Strong and weak positions of consonants. Classification of vowels and consonants. Strong and weak positions of sounds
In a word, consonants can take different positions. In some positions, consonants are opposed to each other in terms of sonority-deafness and hardness-softness; such positions are called strong. The positions of the consonant before vowels and before sonorants are strong in voicing-deafness (i.e., voiced and deaf consonants always differ here): d am - t am, b silt - P silt, h loy - with loy, d relay - t rel. Consonant positions before vowels (except [e]) are also strong in hardness-softness: m al - m yal, l uk - l yuk, b yt - b it, in ol - in ate(but before [e] both soft and hard consonants are possible: ser - sir; meter(unit of measure; pronounced with soft [m"]) -meter(teacher, master; pronounced with [m] solid).
Positions in which consonants are not opposed in terms of voiced-deafness and hardness-softness are called weak. Thus, the position of a consonant at the end of a word is weak in terms of voicedness-deafness: voiced and deaf consonants are pronounced the same here - deafly (cf. hundred to and hundred G, pr t and pru d). Before voiced consonants, all consonants paired in voiced-deafness are pronounced as voiced (cf. h here and with make: in both words, in the position before the voiced [d "] the voiced [з"] is pronounced), and before the deaf ones - as deaf (cf. true b ka and sha P ka: in both words, in the position before the deaf [k], the deaf [p] is pronounced).
Position in front of soft lips and teeth, as well as in front of
In the same word, but in its different forms, consonants can alternate with each other - depending on what position they are in: voiced consonants before vowels alternate with voiceless ones in the position of the end of the word, voiceless ones alternate with voiced ones in position before voiced , hard ones alternate with soft ones in position before soft consonants. Such alternations of sounds are called positional. They do not violate the morphological integrity of the word and are not reflected in writing. Compare: true b a-true b (pronounced [true P]), mow t b-skew b a(pronounced [ka h"ba]), tra in a-tra in ka(pronounced [tra f kъ]), more[ m b]a–o bo[ m"b]e, [ d"in"] e - [dv] mind.
Some alternations characterize not the modern phonetic system, but its state in the past; such alternations are called historical. They are assigned to certain morphological forms and are reflected in the letter in the form of different letters. Compare: sve t it - light h u, boo d it - boo well u, stere G and - erase well et and under. Such alternations are not determined by the position of the sound: and before<и>, and before<у>both [t "], [d"], [g "], and [h], [g] are possible (compare: shine - sharpen, guard - wake etc.). (More about historical alternations see below, § 94–97.)
The composition of vowel phonemes in the system of the Russian language is determined on the basis of their meaningful role in strong position. For the vowel phonemes of the Russian language, the position under stress not between soft consonants is absolutely strong (both perceptually and significatively). However, in a perceptually weak position, a phoneme does not enter into neutralization with other phonemes; therefore, to determine the composition of vowel phonemes, it is sufficient to take into account which position is significatively strong. For the vowel phonemes of the Russian language, this is the position under stress. In this position, six vowels are distinguished: [a] - [o] - [i] - [s] - [e] - [y]. But two vowels positionally alternate: [and] / [s]. Positionally alternating sounds are representatives of one phoneme. In a perceptually strong position - after and between solid consonants [s] appears, however, only [s] occurs at the beginning of a word, therefore it is considered to be the main version of the phoneme, and [s] only a variation of the phoneme<и>. So, the composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language is as follows:<а>– <о>–< and> –< e> –< y> (she – [ʌn a ], it – [ʌn about], they [ʌn’ and ], those - [t ' uh ], here at ]).
Significatively weak for Russian phonemes is the position not under stress. However, for each phoneme it is individual. Yes, phoneme<у>does not enter into neutralization with any other phoneme. For<а>, <о>all unstressed positions are weak. In position, the first pre-stressed syllable after soft consonants, four vowel phonemes enter into neutralization<а> –< o> – < e> – < and>: h [and e] sy, m [and e] doc, r [and e] ka, l [and e] sa. Perceptually weak for Russian vowels are positions: after soft consonants mint[m'ˑat], before soft consonants mother[matˑt '] and between soft consonants knead [m'ät '].
STRONG AND WEAK POSITIONS OF CONSONANTS AND COMPOSITION OF CONSONANT PHONEMES OF THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE
The composition of voiced and voiceless consonant phonemes is determined by strong positions for voiced and voiceless consonants. Strong positions are:
1) Before vowels: ko[z]a - ko[s]a (<з> – <с>);
2) Before sonorant consonants: [z'l ']it - [s'l']it (<з’> – <’с>);
3) Before / in /, / in ’/: in [z’v ’] ut - [s’v ’] ut (<з’>– <’с>).
