h,] ([t, + w,]) after [h] loses the articulatory phase of the bow and becomes fricative : hence two soft [w,]: cab[out, sh, ik].
Long sound [ts], transmitted by a letter combination ts/ts in infinitives and personal forms of verbs is usually seen as the result of assimilation by the way of formation. Rather, we can talk about the adaptation of consonants, the technology resembling accommodation. It is precisely the adaptation of the articulations of consonants that takes place here, and not the likening of the sounds [t] and [s] to the sound [c]. Explosive [t] and slotted [s], pronounced one after another, sequentially reproduce two phases of the articulation of the affricate [ts]. As a result of the continuous pronunciation [ts], the usual [ts] should be obtained, but since the pronunciation energy is released not for two phases of one sound, but for the realization of two sounds [ts], the holding phase lasts longer than when pronouncing [ts], as a result of which [c] turns out to be long: in the mattress spoke – no way can't sleep[vmtrac sp’its / n’ikak n’i e sp’izz].
Dissimilation- the process of dissimilarization of sounds.
Occurs only in words light and soft and their derivatives.
In the full and short form of the adjective light alternate [x '] and [g] easy. The sound [r] is in a strong position, because. stands before a vowel, and in a word light[l'oh'k'y] he undergoes the following transformations:
1. assimilates due to deafness
2. assimilates by softness
3. dissimilates according to the method of formation: [g] and [k] explosive, and [x '] slot.
Diareza(discard) - the process of falling out of a consonant in an unpronounceable group of consonants: heart[s'erts], holiday[feast'n'ik].
Tasks:
1. Recognize the sound and give the word in which it occurs:
sonorous; anterior-lingual, dental, rounded; closure-passage, lateral; soft
noisy, loud; posterior lingual; slotted; solid
noisy, loud; anterior-lingual, palatine; smychno-slotted; soft
2. Transcribe the text and describe the phonetic processes in the area of consonants: Again I am sick with warm sadness From the oatmeal breeze. And on the lime of the bell towers Involuntarily a hand is baptized(S. Yesenin).
3. The sound [] is usually called "g fricative". In which case is it wrong?
Page 1
The phonetic process that occurs in a word largely explains its spelling and pronunciation. This linguistic phenomenon should also be taken into account when performing sound analysis in Russian language lessons. Special attention is given here to the position of this or that sound. The so-called positional phonetic processes are characteristic of most languages. Interestingly, many changes in the sound design of a word depend on the location of the speakers. Someone rounds vowels, someone softens consonants. The differences between the Moscow bulo[sh]naya and the St. Petersburg bulo[ch]ay have already become textbook.
Concept definition
What is the phonetic process? These are special changes in the sound expression of letters under the influence of various factors. The type of this process depends on these factors. If they are not dictated by the lexical component of the language itself, by the general pronunciation of the word (for example, stress) - such a phenomenon will be called positional. This includes all sorts of reduced consonants and vowels, as well as stunning at the end of a word.
Vowel reduction
Let's start with the phenomenon of reduction. It is worth saying that it is characteristic of both vowels and consonants. As for the former, this phonetic process is completely subordinate to the stress in the word.
To begin with, it should be said that all vowels in words are divided depending on the relationship to the stressed syllable. To the left of it go pre-shock, to the right - behind-shock. For example, the word "TV". Stressed syllable -vi-. Accordingly, the first pre-shock -le-, the second pre-shock -te-. And the shock -zor-.
In general, vowel reduction is divided into two types: quantitative and qualitative. The first is determined not by a change in sound design, but only by intensity and duration. This phonetic process concerns only one vowel, [y]. For example, it is enough to clearly pronounce the word "boudoir". The stress here falls on the last syllable, and if in the first pre-stressed "u" it is heard clearly and more or less loudly, then in the second pre-stressed it is heard much weaker.
Let's make another thing - a qualitative reduction. It involves not only a change in the strength and weakness of the sound, but also in a different timbre color. Thus, the articulatory design of sounds changes.
For example, [o] and [a] in a strong position (i.e., under stress) are always heard clearly, it is impossible to confuse them. Let's take the word "samovar" as an example. In the first pre-stressed syllable (-mo-), the letter "o" is heard quite distinctly, but not fully formed. For her, the transcription has its own designation [^]. In the second pre-stressed syllable, the -vowel is even more indistinctly formed, strongly reduced. It also has its own designation [ъ]. Thus, the transcription will look like this: [sm ^ var].
