The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others relatively recently.

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
2. New words were poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.

Vocabulary of the modern Russian language

Original Russian vocabulary

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization1 Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. General Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. This is first of all specific nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, according to sound, grammatical and lexical features separated into three groups: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of primordially Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. in the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the native Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Wed lexical units:

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio station, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of the most various processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

See also the new theory of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov V.V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tbilisi, 1984.

Borrowings from Slavic languages

A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms (Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).

Being the language of liturgical books, Old Church Slavonic was at first far from colloquial speech, however, over time, he experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, leaves an imprint on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.

The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavic words began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.

As part of the Old Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words that go back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affixal design: gold, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavonicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, persi (cf. Russian: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavonicisms, that is, common Slavic words that received a new meaning in the Old Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.

Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, derivational and semantic features.

The phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms include:

• disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of full-vowel Russians -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele, -elo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, a series - a series, a helmet - a helmet, a milk - milk,
• combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of Russian ro-, lorab, boat; cf. east slavic rob, boat,
• a combination of zhd in place of Russian w, ascending to a single common Slavic consonance: clothing, hope, between; cf. East Slavic: clothes, hope, between;
• consonant u in place of Russian h, also ascending to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; cf. East Slavic: night, daughter,
• the vowel e at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian o deer, one, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
• the vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of the Russian o (e): cross, sky; cf. godfather, palate.

Other Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex stem characteristic of Old Church Slavonic word formation:

• prefixes voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre-: sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
• suffixes -stvi(e), -eni(e), -ani(e), -zn, -tv(a), -h(s), -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-: advent, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leading, knowing, screaming, smashing;
• complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavonicism: God-fearing, good-naturedness, malevolence, superstition, gluttony.

It is also possible to classify Old Slavonicisms based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.

1. Most Old Slavonicisms are distinguished by book coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, breg, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, ubiquitous, etc.
2. From such Old Slavonicisms, those that do not stylistically stand out against the background of the rest of the vocabulary (many of them replaced the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning) sharply differ: helmet, sweet, work, moisture; cf. obsolete Old Russian: shelom, licorice, vologa.
3. special group make up Old Slavonicisms used along with Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: dust - gunpowder, betray - transfer, head (of government) - head, citizen - city dweller, etc.

The Old Church Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russified that they practically do not differ from native Russian words. Unlike such, genetic, Old Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain their connection with the Old Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: Persian, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young, etc. Now they are perceived as poeticisms, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms1

From other closely related Slavic languages, separate words came to the Russian language, which practically do not stand out among the original Russian vocabulary. From the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the names of household items were borrowed, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: town, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Through the Polish language, Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed: ensign, impudent, angle, etc.

1 See. Vinokur G.O. On Slavicisms in the Modern Russian Literary Language // Selected Works in the Russian Language, Moscow, 1959. P. 443.

Borrowings from non-Slavic languages

In Russian borrowing foreign words the history of our people was reflected in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.

The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages ​​penetrated into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From the Scandinavian languages ​​​​(Swedish, Norwegian) came to us words related to sea fishing: skerry, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. AT official business speech Ancient Russia the now obsolete words vira, tiun, sneak, stigma were used. From the Finno-Ugric languages, we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of northern peoples: sleigh, tundra, snowstorm, sledges, dumplings, etc.

Among the ancient borrowings are individual words from the Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, so the number of borrowings from the ancient Germanic languages ​​seems ambiguous to different researchers (from 20 to 200 words).

The close proximity of the Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion left Turkic words in the Russian language. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, kumach, chest, flail, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.

The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus carried on a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.

Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service, etc.

Later borrowings from the Greek language refer exclusively to the sphere of sciences and arts. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, pulpit, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and under .

The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with any other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.

In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.

The later lexical influence of European languages ​​on Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the XVIII century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the success of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were numerous titles then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.

The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, percentage, accountant, bill, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, junker, corporal, gun carriage, bandoleer, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, wolfral, potatoes, onions.

Maritime terms came from the Dutch language: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, yard, rudder, fleet, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.

Maritime terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. Influence in English turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated into the Russian language from it throughout the 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere ascend to this source. public relations, technical and sports terms, names of household items: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak, pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.

The French language left a significant mark in Russian vocabulary. The first Gallicisms penetrated into it in the Petrine era, and then, at the end of the XVIII - early XIX century, in connection with the gallomania of secular society, borrowings from the French language became especially popular. Among them are the words household purpose: suit, hood, corset, corsage, jacket, vest, coat, manteau, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, jabot, floor, furniture, chest of drawers, study, sideboard, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier, lampshade, curtain, service , lackey, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc.; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing force, fleet, squadron.