Weak positions for voiced and voiceless noisy consonants:
1) At the end of the word: ro [d] a-ro [t], r [t] a - ro [t] (<д>neutralized with<т>in option [t]);
2) Before a voiced consonant: ko[s']it - ko[z'b]a (<с’>neutralized with<з’>in the variant [h ']);
3) Before deaf consonants: lo [d] points - lo [tk] a (<д>neutralized with<т>option [t]).
Sonorant consonants do not neutralize with any other consonant phonemes on the basis of voiced/deafness, so all positions for them are strong on this basis.
In terms of hardness-softness, strong positions for consonant phonemes of the Russian language are:
1) Before vowels<а>, <о>, <и>, <у>, <э>: garden - sit down (<д> – <д’>), nose - carried (<н> – <н’>), bow - hatch (<л> – <л’>), soap - mil (<м> – <м’>), pole - slot (<ш> –<ш’:>);
2) At the end of the word: horse - horse (<н> – <н’>), angle – coal (<л> – <л’>);
3) Before back-lingual consonants: hill - bitterly (<р> – <р’>), shelf - polka (<л> – <л’>).
However, weak positions in terms of hardness-softness are “individual”:
1) For dental consonants - before soft dental consonants: evil - anger (<з>neutralized with<з’>in the variant [h ’]), chant - song (<с>neutralized with<с’>in the variant [c']);
2) For dental consonants - before soft labial consonants: story - dawn (<с>neutralized with<с’>in the variant [c']);
3) For labial consonants - before soft labial consonants: again - together (<в>neutralized with<в’>in the variant [in ']);
4) For dental<н>- in front of the anterior<ч’>and<ш’:>: boar - boar (<н>neutralized with<н’>in the variant [n ']), deception is a deceiver (<н’>neutralized with<н’>in the variant [n ']).
Requires special comment position before a vowel<э>. For centuries, the Russian language had a law: a consonant, falling into a position before<э>, softened. Indeed, in native Russian words before<э>the consonant is always soft: forest, river, light, summer, wind. The exception is hard hissing (rustling, gesture), but they were originally soft. Therefore, the position before<э>for consonants it was weak in hardness-softness. In 20-30 years. twentieth century, there have been changes in phonetic system Russian language. On the one hand, abbreviations are actively formed, which become common words: NEP, DNEPROGES, power lines. On the other hand, many borrowings, passing into the category of mastered ones, bypass the stage of phonetic adaptation. So, the words in common use, without a doubt, include the words: antenna, atelier, stand, tennis, muffler. consonant before<э>these words are pronounced firmly. Thus before<э>in modern Russian, hard and soft consonants are possible. This means that the position has changed from weak to strong.
In fact, all positions are strong in hardness-softness, except for the weak ones listed above. The range of weak positions in terms of hardness-softness has narrowed over the past 50-80 years. The "destroyed" positional patterns include:
1) Softening consonants before
2) Softening of the labials in front of the soft posterior lingual: paws [lap'k'i], rags [tr'ap'k'i].
In fact, the positional patterns of softening of the labials before the soft labials and the teeth before the soft labials are also in the stage of destruction. In "Russian Grammar" it is indicated on possible options pronunciations in these positions: [s'v'et] and [sv'et], [v'm'es't'] and [vm'es't']. The reasons for such changes in the phonetic system of the Russian language will be discussed in the next paragraph.
A special position in the system for back-lingual consonants. Hard and soft back lingual consonants alternate positionally: soft back lingual consonants are possible only before front vowels<и>, <э>. In these positions, there are no hard back-lingual ones: ru [k] a - ru [k '] and, ru [k '] e; but [g] a - but [g '] and, but [g '] e; sti [x] a - sti [x '] and, o sti [x '] e. Consequently, hard and soft posterior linguals are representatives of the same phonemes. Since hard backlinguals are possible in most positions, they are considered the main variants of consonant phonemes -<г>, <к>, <х..