Vowels preceded by soft consonants are also very interesting. Again, in a strong position, they are heard clearly. What happens in unstressed syllables? Let's take the word "spindle". The stressed syllable is the last one. In the first pre-stressed vowel, it is weakly reduced, it is denoted in transcription as [and e] - and with an overtone e. The second and third pre-shocks were completely reduced. Such sounds denote [b]. Thus, the transcription is as follows: [v’rti e no].
The scheme of the linguist Potebnya is well known. He deduced that the first pre-stressed syllable is the clearest of all unstressed syllables. All others are inferior to him. If a vowel in a strong position is taken as 3, and the weakest reduction as 2, the following scheme will be obtained: 12311 (the word "grammatical").
Uncommon events (often in colloquial speech), when the reduction is zero, i.e. the vowel is not pronounced at all. There is a similar phonetic process both in the middle and at the end of a word. For example, in the word "wire" we rarely pronounce the vowel in the second stressed syllable: [provlk], and in the word "to" the vowel in the stressed syllable [shtob] is reduced to zero
Consonant reduction
also in modern language there is a phonetic process called consonant reduction. It lies in the fact that such a sound at the end of the word practically disappears (often there is a zero reduction).
This is due to the physiology of the pronunciation of words: we pronounce them on the exhale, and sometimes the air flow is not enough to articulate the last sound well. It also depends on subjective factors: the rate of speech, as well as pronunciation features (for example, dialect).
This phenomenon can be found, for example, in the words "disease", "life" (some dialects do not pronounce the last consonants). Also, j is sometimes reduced: we pronounce the word "my" without it, although, according to the rules, it should be, because "and" comes before a vowel.
Stun
Stunning is a separate process of reduction, when voiced consonants change under the influence of voiceless ones or at the absolute end of a word.
For example, let's take the word "muffin". Here, the voiced [g], under the influence of the deaf [k], standing behind, is deafened. As a result, a combination [shk] is heard.
Another example is the absolute end of the word "oak". Here the voiced [b] is stunned to [n].
Always voiced consonants (or sonorants) are also subject to this process, albeit very weakly. If we compare the pronunciation of the word "tree", where [l] is after the vowel, and "ox", where the same sound is at the end, it is easy to notice the difference. In the second case, the sonorant sounds shorter and weaker.
voicing
Completely the opposite process - voicing. It already belongs to the combinatorial, i.e., dependent on certain sounds that stand nearby. As a rule, this applies to voiceless consonants that are located before voiced ones.
For example, words such as "shift", "make" - here the voicing occurred at the junction of the prefix and the root. This phenomenon is also observed in the middle of the word: ko [z ‘] ba, pro [z ‘] ba. Also, the process can take place on the border of a word and a preposition: to the grandmother, "from the village."
Mitigation
Another law of phonetics is that hard sounds soften if they are followed by soft consonants.
There are several patterns:
- The sound [n] becomes soft if it stands before [h] or [u]: ba [n '] chik, karma [n '] chik, drum [n '] chik.
- The sound [s] softens in position before soft [t '], [n'], and [s], before [d '] and [n ']: go [s '] t, [s '] neg, [s ']here, in[h']nya.
These two rules apply to all speakers of an academic language, however, there are dialects where mitigation also occurs. For example, it can be pronounced [d ‘] believe or [s’] eat.
Assimilation
The phonetic process of assimilation can be defined as an assimilation. In other words, sounds that are difficult to pronounce, as if likened to those standing nearby. This applies to combinations such as "sch", "sch", also "shch", "zdch" and "stch". Instead, [u] is pronounced. Happiness - [n]astie; man - mu[u]ina.
The verb combinations -tsya and -tsya are also assimilated, instead of them [ts] is heard: crown [ts]a, fight [ts]a, hear [ts]a.
This also includes simplification. When a group of consonants loses one of them: so [n] tse, izves [n] yak.
Phonetic processes
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Phonetic processes |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Literature |
Classification of vowels and consonants
In all languages of the world, there are 2 types of speech sounds: vowels and consonants. The totality of vowels forms vocalism, the totality of consonants - consonantism. Vowels and consonants are different functionally, articulatory and acoustically.
Articulatory difference consonants and vowels consists in different intensity of the pronunciation apparatus. Functional difference lies in their role in word formation. Acoustic difference– vowels are opposed to noisy ones, ᴛ.ᴇ. deaf consonants like [f] and [p]; between vowels and noisy consonants are, on the one hand, voiced consonants, and on the other, sonorous consonants.