Many words from the field of art also date back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, stage, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words became the property of our language, therefore, not only the names were borrowed, but also the concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture. Some French borrowings, reflecting the narrow circle of interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and fell into disuse: rendezvous, pleisir, politeness, and so on.

Some Italian words also came to us through the French language: baroque, carbonary, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, pantaloons, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta , balustrade, etc.

Musical terms came from Italian to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, viola, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzone, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The words harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo also go back to the Italian source.

There are single borrowings from Spanish, which often penetrated into Russian through French: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.

Foreign borrowings include not only individual words, but also some word-forming elements: Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arches-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, arch-absurd, pan-German; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocalic; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc. tailism, harmonist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have become internationally widespread.

It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. And in different periods In our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc. penetrated into other languages, but such as satellite, soviets, perestroika, glasnost. successes Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere that were born in our language were perceived by other languages. astronaut, lunar rover.

Mastering borrowed words in Russian

Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus losing, to one degree or another, the features of their non-Russian origin.

First of all, foreign language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then, non-Russian word endings and gender forms change. For example, in the words postman, prompter, pavement, sounds characteristic of the French language (nasal vowels, traced [r]) no longer sound; in the words rally, pudding there is no English back-lingual n, pronounced with the back of the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with a characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination is for us The Latin word seminarium turned into a seminary and then into a seminar, the Greek analogos into an'alogue, and analogikos into a similar one. not neuter, but feminine: beet.German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ovat and is converted to march.

Acquiring word-building affixes, borrowed words are included in the grammatical system of the Russian language and obey the relevant norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.

Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most of the foreign words in the Russian language lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. So, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex basis (resort from kurie-rep - “treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “making a wig”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread” )

As a result of deetymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.

However, not all borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their own foreign origin(cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.

Among the borrowings there are words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize specific features the lives of different peoples and are used in describing non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, referring to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.

Barbarisms are allocated to another group, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is individual character. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, and even more so in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can gain a foothold in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were for some time barbarisms. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying, - a tent in a camp), later the borrowing camping became the property of the Russian language.

Foreign-language inclusions in Russian vocabulary adjoin barbarisms: ok, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spelling, they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, like alma mater.

Phonetic and morphological features of loanwords

Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.

1. Unlike native Russian words that never began with the sound [a] (which would be contrary to the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: questionnaire, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
2. The initial e is distinguished mainly by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this non-quoted sound): epoch, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
3. The letter f testifies to the non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
4. The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gaping): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
5. The consonances ge, ke, heh, which underwent phonetic changes in the original words, turned out to be possible in the borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
6. The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the unfamiliar consonances of parachute, puree, communique, jeep, jury are transmitted by means of the Russian phonetic system.
7. A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony (vowel harmonism) - the regular use of only one row of vowels in one word: back [a], [y] or front [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso , chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.

Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability, the absence of inflections. So, some foreign language nouns do not change by case, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.

The word-building signs of borrowings include foreign prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, rear admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemize, etc.

Tracing

One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, i.e., building lexical units according to the model of the corresponding words foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words. Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracing papers are distinguished

Lexical calques arise as a result of a literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, Russian word look formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem – to look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracing papers of the Greek hudor - "water" + genos - "kind" and oxys - "sour" + genos - "kind"; likewise the German Halbinsel served as the model for the peninsula tracing paper; the English sky-scraper in Russian has a tracing-paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian hmaroches). The following borrowings came to us through tracing: biography (gr. bios + grapho), superman (German über + Mensch); welfare (fr. bien+ktre), spelling (gr. orthos+grapho) and many others. Such tracing papers are also called derivational, more precisely lexical and derivational.

Semantic papers are original words that, in addition to their inherent meanings in the Russian lexical system, acquire new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, the Russian word picture, which means “work of painting”, “spectacle”, under the influence of the English language, was also used in the meaning of “film”. This is a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture, which has the following meanings in the source language: “picture”, “drawing”, “portrait”, “movie”, “shooting frame”.

Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced by N. M. Karamzin: touch, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Appeal to them at the beginning of the 19th century. It was hallmark"new style", developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his associates.

Lexical-derivative calquing was used when replenishing the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, French sources.

Another kind of borrowings are lexical half-calques - words that combine word-for-word translated foreign and Russian word-building elements. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost is added to it (cf. humanism), or the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision-e) bases are combined in the compound word television.