Thus, the composition of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language is as follows:<б> – <б’> – <п> – <п’> –<в> – <в’> – <ф> – <ф’> – <д> – <д’> – <т> – <т’> – <з> – <з’> – <с> – <с’> – <м> –<м’> – <н> – <н’> – <л> – <л’> – <р> – <р’> – <ж> – <ж’:> – <ш> – <ш’:> – <ч’> – <ц> –
PHONEMATIC TRANSCRIPTION
Phonetic transcription is used to accurately capture sounding speech. Phonemic transcription reflects the composition of phonemes. It is a record of abstract units of the language, not meant to be read.
The procedure for performing phonemic transcription:
1) Perform phonetic transcription;
2) Perform a morphemic analysis of the word (to determine which morpheme a particular phoneme belongs to);
3) Determine the nature of the position for each sound unit (strong position is indicated by "+", weak position - "-");
4) Select checks for all phonemes in weak positions: a) for phonemes in the root of a word - cognate words; b) for phonemes in prefixes - words of any part of speech with the same prefix (with the same meaning); c) for phonemes in suffixes - words with the same suffixes (checks "automatically" will belong to the same part of speech and the same grammatical category); d) for phonemes in endings - words of the same part of speech, the same grammatical category, in the same grammatical form.
5) Transfer the entry to phonemic transcription.
Note. Remember that it is necessary to check the positions of consonants by two parameters - by sonority-deafness and by hardness-softness.
Sample.
1) correspondence [p'yr'i e p'isk];
2) [p'yr'i e -p'is-k-b];
3) [p 'b r 'and e -p 'and s-k-b];
+ - + - + + - + - (for consonants by voicedness / deafness)
+ + + + + (for hard/soft consonants)
4) Check for vowels in the prefix: P e rewriting, transˈ e abusive; for the root consonant [s], which is in a weak position in voicedness / deafness: rewrite; for an unstressed vowel [ъ] at the end: Spring(the ending of a feminine noun in the singular, nominative case).
5) After checks, we transfer the record to phonemic transcription:<п’эр’эп’иска>.
Performing phonemic transcription of different words, memorize checks for various prefixes, suffixes, endings of different parts of speech in different grammatical forms.
Since it is the phonemic principle that is the basis of Russian graphics and spelling, the recording of a word in phonemic transcription largely coincides with the spelling appearance of the word.
1) What does phonology study? Why is it also called functional phonetics?
2) Define a phoneme. Explain why the phoneme is considered the smallest sound unit of a language. What is the function of the phoneme? Illustrate your answer with examples.
3) What alternations are classified as phonetic positional? Give examples of phonetic positional alternations of vowels and consonants. What are the differences between phonetic non-positional (grammatical positional) alternations? In which case are the alternating sounds representative of one phoneme, in which case are they representative of different phonemes? How can a phoneme be defined in terms of positional alternations?
4) Give a definition of the strong and weak position of phonemes from the perceptual and significative points of view. In which case is the phoneme represented by its main variant? With your variations? Options? What are allophones?
5) Define a hyperphoneme and illustrate your answer with examples.
6) Name strong and weak positions for Russian vowels. What is the composition of the vowel phonemes of the Russian language?
7) Name the strong and weak positions of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language in terms of voicedness - deafness.
8) Name the strong and weak positions of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language in terms of hardness-softness.
9) What is the composition of the consonant phonemes of the Russian language?
Practical tasks
№1 . Write down the definition of the phoneme in your workbook. Justify each word in this definition.
№2 . Pick up rows of words in which vowels, voiced and deaf consonants, hard and soft consonants perform a semantic function. Prove that a semantic function can be performed by the order of sound units in a word.
№3. Determine what alternations are observed in the following cases: a) house - house a- domovik; b) traces - trace; c) play along - signature d) graze - pasture; e) evil - to anger; f) honor - honest; g) walk - I walk; h) frost - freeze; i) table - about the table. Which of these alternations are phonetic positional? Pick up similar examples of phonetic positional and phonetic non-positional alternations.
№4. Transcribe the text. Set possible phonetic positional and non-positional alternations: Snow fell until midnight, darkness fell over the gorges, and then it became quiet, and a young moon rose ... This world, it is driven and alive from time immemorial by transformations, sometimes invisible, sometimes obvious, countless of them(Yu. Levitansky).
№6 . Prove that for alternations [s’]/[w] and [d‘]/[w] in pairs wear - wear, walk - walk there are exceptions and, therefore, these alternations are phonetic non-positional.
№7 . Show what different sounds the phoneme /з/ can be represented (in the preposition without). Indicate the main variant of this phoneme, its variations, options.