Vowel classification
All vowels are sonorant (voice) and fricative. The classification is based on row and lifting of the tongue, as well as lip work; are additionally taken into account nasalization, voltage and longitude. The row is determined by the part of the tongue that rises when a given vowel is formed. Distinguish three rows, and, accordingly, three types of vowels: front, middle and back. For example, in Russian, [i] is a front vowel, and [ы] is a middle vowel. Rise is determined by the degree of elevation of the tongue in the formation of a given vowel; usually differ three lifts: upper, average, lower. According to the participation of lips in their formation, vowels are divided into labial(labialized, rounded) and non-labial. These vowels are sometimes called monophthongs.
In addition to monophthongs and long vowels, in the languages of the world there are diphthongs- vowels with complex articulation, pronounced in one syllable and acting as one phoneme. For example, German: au, eu, ei ; English: g o,n o - are pronounced with one effort on [o], the second element is pronounced less clearly, like a [y]-shaped overtone. Diphthongs are divided into descending and ascending. In a descending diphthong, the first element is strong, as in English go , descending are also German and Baum, my . Ascending diphthongs have a strong second element (found in Spanish).
Consonant classification
When consonants are formed, a strong jet of air overcomes the barrier, blows it up or passes through the gap, and these noises constitute the characteristic of the consonant. The classification of consonants is more complicated, since there are more consonants in the languages of the world than vowels. The classification of consonants is based on four basic articulatory features: way of articulation, active organ , place of articulation, work of the vocal cords.
Way of articulation- the nature of overcoming the obstacle and the passage of the air jet when creating noise, which is extremely important in the formation of a consonant. There are two basic ways of articulating consonants - bow and slit; according to the method of articulation, consonants are divided into occlusive and slotted.
Stop consonants are formed by blowing up an obstacle with an air jet, in this regard, stop consonants are also called explosive and explosive. Stops are [p], [b], [t], [g], etc. Slit consonants are formed by the friction of an air jet against the walls of the passage created by the convergence of the organs of speech oral cavity; in this regard, fricative consonants are also called fricatives (from lat. frico- rub).
Along with pure stop and fricative consonants, there are complex (mixed) stop-fricative consonants. According to the acoustic characteristics, they are of two types: on the one hand, this voice (sonor), with another - noisy (deaf and voiced). Sonorant consonants: nasal [m], [n], English, German. [ŋ] morning, Zeitung; lateral [l], trembling, for example [r], French. [r] rose.
Sonorant consonants are articulated when the air stream overcomes the bow and passes through the gap; when pronouncing the nasal bow, it remains intact, since part of the air stream passes through the nasal cavity, and when articulating the lateral consonant bow, formed by the tongue and palate, it is preserved, since the side of the tongue is lowered and a gap is formed for the passage of the air stream.
The duration of the consonant is associated with the formation of affricates: the attack of the affricate is stop, and the indentation is fricative [c] pour .
By active organ consonants are divided into three types: labial, lingual and lingual(guttural). Labial there are labial[b], less common labiodental[f], [c]. The lingual consonants are divided into anterior lingual, middle language and back-lingual. Front lingual consonants at the point of articulation there are dental (whistling) and anterior palate (hissing) [s] and [w]; [c] and [h]. Middle-lingual are formed by the convergence of the middle part of the tongue with the hard palate. The median consonant is [j] (this sound is called iot); when pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the sides of the tongue - on the side teeth, the middle back of the tongue rises to the hard palate, forming a very narrow gap through which the voice passes. translingual consonants are divided into uvular(reed), pharyngeal and guttural. An example uvular French burr [r] can serve as a consonant. When pronouncing this sound, the tip of the tongue rests on the lower teeth, the back, straining, rises to the sky, so that the air stream causes the small tongue (uvulu) to vibrate, which periodically comes into contact with the raised back of the tongue, interrupting the stream and creating noise. pharyngeal consonants are articulated by moving the root of the tongue back and contracting the muscles of the pharyngeal wall. An example is Ukrainian.
Hosted on ref.rf
G ora. guttural consonants are represented mainly by a guttural plosive. As an independent sound of speech, it is present in Arabic; called hamza. Gut sounds often act as an additional articulation of vowels and consonants. For example, when pronouncing German words that begin with a vowel, a dull guttural noise is heard from a sudden rupture of closed vocal cords; such a pronunciation is called a strong attack, and the sound is called a knockout.