Relation to borrowed words

In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, a glut of speech with foreign words and phrases, on the other hand, their denial, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in controversy, they often forget that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names for the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin's: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian ...). The lack of a scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from functional and stylistic consolidation. language tools: it is not taken into account that in some cases the appeal to foreign book words is not stylistically justified, but in others it is necessary, since these words are an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a certain style serving a particular area of ​​communication.

In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the activation of the process of lexical borrowing, the opposition to it usually intensifies. So, Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write "as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words. M.V. Lomonosov in his "theory of three calms", highlighting the words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign terms, sometimes artificially transferring similar formations into the language of science. Both A.P. Sumarokov and N.I. Novikov opposed the clogging of the Russian language with French words that were fashionable at that time.

However, in the XIX century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets led by Pushkin, had to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that tsarist censorship eradicated from the language such borrowed words as revolution, progress.

In the first years of Soviet power, the most urgent cultural and educational task was the involvement of broad populace to knowledge, the elimination of illiteracy. Under these conditions, prominent writers and public figures put forward the demand for the simplicity of the literary language.

In our time, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited scope of distribution can be justified by the circle of readers, the stylistic affiliation of the work. Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for narrow specialists, but it can also be an insurmountable barrier to understanding a popular science text by an unprepared reader.

It is necessary to take into account the trend emerging in our century of scientific and technological progress towards the creation of international terminology, common names for concepts, phenomena modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.

Questions for self-examination

1. What explains the replenishment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words?
2. What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
3. What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language depending on the origin of words?
4. What place do Old Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
5. How are foreign words mastered by the Russian language?
6. By what phonetic and morphological signs can borrowed words be distinguished from the composition of the Russian vocabulary?
7. What are calques?
8. What types of cripples in Russian do you know?
9. What are the criteria for the use of foreign words in speech?

Exercises

24. Analyze the composition of the vocabulary in the text in terms of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation by the Russian language. Specify Old Slavonicisms. For reference, refer to etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.

The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the present growing park was a huge square where parades of the troops of the Guards Corps took place. Behind it was the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. Now the building is covered with old trees. In Pushkin's time they were only ten or three years old.

The façade of the embassy mansion had not yet been damaged by the later addition of the fourth floor.

Eight windows of the ambassador's former apartment overlook the Champ de Mars, one of which is blocked; the extreme windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony, designed in strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast-iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was probably erected in 1819 at the same time as the entire third floor from the side of the Champ de Mars. ... Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect southern part third floor of the Institute of Culture.

Now here, basically, his library is located. Book riches (at present more than three hundred thousand volumes) are already cramped in the enfilade of the former rooms of Countess Dolly ...

The five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The Countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably did well in these rooms even in the cloudy St. Petersburg winters. Darya Fyodorovna was also comfortable there, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a hothouse flower.

In real terms, the countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, could hardly endure domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter oppressed her.

Having settled in the Saltykovs’ house, she writes down on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will last for seven months, made my heart shrink: the influence of the north on a person’s mood must be very strong, because among such a happy existence like mine, I have to struggle with my sadness and melancholy all the time. I reproach myself for this, but I can’t do anything about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of flowers, comfort and harmony. She has thrown, as it were, a veil over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this regard - but only a person brought up and developed in the south truly feels what life is and knows all its charm.

There are no words, the young ambassador, like a few, knew how to feel and love life. I only felt it - let's repeat - one-sidedly. So it was before, in Italy, and in the red living room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary ... But it is difficult to walk through her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, they are no less than the front apartments of the embassy, ​​they were what has long been called the “salon of the Countess Ficquelmont”, where, according to P.A. Vyazemsky, "both the diplomats and Pushkin were at home."

(N. Raevsky.)

25. In sentences from the works of A. S. Pushkin, highlight Old Slavonicisms. Indicate their stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.

1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to scourges, here lean slavery drags along the reins of an inexorable owner. Here everyone drags a heavy yoke to the grave, not daring to feed hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young virgins bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Fear, O army of foreigners! Russia's sons moved; both old and young arose; they fly at the bold, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love rabid youth ... 4. ... There, under the shadow of the wings, my young days rushed by. 5. Listen to my sad voice ... 6. I did not want to kiss the lips of the young Armides with such torment, or roses of fiery cheeks, or Persians full of languor ... 7. It's time to leave the boring shore ... 8. ... Fields ! I am devoted to you in soul. 9. But thank God! you are alive, unharmed... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I always considered you a faithful, brave knight... 12. I opened granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them... 13. Neither power nor life amuse me... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from the vain rumors, you did not like me ... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.