№8. Transcribe the words and determine which row of positionally alternating sounds are represented by Phonemes<э>, <о>, <а>: running, running, running; walk, walked, walkers; thunderstorms, thunderstorm, thunderstorm; anger, wisdom; record, record, record.
№9. What phonemes and in what positions are neutralized in the examples of task 3?
№10. Select examples illustrating the neutralization of phonemes:<б> – <п>; <и> – <э>; <э> – <о>; <д> – <д’>.
№11. Transcribe the words. Designate strong and weak positions for vowel phonemes: domovik, honey plant, golden, groovy, subscription, story, kindness, youth, copier, cotton wool, field, strict. Pick up checks for vowels in weak position. Which vowel phonemes do they represent?
№12 . Transcribe the words. Indicate the strong and weak positions of consonant phonemes according to voiced-deafness. Pick up phonemic checks: crab, trace, thunderstorm, long, hawk, braid (short adjective), dexterous, cat, piece of wood, mowing, carving, interspersed, signature, echo, jump, heartless, soundless, laugh, break.
№13 . Write down the words in phonetic transcription, indicating strong and weak positions for consonant phonemes in terms of hardness-softness: elephant, horse, hill, bitterly, goat, song, together, with Vitya, racer, boar, cog, difference, removable, branching. Pick up checks for phonemes in a weak position.
№14 . What are the hyperphonemes in the following words: watercolor, crimson, left-handed, turquoise, wife, lean, suddenly, wax, becoming, light, everywhere?
№15. Give examples of words that have hyperphonemes:<а/о>; <и/э>; <а/о/э>; <а/о/э/и>; <с/з>; <г/к>; <с’/з’>; <т’/д’>; <с/c’/з/з’>.
№16. Perform phonemic transcription of words: young, flew, show, prose writer, stay, riddle, quiet, armchair, sea, play along, wash, kerosene, blind, furnish, closet, delight, asphalt, here.
№19. Using the materials of the paragraph and the completed exercises, write in a notebook and remember the checks for morphemes: a) prefixes on-, for-, under-, re-, roses-; b) suffixes
-ost-, -chik-, -from-, -out-; c) endings of nouns of different types of declension, adjectives, personal endings of verbs; d) infinitive suffix -th and postfix -ss reflexive verbs.
The pronunciation of vowels in the flow of speech varies depending on: 1) the relationship to the stressed syllable (vowels in the stressed syllable, in the first pre-stressed and in the remaining unstressed syllables); 2) from the position in the word (a vowel at the beginning of a word or at the end of a word); 3) the quality of the consonant with which the vowel is combined (in combination with soft or hard consonants, labial or non-labial, nasal or non-nasal), and some other conditions.
In the words [val] and [vada] - water, the sound [a] is pronounced in the first syllable, but it is not the same: it is stressed in the first word, and therefore it is pronounced with greater longitude and more distinctly. In the words [mal] and [m'a l] - crumpled vowels are stressed, but they are not the same, since in the word [m'a l] the vowel ['a] comes after the soft consonant sound [m'] and gets more forward articulation. Given the dependence of the quality of vowels on phonetic conditions, linguists have identified strong and weak positions of vowels in the Russian language.
strong position vowels are stressed: [small], [mol], [mul], [m'e l], [soap], [m'i l]. Stressed vowels are characterized by unimpaired pronunciation and the most distinct distinction. However, the stressed vowels change somewhat under the influence of the preceding consonants. Especially noticeable changes occur after soft consonants; cf.: [shesh't'] and [s'e s't']. Therefore, in combinations “soft consonant + vowel”, shades of vowel sounds (phonemes) or a minor type of vowel sounds (phonemes) appear. Without significant changes caused by the influence of neighboring sounds, i.e. in their main form, vowels are pronounced at the beginning of a word before a hard consonant under stress (island, arch, echo, ear, lawsuit) or as an independent word (sounds s, union a , preposition y, etc.).
Weak position occupy vowels in unstressed syllables, where vowels are weakened (reduced). There are two weak positions of unstressed vowels: the first and the second. The first position is observed in the first pre-stressed syllable (water, spring, transition, etc.) and in the absolute beginning of a word (garden, apricot, echo sounder, etc.). In other unstressed positions, vowels take a second, weak position (piglet, chair, etc.). In the first position, the vowel reduction is weaker than in the second, and therefore there are more vowels in the first position than in the second. The quality of vowel sounds in weak positions also depends on the quality of the preceding consonant - whether it is hard or soft. The upper vowels change less than others in weak positions: [i], [s], [y].