The method of articulation, the active organ, the place of articulation and the work of the vocal cords are the main articulatory features on the basis of which consonants are classified.
The sounds of speech, used as part of a syllable, words, phrases influence each other, undergoing changes. These modifications of sounds in the speech chain are called phonetic (sound) processes. Phonetic processes are caused by the mutual influence of the beginning and end of the articulation of adjacent sounds, as well as the position of the sound in the word. Phonetic processes are combinatorial and positional.
combinatorial processes cover mainly consonants: assimilation, dissimilation and accommodation (Latin assimilis - similar, dissimilis - unlike, accommodation - adaptation).
Assimilation- assimilation of neighboring sounds in some component of articulation. She happens complete and partial. Full - two sounds are exactly the same: be ssh smart(w), szh go(and). Partial - assimilation in only one component of articulation: together (in`m`), here (h`d`). Assimilation also happens progressive(straight) and regressive(reverse). Progressive - the imposition of the previous consonant on the next. For example, cloud (from cloud as a result of complete progressive assimilation of the Russian word). Regressive - the imposition of the subsequent sound on the previous one: two times - twice, before - before, here - here, wedding - wedding.
Dissimilation- a process opposite to assimilation: it consists in dissimilating the articulation of neighboring vowels and consonants. For example, the word lead[c] arose as a result of dissimilation [d] lead; colloquial pronunciation of words tranway, colidor.
Accommodation- the interaction of neighboring vowels and consonants. For example, in Russian, after soft consonants, vowels become more front, pronounced higher; on the contrary, after solid consonants, the vowel becomes more back - to play (game).
Less common are such combinatorial phonetic processes as diarrhea and epenthesis. Diareza(Greek separation) - (discard) loss of sound in a complex combination of sounds: Che sn th - che stn th, co nc e - with lnts e, se rc e - se RDC e. Epenthesis- inserting sound into certain combinations. For example, dialect indrav(temper).
Positional phonetic processes: reduction of unstressed vowels, vowel harmony, deafening of voiced consonants at the end of a word, addition or loss of sounds at the beginning of a word.
Reduction of unstressed vowels– attenuation and change in sound quality. German K o rrektur
Vowel harmony (vowel harmony). It is especially characteristic of the Turkic and Finno-Ugric languages.
Stunning voiced consonants (German: San d).
Orthoepy(Greek ortho - correct, epic - speech) - a set of pronunciation rules that correspond to the norm of the national language. It relies on phonetic processes and rules for reading individual letter combinations: for example, [h`] in certainly and what like [w]. In orthoepy, the concept of the main (literary) and stylistic variant is important (for example,
Hosted on ref.rf
full style bud´it- colloquial buit).
Required Literature
1. Kodukhov V.I. Introduction to linguistics. M.: Enlightenment, 1987. - S. 101 - 138.
additional literature
1. Kochergina V.A. Introduction to linguistics M.: Gaudeamus, 2004.-S.13-87.
2. Girutsky A.A. Introduction to Linguistics: Minsk: Tetra - Systems, 2005.-p. 43-76.
Vocabulary
Phonetic processes - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Phonetic processes" 2017, 2018.
Phonetic processes of the Russian language
| Parameter name | Meaning |
| Article subject: | Phonetic processes of the Russian language |
| Rubric (thematic category) | Education |
Phonetics - (Greek background - sound) - the doctrine of the sound system of a language, a section of linguistics that studies the sound means of a language (sounds, stress, intonation). A special section of phonetics - orthoepy describes a set of norms of literary pronunciation. Orthoepy occupies a special place among linguistic disciplines. It studies those units of language that do not matter, but they determine the existence of meaningful units of language.
Phonetic laws (sound laws) are the laws of the functioning and development of the sound matter of a language, which govern both the stable preservation and the regular change of its sound units, their alternations and combinations.
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word. A noisy voiced consonant at the end of a word is deafened, ᴛ.ᴇ. pronounced as the corresponding double deaf. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: the threshold is a vice, young is a hammer, goats is a braid, etc. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast - sadness, entrance - drive up [pΛdjest], etc.
Stunning of the final voiced occurs under the following conditions:
1) before a pause: [pr "ishol post] (the train came); 2) before the next word (without a pause) with the initial not only deaf, but also a vowel, sonorant, as well as [j] and [c]: [praf he ], [our sat], [slap ja], [your mouth] (he is right, our garden, I am weak, your kind).