Introduction

Many years ago, restaurants did not have such an abundance of dishes as they do today. Currently, there are many different names of dishes that attract the attention of the consumer. Store shelves are "full" of a variety of cookbooks in which we can choose any recipe for cooking. There are specialized restaurants that prepare dishes of a certain country. Such as restaurants of sushi, Spanish, Mexican, Cuban and other cultures. Having tasted the national dish, we can understand the very culture of the country. Everyone can find something to their taste, try exotic dishes with interesting names.

"Why is the dish called that way?" - This question has caused discussions among people more than once. But lately we don't think about it anymore.

In this work, we want to trace the relationship between the name of the dish and its meaning.

The problem of borrowing words is very relevant at the present time. The Russian language is heavily littered not only with foreign vocabulary, but also with various jargons, which leads to the fact that we gradually forget the historically established literary Russian language, and we begin to rightly consider their foreign words to be native Russian.

Object of study term paper is vocabulary in terms of its origin.

The subject of the study is the words in the names of dishes in the "Cookbook".

The purpose of the course work is to analyze the origin of the words in the names of dishes in the "Cookbook".

To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:

Describe etymology as a science;

Consider the vocabulary of the Russian language from the point of view of its origin;

To characterize the original Russian and borrowed vocabulary;

Analyze the "Cookbook" in terms of the origin of the name of the dishes.

Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin

Original Russian vocabulary

The modern Russian language was not immediately formed the way it is today. The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of formation and development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign language sources replenish and enrich the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings occurred in antiquity, others - in more late time, even today.

We single out two directions in which the replenishment of Russian vocabulary went.

1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.

A word that originated in the Russian language according to the models existing in it or passed into it from an older predecessor language - Old Russian, Proto-Slavic or Indo-European is considered to be primordial. The history of the development of languages ​​is the history of their separation. In ancient times (in the VI - V millennium BC) there was an unwritten Indo-European language. Subsequently, the language of a group of European tribes that settled in different territories and spoke their own dialects of the Indo-European language became sufficiently isolated from the language of other tribes. The language of the tribes that are the ancestors of the Slavic peoples, also unwritten, is called Proto-Slavic. In the first millennium of our era, the tribes who spoke the Proto-Slavic language settled widely in Central, Eastern and South-Eastern Europe and gradually lost their linguistic unity. Around the 6th - 7th century AD, the disintegration of the Proto-Slavic language into the South Slavic, West Slavic and East Slavic (Old Russian language) language groups is attributed. The Old Russian language becomes the language of the Old Russian people, which united in the 9th century into a single state - Kievan Rus. The original vocabulary includes all the words that came into the modern Russian language from the ancestral languages.

2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples - these are borrowings from Slavic and non-Slavic languages.

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​\u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. ascend to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, specific nouns: head, throat; field, mountain; sickle, pitchfork. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will.

From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, separated themselves into three groups according to sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of primordially Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary.

Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.

It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio station, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed over a large amount of time. It is based on original Russian words. In addition, as a result of trade, military, cultural relations of the Russian people with other peoples, borrowings from the languages ​​of these peoples penetrated into the Russian vocabulary.

Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words ("Small explanatory and etymological dictionary of foreign words", "Dictionary of new foreign words (with translation of etymology and interpretation)" N.G. Komleva, "Explanatory dictionary of foreign words" L.P. Krysina and others).

Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.

• 1. New words were created from word-forming elements available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
• 2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages ​​as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages.

There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter.

The third layer of primordially Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages.

As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish:

• 1) names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch;
• 2) names of tools: axe, blade;
• 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble;
• 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;
• 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e. in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages.

AT some words of foreign origin, the vowel in place of the letter a after [h] can be pronounced without reduction, for example: chinvurd, charlstun, chakuna (can be pronounced both [cha] and [chi]).

AT words foreign origin in place of the letter e after a vowel in the 1st pre-stressed syllable, a sound is pronounced [and e] without the preceding sound [j], for example: dietary, piety (pronounced [ii e] or [ii]).

AT some words of foreign origin with the softness of the consonant, the subsequent vowel is in place e in the 1st pre-stressed syllable it can be pronounced without reduction, for example: legbto (can be pronounced [le]), chelista, chicherune (pronounced [che]). Without reduction, vowels of other unstressed syllables can also be pronounced, for example: madrasah (pronounced [me]), perpytuum-mubile (can be pronounced [le]).

The vowel [and e] in the 1st pre-stressed syllable is pronounced not only in native Russian words, but also in a significant part of the borrowed words mastered by the Russian language. The consonants in these words before [and e] are pronounced softly. For example: second, secret (pronounced [si e]), zenith (pronounced [zi e]), subject matter, technical (pronounced [ti e]), dispatch, motto, decree (pronounced [di e]), neuritis, neurosis is pronounced [lower]), record, advertising, religion (pronounced [ri e]).