Consonants change in the flow of speech. Their change is caused by the position of the consonant in the word. A strong position is occupied by all consonants before vowels. It is in these phonetic conditions that the largest number of consonants is distinguished: house - tom - scrap - com - catfish; year - cat - move, etc. In strong positions, consonants can change their quality under the influence of subsequent vowels. So, labial vowels round off (labialize) the preceding consonant: in the words there and that, the consonant [t] is not pronounced the same (in the second word it is rounded). Consonants before the vowel [a] differ most and least of all: there - ladies, small - crushed, garden - glad - children, etc. The position before the vowel [a] is called an absolutely strong position. In addition to the absolute strong position, there are strong positions for individual consonant digits. Strong positions for noisy consonants, paired in voicing-deafness, are: 1) position before vowels itching - court, heat - ball, guest - bone, etc., 2) position before sonorant consonants and before consonants [c], [ в'] (followed by a vowel) - rude - croup, evil - layer, bend (verb) - whip, beast - check. Noisy consonants occupy a weak position in terms of sonority-deafness 1) at the end of the word - code [cat] - cat [cat], meadow [bow] - bow [bow]; 2) before voiced and deaf consonants - wedding [wedding b] - pasture [paz'd'b a], buckle [p r'ashk] - pawn [p'eshk] etc. In these positions, voiced and voiceless consonants are not opposed: at the end of a word and before voiceless consonants, a noisy voiceless is pronounced, and before voiced consonants - a noisy voiced one. The category of hardness-softness is more characteristic, defining in Russian phonetics. Hardness-softness oppositions are the largest correlative series, it covers 30 consonant phonemes: r '] yuk, [m] al - [m '] yal, [n] os - [n '] ёs; 2) position at the end of the word: plo [t] - plo [t '], tro [n] - tro [n ']. The consonants occupy a weak position in terms of hardness-softness: 1) before the front vowels - hay, blue, hand (cf. hand; in native Russian words, consonants before soft: [p '] ate, [b '] ate, [m '] era, [in '] era, [t '] body, [z '] deer); 2) before consonants - shepherd - graze [pas't'i], tackle - remove [s'n'a t'] 3) before the phoneme: [p'j] yu, [b'j] yu, se [m 'j ]i, pla[t'j ]e, etc. Unpaired solid phonemes sound solid in all positions. Unpaired soft in all positions sound only like soft consonants.
1) strong position- pronunciation conditions in which all the differential features of phonemes appear: for vowels under stress and in an open syllable; for consonants- intervocalic position, before vowels and sonorous consonants;
2) weak position- pronunciation conditions in which not all differential features of phonemes appear: for vowels- unstressed position, in a closed syllable; for consonants at the end of a word, before voiceless consonants.
Strong and weak phonemes
Strong phonemes are phonemes with the highest distinctiveness. Stressed vowels are strong phonemes.
Weak phonemes have less distinctiveness, because in a weak position, a phoneme is a substitute for two or even three strong phonemes. So [b] can replace<а>, <о>, <э>: [tantsy e va´t], [shulk/\v´i´ty], [myl/\ka´].
As noted earlier, each phoneme has a number of permanent, position-independent, constitutive features. Among the constitutive features, a differential feature stands out, which is both relevant (correlative) and constitutive at the same time. For<п>such a sign is deafness in relation to<б>: fell, ball. But deafness<п>eliminated in position before a voiced consonant.
If the feature of the phoneme is not relevant, then the constitutive feature is non-differentiating. For example, deafness<ц>- a constitutive irrelevant feature.
The concept of relevance is associated with two rows of phonemes: the first row consists of consonants, paired by deafness-voicedness, the second - consonants, paired by hardness-softness. A position that is strong for one member of the series is strong for all members of the series: h, s´║z´, w║zh, k║g, k´║g´].
Outside of this row, extra-pair consonants remain:<л>, <л´>, <р>, <р´>,m>,<м´>, <н>, <н´>, <ч´>, <х>, <х´>, <ц>, <ш´>,
Strong positions in deafness-voicedness:
1. position before vowels: [do´t] - [to´t];
2. position before sonorants: [gro´t] - [kro´t];
3. position before [j]: [bjo´t] - [pjo´t];
4. position before [in], [in´]: [dv´e´r´] - [tv´e´r´].
Weak positions are:
1. end of word : the code[cat] - cat[cat];
2. for the deaf, the position is in front of the voiced; for the voiced, the position is in front of the deaf: change[task], over the table[ntst/\lo´m].