2. Assimilation of consonants by voicedness and deafness. Combinations of consonants, of which one is deaf and the other is voiced, are not characteristic of the Russian language. For this reason, if two consonants of different voicing appear side by side in a word, the first consonant is likened to the second. This change in consonant sounds is called regressive assimilation.
By virtue of this law, voiced consonants before the deaf turn into paired deaf, and deaf in the same position into voiced. The voicing of voiceless consonants is less common than the stunning of voiced ones; the transition of voiced to deaf creates homophones: [dushk - dushk] (shackle - darling), [in "yes" ti - in "yes" t "and] (carry - lead), [fp" yr "em" yeshka - fp " r "eem" yeschka] (interspersed - interspersed).
Before sonorants, as well as before [j] and [c], the deaf remain unchanged: tinder, rogue, [Λtjest] (departure), yours, yours.
Voiced and voiceless consonants are assimilated under the following conditions: 1) at the junction of morphemes: [pΛhotk] (gait), [collection] (collection); 2) at the junction of prepositions with the word: [where "elu] (to business), [zd" elm] (with business); 3) at the junction of a word with a particle: [got-th] (a year), [dod`zh`by] (daughter would); 4) at the junction of significant words pronounced without a pause: [rock-kΛzy] (goat horn), [ras-p "at"] (five times).
3. Assimilation of consonants by softness. Hard and soft consonants are represented by 12 pairs of sounds. By education, they differ in the absence or presence of palatalization, which consists in additional articulation (the middle part of the back of the tongue rises high to the corresponding part of the palate).
Softness assimilation has a regressive character: the consonant softens, becoming like the subsequent soft consonant. In this position, not all consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften and not all soft consonants cause a softening of the previous sound.
All consonants, paired in hardness-softness, soften in the following weak positions: 1) before the vowel sound [e]; [b" ate], [c" eu], [m" ate], [s" ate] (white, weight, chalk, villages), etc .; 2) before [and]: [m "silt], [n" silt "and] (mil, drank).
Before unpaired [g], [w], [c], soft consonants are impossible, with the exception of [l], [l "] (cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
end - ring).
Dental [h], [s], [n], [p], [e], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are most susceptible to softening. They do not soften before soft consonants [g], [k], [x], and also [l]: glucose, key, bread, fill, keep quiet, etc. Softening occurs within the word, but is absent before the soft consonant of the next word ([here - l "eu]; cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
[Λ tor]) and in front of the particle ([grew-l "and]; cf.
Hosted on ref.rf
[rΛsli]) (here is the forest, otter, did it grow, did it grow).
Consonants [h] and [s] soften before soft [t "], [d"], [s"], [n"], [l"]: [m "ês" t "], [v" iez " d "e], [f-ka with "b], [punishment"] (revenge, everywhere, at the box office, execution). Mitigation [s], [s] also occurs at the end of prefixes and prepositions consonant with them before soft lips : [rz "d" iel "it"], [r's" t "ienut"], [b" ez "-n" ievo), [b "yes" -s "il] (split, stretch, without it, no power). Before soft labial softening [h], [s], [d], [t] is possible inside the root and at the end of prefixes on -z, as well as in the prefix s- and in a preposition consonant with it: [s "m" ex] , [s "in" êr], [d "in" êr |, [t "in" êr], [s "p" êt"], [s "-n" them], [is "-pêch"] , [rΛz "d" t "] (laughter, beast, door, Tver, sing, with him, bake, undress).
The labials do not soften before soft teeth: [pt "ên" h "bk], [n" eft "], [vz" at "] (chick, oil, take).
4. Assimilation of consonants by hardness. Assimilation of consonants by hardness is carried out at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: locksmith - locksmith, secretary - secretarial, etc. Before the labial [b], assimilation in hardness does not occur: [prΛs "it"] - [proz "b], [mllt "it"] - [mld" ba] (ask - request, thresh - thresh), etc. [l "] is not subjected to assimilation: [pol" b] - [zΛpol" nyj] (field, outdoor).
5. Assimilation of teeth before hissing. This type of assimilation extends to the dental [h], [s] in the position before the hissing (anteropalatal) [w], [g], [h], [w] and consists in the complete assimilation of the dental [h], [s] to the subsequent hissing .