There are two main groups of loans:

1) From related (Slavic) languages. 2) From unrelated languages.

The following types of borrowings are common in Russian:

• · Old Church Slavonicisms
• Borrowings from the Greek language (religion)
• ・From Latin
• · From German
• · From English
• · From Hungarian

The concept of borrowing includes:

• Sources of borrowing
• Borrowing orally or in writing
• ・Direct or indirect
• Ancient, later, new, latest
• · Level and interlevel.

Causes borrowing words and phrases in different historical periods of the formation and development of the lexical-semantic system of the Russian language are different. First of all, non-linguistic and proper linguistic reasons are distinguished. The former include, for example, various kinds connections of the Russian people with other peoples. In the future, this is facilitated by the intrasocial development of society, the progress of science and technology. One of the forms of realization of the influence of such connections is the borrowing of a word along with the borrowing of an object, phenomenon, concept, quality, action, and so on. It is this process that is most characteristic of the early stages of the development of the Russian language.

The linguistic reasons include, first of all, the desire of native speakers to replenish, deepen and expand the understanding of the subject, to detail the concept by distinguishing between semantic and functional shades. In this way, among the original synonymous and antonymous means, borrowed ones arise that have additional shades of meaning or are more suitable for a different area of ​​\u200b\u200buse (Old Russian ports-ports - originally "dress, clothes" and "canvas underwear for men" and borrowed pants, found in monuments from XV century with the original meaning "a short underdress with stockings and shoes").

To the linguistic reasons, modern researchers also include the long-established tendency to replace the dissected name with an undivided one: a highway - instead of a highway, a cruise - instead of a trip on a steamer or boat, a motel - instead of a hotel for autotourists, and so on. This process is supported by the trend towards the creation of international terms, common names.

Russian language

VOCABULARY

9. Vocabulary of the Russian language in terms of origin

Two ways of forming vocabulary in the Russian language.

The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has been formed for many centuries. There are two ways to replenish the vocabulary of the Russian language:

1) Borrowing from other languages.
The Russian people have long entered into political, commercial, scientific and cultural connections with other nations, thanks to which the Russian language was enriched with words from other languages. The development of the economy and culture, technological progress and the active political life of the world community have largely contributed to this process. On the this moment the vocabulary of the modern Russian language contains about 10% of borrowed words;

2) Use of own resources.
The main source of vocabulary replenishment has always been its own resources. In other words, most words were created on the basis of Russian roots and affixes. There are currently about 90% of such words in the Russian language.

Original Russian words.

From a historical point of view, the formation of native Russian vocabulary took place in several stages:

1) many words were inherited by the Russian language from the Indo-European language, thanks to which we now use kinship terms in speech ( mother father ), animal names ( wolf ), names of natural phenomena ( coast, moon, sea );

2) a little bit later a large number of words were inherited from the Proto-Slavic language (until the 6th century AD). This vocabulary covers different areas of life: the names of body parts ( hand leg ), time of day and year ( morning, winter ), numerals ( three four ) and etc.;

3) some words appeared during the existence of the common Slavic language, as well as at the stages of East Slavic unity (VI - XIV - XV centuries). At this time words such as good, simple person ;

4) a significant part of the words arose after the formation of the Great Russian language (XIV - XV centuries). These words are characteristic of the Russian language and are known among other Slavic peoples only as Russian borrowings. These include almost all nouns formed with suffixes -shchik, -ovshchik, -stvostvo , prefixed, verbal nouns (run, clamp), nouns formed from adjectives with a suffix -awn (nationality), participle adverbs (excitingly).

Borrowed words.

Words are called borrowed if they were taken from other languages. For the Russian language, the sources of borrowing were:

1) Slavic (Ukrainian, Polish, Czech) languages. For example: from Ukrainian language we have a few words. Among them are such as borscht, bagel, kids . From Polish, the Russian language adopted everyday vocabulary, for example: flat, draw, cheat sheet . There are single borrowings from the Czech language, for example: refugee, robot ;

2) non-Slavic (Latin, Greek, German, French, English, etc.) languages. A large proportion of words in our vocabulary is occupied by Latinisms, which penetrated into the Russian language after the adoption of Christianity ( accent, hyphen, intonation, punctuation ). Greek words actively penetrated into the vocabulary also after the adoption of Christianity through liturgical books ( altar, anathema, satan, patriarch ). In addition, we owe the Greek language everyday vocabulary ( bed, ship, doll, sail ). During the reforms of Peter I in the 18th century, German ( soldier, officer, jigsaw, infirmary, bandage, scar ) and Dutch ( boat, yacht, sailor, cabin boy, hatch, gateway ) the words. In the 19th century, the Russian language rapidly borrowed French words covering various areas of life (everyday words: corset, suit, coat ; art terms: play, actor, sketch ; military terms: garrison, partisan, attack ). We owe the Italian language such words as pasta, newspaper, aria, soprano, bass, libretto . A few words came to us from Spanish, for example: serenade, caramel, marshmallow .