The second row - phonemes paired in hardness-softness: [п║p´, b║b´, v║v´, f║f´, m║m´, s║s´, z║z´, t║t ´, d║d´, l║l´, n║n´, r║p´, g║g´, k║k´, x║x´].
Outside the pairs remain: consonants:<ц>, <ч>, <ж>, <ш>, <ш´>,
Strong positions in hardness-softness:
1. end of the word: [sta´n] - [sta´n´];
2. position before the vowels of the non-front row: [ma´l] - [m´a´l];
3. anterior lingual before posterior lingual [re´t´kj] - [re´dk] and hard labials [r´i e z´ba ´ ] - [hut ´ ] ;
4. sonorants (except [m]) before dental ones: [yi en nva ´ R ´ ] - [yi e nva´rsk´y].
5. <л>always in a strong position: [l´va ´ ] – [m/\lva´], the exception is the position before [j]: [l´ j y´].
Weak positions in terms of sonority-deafness appear very clearly, in terms of hardness-softness they are not so obvious.
Phonetic transcription conveys the sound composition of words, phonological (phonemic) transcription conveys the phonemic composition of words.
In phonological transcription, it is customary to designate:
α - all weak vowel phonemes,
α 1 - weak vowels 2 and 3 of prestressed and all stressed syllables:
index 1 - consonant phonemes weak in hardness-softness:
work<т 1 ру´т>, index 2 - consonants weak in deafness-voicedness:
allowance <нαт 2 ба´ф 2 кα 1 >,
index 3 - weak in hardness-softness and deafness-
voiced consonants: guarded <с 3 т´α 1 р´αгл´и´>.
If in phonological notation the same morpheme appears in different phonemic forms, determined by the phonological position in the word form, then in morphophonemic transcription, a generalized phonemic notation of the word form is used, abstracted from the types of its constituent morphemes determined by the phonological position. For example, the word stack in phonetic transcription - [with t o´k], in phonemic transcription -<с/з т о´ к 2 >, in morphophonemic transcription -<(с 3 т)ог>, where brackets indicate a combination of consonants with common phonetic features of deafness and hardness.
Allophone(Greek άλλος another and φωνή sound) - the realization of a phoneme, its variant, due to a specific phonetic environment. Unlike a phoneme, it is not an abstract concept, but a specific speech sound. The set of all possible positions in which allophones of one phoneme occur is called the distribution of the phoneme. Native speakers are good at recognizing phonemes, that is, semantic units of a language, and are not always able to recognize individual allophones of one phoneme. Phonemes in the minds of speakers are usually represented by basic allophones.
The main allophone is such an allophone, the properties of which are minimally dependent on the position and phonetic environment. The main allophones in Russian are:
- vowels in isolated pronunciation;
- hard consonants before stressed [a];
- soft consonants before stressed [and].
The main allophones are usually realized in a strong sound position. A strong position is a position in which it is possible maximum amount phonemes of this type. In Russian, for vowels, a strong position is the position under stress, for consonants - before a non-front vowel.
Differ combinatorial and positional allophones.
Combinatorial allophones- implementations of phonemes associated with coarticulation under the influence of the phonetic environment of sounds.
Examples of combinatorial allophones in Russian can be:
- advanced forward back vowels [a], [o], [y] after soft consonants;
- labialized (rounded) consonants before vowels [o], [y];
- voiced affricates [dz], [d'zh "] in place of [c], [h] before voiced noisy ones.
Combinatorial allophones are also considered nasalized vowels before nasal [n], [m], [ŋ] in English language. In some languages of the world, combinatorial features (for example, nasalization) can extend over several syllables.
Positional allophones- realizations of phonemes related to their phonetic position in a word or syllable. By phonetic position it is customary to understand:
- the position of the sound in relation to the absolute beginning of the word (after a pause);
- the position of the sound in relation to the absolute end of the word (before the pause);
- the position of the sound in relation to the stress.
The positional allophones of the vowels [а], [o] in Russian are the vowels [ъ], [ʌ] in unstressed syllables.
Obligatory and free allophones
Depending on the degree of predictability of implementation, allophones are divided into obligatory, that is, implemented in accordance with the rules of the grammar of the language, and free, that is, implemented in accordance with the preferences of the speakers.
Obligatory allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution relationships, when two different allophones of the same phoneme cannot exist in the same position. In Russian, rounded and unrounded consonants are in complementary distribution relations: rounded consonants are possible only before rounded vowels [o], [y], and unrounded consonants are pronounced in all other cases. The pronunciation of such an allophone in a different position is perceived by native speakers as an unnatural sound or a foreign accent.