Complete assimilation [h], [s] occurs:
1) at the junction of morphemes: [zh at"], [rΛzh at"] (compress, unclench); [sh yt "], [rΛ sh yt"] (sew, embroider); [w "from], [rΛ w" from] (account, calculation); [different sh "ik], [out of sh" ik] (peddler, cab driver);
2) at the junction of a preposition and a word: [s-zh arm], [s-sh arm] (with heat, with a ball); [bies-zh ar], [bies-sh ar] (no heat, no ball).
The combination of zh inside the root, as well as the combination of zhzh (always inside the root) turn into a long soft [zh "]: [by zh"] (later), (I drive); [in w "and], [trembling" and] (reins, yeast). Optionally, in these cases, a long hard [g] can be pronounced.
A variation of this assimilation is the assimilation of dental [d], [t] following them [h], [c], due to which long [h], [c] are obtained: [Λ h "from] (report), (fkra q] (briefly).
6. Simplification of consonant combinations. Consonants [d], [t] in combinations of several consonants between vowels are not pronounced. Such a simplification of consonant groups is consistently observed in combinations: stn, zdn, stl, ntsk, stsk, vstv, rdts, lnts: [usny], [posn], [w" and iflivy], [g "igansk" and], [h " ustv], [heart], [sun] (oral, late, happy, gigantic, feeling, heart, sun).
7. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. When three identical consonants converge at the junction of a preposition or prefix with the next word, as well as at the junction of a root and a suffix, the consonants are reduced to two: [ra sor "it"] (time + quarrel), [with ylk] (with a link), [kΛlo n s] (column + n + th); [Λde with ki] (Odessa + sk + y).
The main phonetic processes occurring in a word include: 1) reduction; 2) stunning; 3) voicing; 4) softening; 5) assimilation; 6) simplification.
Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of vowels in an unstressed position: [house] - [d ^ ma] - [d ^ voi].
Stunning is a process in which voiced ones agree before deaf ones and are pronounced as deaf at the end of a word; book - book [w] ka; oak - du [p].
Voicing is a process in which the deaf in a position in front of voiced ones are pronounced as voiced: do - [z "] do; selection - o [d] boron.
Softening is a process in which hard consonants are soft under the influence of subsequent soft ones: depend [s ’] t, ka [s ’] n, le [s ’] t.
Assimilation is a process in which a combination of several dissimilar consonants is pronounced as one long one (for example, combinations of sch, zch, shch, zdch, stch are pronounced as a long sound [w "], and combinations ts (i), ts (i) are pronounced as one long sound [ts]): obs [sh] ik, spring [sh] ty, mu [sh "]ina, [t"] astye, ichi [ts] a. Simplification of consonant groups is a process in which in combinations of consonants stn , zdn, eats, dts, faces and others, a sound falls out, although the letter uses a letter denoting this sound: heart - [s "e" rts'], sun - [sonts].
8. Vowel reduction. A change (weakening) of vowels in an unstressed position is usually called a reduction, and unstressed vowels are called reduced vowels. Distinguish between the position of unstressed vowels in the first prestressed syllable (weak position of the first degree) and the position of unstressed vowels in other unstressed syllables (weak position of the second degree). Vowels in weak position of the second degree undergo more reduction than vowels in weak position of the first degree.
Vowels in a weak position of the first degree: [vΛly] (shafts); [shafts] (oxen); [bieda] (trouble), etc.
Vowels in a weak position of the second degree: [parʌvos] (locomotive); [kargΛnda] (Karaganda); [kalkla] (bells); [p "l" ie on] (pelœena); [voice] (voice), [exclamation] (exclamation), etc.
Synchrony - (from the Greek sýnchronós - simultaneous), consideration of a language (or any other system of signs) in terms of the relationship between its constituent parts in one period of time. For example, the nominative singular ʼʼstolʼʼ in synchrony has a zero ending, in contrast to the genitive case ʼʼstol-aʼʼ.
The identification of the dynamics of development in synchrony is also possible by comparing several simultaneously functioning styles (the choice of which is determined by the conditions of communication) - more solemn (high), retaining old features, and more colloquial (low), in which the direction of language development is guessed (for example, abbreviated form [chiek] instead of ʼʼmanʼʼ).
The study of phonetic phenomena in terms of synchrony is the study of the phonetics of a particular language in this moment as a ready system of interconnected and interdependent elements.
Phonetic processes of the Russian language - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Phonetic processes of the Russian language" 2017, 2018.