It should be noted that borrowing is by no means a simple “transplantation” of someone else's word into another language. During this process, the word is being adapted to the phonetic structure, morphological and graphic systems of the borrowing language, it is, as it were, undergoing a transformation. For example, a Russian word may not match in graphics and pronunciation with a word in the source language (impoў rt - iў import , sport- sport ). Or the Russian word may have a difference with the word in the source language in morphology, for example: the word silage came to us from the Spanish language. Spanish final consonant with is an indicator of the plural, and in Russian the word silage has only one form. And some borrowed words do not change at all in cases and numbers, for example: coat, depot, radio, cocoa . In addition, when borrowing, a process of narrowing the meanings of a word usually occurs, for example: in French, the word powder meant and powder" , and " powder" , and " dust" , and " sand" , and in Russian it retained only the meaning “ cosmetic product” .

Vocabulary in terms of meaning, origin and usage.

The use of different lexical groups of words in speech.

Medical terminology and professional vocabulary.

Origin, structure and meaning of phraseological units;

Lexical errors and their correction,

elimination of lexical errors in speech;

Vocabulary of the Russian language from the outside areas of application.

Common words form the basis of the vocabulary of the literary language. On their basis, further improvement and enrichment of the vocabulary of the national Russian language takes place.

But in different places there are words that are understandable only to the inhabitants of a particular area. Such words are called dialectisms. The national Russian language has two main dialects (dialects) - northern and southern, which include independent dialects. A special group is made up of Central Russian dialects, which have features of both the North Russian and South Russian dialects.

In addition, in each profession, in addition to commonly used words, special words are used - professionalism.

The words used in the speech of individual social groups e.g. schoolchildren, students. Such words are argotisms (or jargonisms) and, unlike dialectisms and professionalisms, have a pronounced emotional and expressive character.

Thus, the national Russian language includes national, commonly used words and words of limited use (dialect words, professional words, vernacular and jargon).

Sometimes words of limited use can be found in works of fiction. What do you think is the purpose of using them.

(To create speech coloring, speech individuality of the characters).

Let's once again turn to the video material to observe the speech of the characters regarding the use of such words (dialectisms, vernacular, jargon).

The dictionary of the language includes active vocabulary, that is, the words used by all speakers in a given period of time and passive vocabulary, that is, words that people either stop using or are just starting to use.

Passive vocabulary is divided into two groups: obsolete words and new words.

The division of the language into active and passive vocabulary is justified in a strictly defined historical time: each era has its own active and passive vocabulary.

Vocabulary in terms of origin

1 .Originally Russian are words that appeared in the Russian language at any stage of its development.

Native Russian vocabulary forms the main array of the vocabulary of the Russian language, which determines its national specificity. The original Russian words include 1) Indo-Europeanisms; 2) common Slavic words, 3) words of East Slavic origin, 4) proper Russian words.

2.Indo-Europeanisms - these are the most ancient words preserved from the era of Indo-European unity. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to many European and some Asian languages. The Indo-European language is also called the proto-language. For example, the words mother, son, daughter, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc. go back to the parent language.

Common Slavic vocabulary- these are words inherited by the Russian language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, which became the basis of all Slavic languages., Words of common Slavic origin are most commonly used in speech (field, sky, earth, river, wind, rain, maple, linden, elk, snake , already, mosquito, fly, friend, face, lip, throat, heart, knife, sickle, needle, grain, oil, flour, bell, cage; black, white, thin, sharp, evil, wise, young, deaf, sour ; throw, nod, boil, put; one, two, ten; you, he, who, what; where, then, there; without, about, at, for; but, yes, and, whether, etc.)

East Slavic Vocabulary - these are words inherited by the Russian language from the East Slavic (Old Russian) language, which is the common language of all Eastern Slavs (Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians). A significant part of the words of East Slavic origin is known in Ukrainian and Belarusian, but is absent in West Slavic and South Slavic languages, for example: bullfinch (Russian), stgur (Ukrainian), snyagur (Belarusian) - wintering (Serbian). Words of East Slavic origin include, for example, the words dog, squirrel, boot, ruble, cook, carpenter, village, nag, palm, boil, etc.