Free allophones can be considered as facultative variants of phonemes that are widespread in various social and dialect groups (for example, fricative /г/ or hard /ш/ in certain Russian dialects), as well as individual variants of phonemes that make up the pronunciation features of individual speakers (for example, non-syllabic [ w] in place of the trembling [r] in Russian).
Background, background in phonetics - a unit of the sound level of a language, distinguished in a speech stream regardless of its phonemic affiliation (that is, without attributing it to a particular phoneme) or as a specific implementation of a phoneme in speech.
Unlike phonemes and allophones that belong to a language, phonemes are speeches. By associating a background with an allophone and a phoneme, the phoneme is said to be "general" (or class), allophones are "special" (or subclasses), and backgrounds are said to be "singular". Every phoneme in speech appears in one of its allophones, which is realized as one or another background.
The mimic realization of a phoneme (background) is called viseme. Visemes are used in lip reading and computer speech recognition techniques.
1. Strong and weak positions of consonants in terms of voicedness-deafness.
Strong and weak positions of consonants are varied. Distinguish between strong and weak positions of consonants
by loudness / deafness and hardness / softness.
The strong position of consonants in terms of voicing-deafness is the position that does not deafen and does not voice sounds- before vowels and sonorants, and sounds [v], [v`], as well as in voiced before voiced, and in deaf before deaf: pick up [pdbirat`], elephant [elephant].
Weak position on voiced-deafness- at the absolute end of the word: oak - [dup], tooth - [zup], lov - [lof], as well as for the deaf before voiced (except sonorants and c) and for voiced before the deaf: snow [sn`ek].
Absolutely strong position happens with consonants when strong in voiced-deafness and hardness - softness of positions coincide.
Absolutely weak position it happens with consonants when weak in voiced-deafness and hardness - softness of positions coincide.
Weak positions in deafness / sonority:
1) at the end of the word: ko[s] from goat and braid;
2) in front of the noisy deaf: lo [t] ka, but lo [d] points;
3) before a noisy voiced: [h] give, but [s] believe.
Strong positions in deafness / voicedness:
1) before a vowel: [g] od, [k] from;
2) before sonorant consonants: [c] loy, [z] loy;
3) before [in], [in]: [t] howl, [d] voe.
2. Positional exchange and changes in voiced and voiceless consonants.
Positional exchange for consonants is reflected in the following sound laws:
1. Phonetic law of the end of a word: noisy voiced at the end of the word is deafened. This pronunciation leads to the formation of homophones: threshold[n/\ro´k] - vice[n/\ro´k]; the hammer[mo´lt] - young[mo´lt]. In words with two consonants at the end of the word, both consonants are stunned: breast[gru´s´t´] - sadness[gru´s´t´], entrance[p/\dje´st] - drive up[n/\dje´st].
2. The law of assimilation of consonants by voiced and deaf.Assimilation It is likening one sound to another. In the modern Russian literary language, assimilation has a regressive character, that is, the previous sound is likened to the next one: a deaf before a voiced double becomes voiced: to grandfather [gd´e´du], a voiced double before a deaf becomes deaf: the spoon[lo´shk]. Note that the voicing of the deaf before the voiced is less common than the stunning of the voiced before the deaf. As a result of assimilation, homophones are created: bow [du´shk] - darling [d´shk], carry [v´ and e s´t´i´] - lead [v´ and e s´t´i´].
Assimilation occurs:
1. At the junction of morphemes: made[z´d´e´ll],
2. At the junction of a preposition with a word: with business[z´d´e´lm],
3. At the junction of a word with a particle (postfix): a year or so[go´tt],
4. At the junction of significant words uttered without a pause: five times[rasp´at´].
All pairs soften in softness: before the front vowels: [b´e´ly], [x´i´try], [v´i e sleep´].
Assimilation by place of education
Assimilation of dental before hissing [g], [w], [h´, [w´] and consists in the complete assimilation of dental [h] and [s]:
1.
At the junction of morphemes: sew[shy´t´], unclench[R/\ JA t], check[shot], with a ball[ USA´rm], without fever[b´ and e JA´ръ];
2.
Inside the root: later[on Zhb ],I drive ,
3.
Dental [d], [t], being before [h], [c], are likened to the latter: report .