Proper Russian vocabulary- these are the words that appeared in the Russian language during its independent existence, when the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages ​​began to develop in parallel. The entire previous lexical and derivational material became the basis of Russian words proper. Properly Russian in origin include, for example, the words visor, sorcerer, spinning wheel, child, timid, etc.

3. Signs of Old Slavism:

1. Phonetic

a) non-vowel combinations ra, la, re, le correlative with Russian full-vowel oro, olo, ere (gate - gate).

b) initial combinations ra, la correlative with Russian ro, lo (rook - boat)

c) consonant u, alternating with t, with Russian h (lighting - shining - candle)

d) initial e with Russian o (single - one)

e) e under stress before hard consonants in Russian e (cross - godfather)

f) a combination of railway in the root with Russian f (clothes - clothes)

2. Word-building

a) prefixes pre-, through- with Russian re-, through- (to transgress - to cross)

b) prefixes from- with Russian you- (pour out - pour out)

c) suffixes of abstract nouns – action, -e, -zn, -ynya, -tva, -dream (life, prayer)

d) parts of compound words with good, good, sacrifice, evil

3. Morphological

a) superlative suffixes -eysh, -aysh

b) participial suffixes -ashch (yashch), -usch (yushch) with Russians -ach (yach), -uch (yuch) (burning - hot)

In one word there may be several signs that make it possible to attribute it to Old Slavonicism.

Sometimes the presence of an Old Church Slavonic element does not mean that a later borrowing was made from Old Church Slavonic (pre-Olympic).

The fate of the Old Slavs:

1) Old Slavonicisms completely replaced the original Russian words (captivity - full)

2) Old Slavonicisms are used along with native Russian words (ignorant - ignorant). In such pairs, Old Slavic words denote abstract concepts or have a touch of solemnity, bookishness, have different compatibility and differ lexically (hot - burning).

Old Church Slavonicisms can be:

1. Stylistically neutral (artist, time, clothes, power)

2. Bookish, having a touch of solemnity (shudder, dry out)

3. Obsolete (young, breg, hand).

Old Slavonicisms are used in the YaHL for stylistic purposes to convey solemnity, a parodic reduction in style, a comic effect, to create a temporary color and archaic style.

4. With direct contact of peoples, borrowing took place orally (Scandinavian, Finnish and Turkic). Latinisms were borrowed in writing, Greekisms were borrowed orally and in writing.

1. Scandinavian - Swedish, Norwegian, Finnish - the earliest borrowings (herring, brand, whip, blizzard, Igor, Oleg).

2. Turkic - (11-17 centuries) sash, shoe, brocade, shed.

3. Greek - penetrated into the Russian language even before the adoption of Christianity, when Russia traded with Greece, with the adoption of Christianity (end of the 10th century) they were borrowed through liturgical books (altar, pulpit, doll, cucumber, ship). Greek language enriched with scientific terminology, Greek terms were borrowed from other languages ​​or created according to Greek patterns (alphabet, apostrophe, grammar).

4. Latinisms - a large number in the terminological vocabulary (accent, hyphen, predicate). Latinisms penetrated through the Greek-Byzantine, Polish and Ukrainian (15-17 centuries) media. From the 18th century big influence into Russian (author, student, dean, coin, constitution).

5. Germanic languages

a) German - the beginning of the penetration refers to ancient times(Gothic), most active since the beginning of the 18th century. (Peter 1), these include military terms (soldier, officer), craft terms (jigsaw, workbench), names of animals and plants, objects, medical terms(tie, tunic, potatoes, paramedic, huntsman)

b) Dutch - in the era of Peter 1, mainly the terms of maritime affairs (raid, pennant, yacht, frigate, office)

c) English - in the 16th century, borrowings of the terms of maritime affairs. Since the 19th century terms technical, sports, socio-political, agricultural (wagon. Rails, steak, sports, tennis, club, leader)

6. Romance languages

a) French - penetrate from the 17th-19th centuries. and cover various areas of life (leotard, corset, partisan, dugout, fleet, parliament, play, plot)

b) Italian - mostly art history terms (aria, solo, impresario, piano, barricade, pasta, paper, newspaper)

c) Spanish - guitar, serenade, caramel

5. Signs of borrowing:

1) Turkisms are characterized by synharmonism

2) French - final stressed vowels (coat), combinations ue, wa in the middle of a word (silhouette), final -age (massage).