4. Reduction of groups of identical consonants. With a confluence of three identical consonants at the junction of a preposition
or attachments with next word, at the junction of the root and suffix are reduced to two: from the link[links].
Assimilation of consonants by softness-hardness. Dental [s], [s], [n], [p], [d], [t] and labial [b], [p], [m], [c], [f] are usually softened before soft consonants : [in´ and e z´d´e´], [s´n´e´ k], [gro´s´t´], [us´p´e´h], [m´e´s´ t].
However, assimilation by softness occurs inconsistently. So, dental [s], [s], [n], [d], [t] before soft dental and [h´], [w´] soften in the roots: [z´d´e´s´], [s´t´e´p´]; dental before soft labials can soften in the roots and at the junction of the prefix and the root: [s´v´e´t], [m´ and e d´v´e´t´], [from´m´a´t´] . However, sometimes in the same position a consonant can be pronounced both softly and firmly: [v/\z´n´i´k] - [v/\zn´i´k]. Back-lingual and [l] do not soften before soft consonants.
Since assimilation by softness does not have the character of a law, one can speak not of positional change, but of positional changes of consonants in softness.
Paired in hardness, soft consonants can be assimilated in hardness. Positional changes in hardness are observed at the junction of the root and the suffix, which begins with a hard consonant: [s´l´e´syr´], but [s´l´ and e sa´rny]. Before the labial [b], assimilation does not occur: [pro´z´b].
Assimilation by hardness is not subjected to [l´]: [n/\po´l´ny].
3. Positional exchange of consonants with zero sound.
In other words, the neutralization of the phoneme represented by the consonant zero and the absence of the phoneme. There are several cases here.
1. The combination of phonemes (stn) and (zdn) is realized by the sound combination [sn], [zn]: honest - honest - che [sn] th, star - star [zn] th.
Compare: che [sn] y and those [sn] y; we hear in both cases [sn], but in a strong position (not between [s ... n]) there is a difference: honest, but cramped. This means that in the words che (stn) th and those (sn) th phoneme combinations (stn) and (sn) coincided in sound; phoneme (t), realized in a position between [s...n] zero, coincided with the absence of a phoneme!
These alternations reflect well the rhymes (from the poems of N. A. Nekrasov; the poet’s rhyme is accurate): famous - wonderful, impassive - beautiful, honest - cramped, unhappy - voiceless, autocratic - beautiful, more charming - song, rainy - clear.
Remarks require the word abyss. It's actually not one, but two words. 1) The abyss is a lot. The word of everyday speech: I have an abyss of all sorts of things. Pronounced: [b’ezn]. It is hardly possible to say that here the phoneme (e) is represented by the zero of the consonant, since at present this word abyss has no connection with the combination without a bottom.
Another similar alternation: the combination (ntk) is realized by the sound [nk]: student [nk] a, laboratory [nk] a. Such an alternation is positional (i.e., it is presented in all words with a phonemic combination (NTK)) only in some people who speak literary language, predominantly of the older generation.
Words such as building, building, building, under construction or tram, tram, tram; or own, own, own ... clearly have roots ending in a phoneme (j); it is realized by the non-syllable vowel [and]. But in the words build, builder, build; trams; no iota is heard of their own. This is because the phoneme (j) in position after the vowel before [i] is represented by zero: sui - [piles] = (cBojft).
Words can contain combinations of two identical phonemes, for example (nn): bath - [van: b] = (bath);
Such combinations are realized by long, "double" consonants (they are not necessarily twice as long as short, ordinary [n]). But long consonants are possible only between vowels, one of which (preceding or following) is stressed. When such a combination of two identical phonemes, for example (nn), falls into the vicinity of a consonant, then instead of a long one it sounds short: Finns (s [n:]) - Finnish (s [n]); semolina- semolina, ton - two-ton, etc. Here are examples where the alternation
reflected in spelling, but it also exists where spelling does not mark this alternation: a wind of two ba [l:] a - two-point (with the usual short [l ']). ;
Consequently, in the position "next to the consonant" \ combination of phonemes like (nn), (ll), etc. represented by a short consonant; one of the phonemes is realized by zero.
Often when talking about positional alternations, use verbs that are emphatically procedural: “the stressed vowel [o] goes into [a] without stress”, “the sound [z] at the end of the word turns into [s]”, etc. In fact, there are synchronous relationships, not processes . The correct wording is as follows: [o] stressed in unstressed positions changes to the vowel [a]; the voiced consonant [h] alternates with the voiceless consonant [s].