3) German - combinations of pieces, xt (pate, watch)

4) English - a combination of j (jazz, budget)

5) Latinisms - final -mind, -us, -ura, -tion, -ent (plenum, president, degree)

II. Vocabulary in terms of active and passive stock

1. The dictionary of the Russian language in the process of its historical development is constantly changing and improving. Vocabulary changes are directly related to production activities human, with the economic, social, political development of society. The vocabulary reflects all the processes of the historical development of society. With the advent of new objects, phenomena, new concepts arise, and with them, words for naming these concepts. With the death of certain phenomena, the words that call them go out of use or change their meaning. Given all this, the vocabulary of the national language can be divided into two large groups: active dictionary and passive dictionary.

2. In active vocabulary includes those everyday words, the meaning of which is clear to all people who speak this language. The words of this group are devoid of any signs of obsolescence.

3. K passive vocabulary include those that either have a pronounced color of obsolescence, or, conversely, due to their novelty, have not yet received wide popularity and are also not in everyday use.

The words of the passive stock are divided, in turn, into obsolete and new (neologisms).

4. One group of obsolete words consists of those that have already completely fallen out of use due to the disappearance of those concepts that denoted: boyar, veche, archer, guardsman, vowel (member of the city duma), burmistr, etc. The words of this group are called historicisms. Another group of obsolete words are archaisms, i.e. words that, in the process of language development, were replaced by synonyms, which are other names for the same concept. This group includes, for example, the words barber - hairdresser; this - this; better - because; guest - trade; eyelids - eyelids; piit - a poet; komon - horse; lanitis - cheeks; incite - incite; cod - bed, etc. Both those and other obsolete words are used in the language of fiction as a means of recreating a certain historical era. They can be a means of giving speech a comic or ironic tone. Archaisms are part of the traditional sublime poetic vocabulary (for example, the words: breg, cheeks, lad, this, eyes, this, etc.). The use of historicisms and archaisms in special scientific and historical literature is already devoid of a special stylistic predestination, since it allows lexically to accurately characterize the described era.

5. New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from rp. neos - new + logos - word). A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. Such a path was followed, for example, by the words soviet, collectivization, collective farm, linkage, tractor driver, Komsomol member, Leninist, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, lunar, cosmonaut and many others. Over time, many of these words also become obsolete and pass into the passive of the language.

6. In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author stand out. One of them entered literary language, for example: drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (by Lomonosov); industry, falling in love, absent-mindedness, touching (in Karamzin); fade away (in Dostoevsky), etc. Others remain part of the so-called occasional author's formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example: mandolin, smile, sickle, hammer, chamberlain and many others by Mayakovsky; turned stormy, roared at B. Pasternak; mokhnatinki, Ant Country and Muravskaya country by A. Tvardovsky; magic, cellophane, etc. from A. Voznesensky; broad-bodied, unfamiliar, above the world, inflexibility and others in E. Yevtushenko. A.I. has many non-usual words. Solzhenitsyn, especially among the adverbs: he turned around ready, rushed kiddingly, grinned chestily.

From the point of view of use, there are:

Neutral vocabulary is intended for ascertaining, non-judgmental, non-terminological designation of objects, concepts Everyday life, natural phenomena, periods of a person's life and states of his life, lengths of time, measures of length, weight, volume, etc. It is devoid of expression, emotional and social assessments.
For example: window, south, work
What style is characterized by the use of neutral vocabulary?

Book vocabulary, is characterized by thematic diversity - in accordance with the breadth and diversity of the problems of the texts.
For example: cheeks, broadcast, gratuitous
What style is characterized by the use of book vocabulary?

Vocabulary. The vocabulary of oral speech includes words characteristic of oral varieties of communicative activity. The vocabulary of oral speech is heterogeneous. It can be distinguished:
Jargons are words that are used in a certain social and age environment.
For example: telly - TV, spur - cheat sheet, swim - bad answer

Argotisms- words and phrases borrowed from one Argo or another and used as stylistic device(more often to characterize the character's speech in work of art).
For example: grandmother - money, huckster - businessman, lads - criminal group

Dialectisms - words characteristic of a particular area
For example: beetroot - beets, stew - dissuade, shat - smolder

What style is characterized by the use of spoken language vocabulary?

Professionalisms- words or expressions characteristic of the speech of a particular profession.
For example: billhook - welder's hammer, ramps - wheel tires, noodles - two-wire wire

Terminological vocabulary- words and phrases that name objects and concepts related to various areas labor activity human, and are not commonly used
For example: hydroponics, holography, cardiac surgery, cosmobiology
What is the difference between terminological vocabulary and professionalism?
In what style is terminological and professional vocabulary used?