Work on the style of a work is, first of all, work on its vocabulary, since the word is the basis for understanding speech. The vagueness of speech is an invariable sign of the vagueness of thought, L.N. Tolstoy; jokingly, the writer remarked: “If I were a king, I would make a law that a writer who uses a word whose meaning he cannot explain is deprived of the right to write and receives 100 blows of the rod.”

The stylistic approach to the study of vocabulary puts forward as the most important problem the choice of a word for the most accurate expression of thought. The correct use of words by the author is not only the dignity of the style, but also a necessary condition for the informative value of the work, the effectiveness of its content. Not right choice words distorts the meaning of the statement, generating not only lexical, but also logical errors in speech.

Words should be used in strict accordance with their semantics, i.e. value. Each significant word has a lexical meaning, naming phenomena and objects of reality, which in our minds correspond to certain concepts. With a clear presentation of thought, the words used by the authors fully correspond to their subject-logical meaning. V.G. Belinsky wrote: “Each word in a poetic work must exhaust the entire meaning of the whole work required by thought, so that it can be seen that there is no other word in the language that could replace it here.”

1.2.2. Search for the right word

The search for the only necessary word in the text requires the writer to exert creative strength and tireless work. This work is sometimes reflected in manuscripts, allowing us to get acquainted with the lexical substitutions that the author made, polishing the style of the work. For example, in the draft of A.S. Pushkin "Dubrovsky" we find the following edit: Members (of the court) met him (Troekurov) with expressions of deep respect [deep devotion; deep servility] - the last word most expressively characterized the behavior of officials bribed by Troekurov, and the writer left it in the text.

N.V. worked a lot on their manuscripts. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov, A.P. Chekhov, I.A. Bunin, A.I. Kuprin and other Russian writers. Search the right word reflects their auto-editing. It is interesting to compare the original and final versions of some of the texts of our classics. Let us give examples from the story of N.V. Gogol "Taras Bulba".

The desire to find the exact words encourages writers to edit the text by comparing possible options expressions of thought. N.A. Nekrasov, we find such a stylistic correction in the description of the scene “at the front door”, which so impressed the poet, who later composed the famous poem: “There is nothing to do, [come on, go, go, stretch] wrapped in a tavern.” As you can see, it was not so easy for the author to choose a verb of movement that conveyed the mood of the offended peasants.

The stylistic editing of the writers in the manuscript reflects the last stage of work on the text, and what work preceded this, how many drafts were written and then destroyed, how many times the author said this or that phrase “to himself” before writing it down on paper - this can be just guess.

A.P. Chekhov spoke of his work in the following way: "... I am busy, busy up to my neck: I write and cross out, I write and cross out." He advised his brother: "It is necessary to dirty up fiercely," remarking: "... I do not want to recognize stories without blots." Reproaching one of the young writers for negligence, A.P. Chekhov reminded: “The manuscripts of all true masters are soiled, crossed out along and across, worn and covered with patches, in turn crossed out and fouled up.” And he recommended working like this: “You need to write a story for 5-6 days and think about it all the time ... It is necessary that each phrase, before lying down on paper, lie in the brain for two days ... ". This enormous work of the writer on the word is hidden from us, because we see the finished work. The researcher, comparing the drafts and the white version, comparing the different editions of the works, partly penetrates into the creative laboratory of the writer and, by lexical substitutions, can judge how he worked on the word.

Many lexical substitutions were made by A.I. Kuprin, while working on the article "In Memory of Chekhov". Here are examples of a more accurate choice of words in the process of stylistic editing of the manuscript by the writer himself:

An interesting edit by M. Gorky in the novel "Mother":

Writers usually correct lexical errors during the editing process. The editor can also perform stylistic editing of the manuscript. Authors for whom literary work is an unusual occupation need the help of an editor, although literary text editing is not prerequisite his publications.

1.2.3. Speech errors caused by incorrect word choice

In the process of literary editing of a manuscript, the editor often has to note errors in word usage. The wrong choice of word makes the speech inaccurate, and sometimes distorts the meaning of the statement: The weather accompanied good rest(instead of favored); Martens will soon have an inheritance (meaning offspring); I want to continue the family dynasty and therefore decided to become an officer (instead of tradition). In such cases, one speaks of using a word without regard to its semantics. Such lexical errors arise as a result of the author's stylistic negligence, inattention to the word, or poor knowledge of the language. Yes, in newspaper article we read: New railways will appear in areas difficult for development. The word "arise" means "appear, begin, form, originate", it is not suitable for naming an action that requires significant effort. Suspicion, anxiety, doubt (spontaneous states) can arise, difficulties, obstacles arise ... Railways cannot arise, they are laid by people.

The use of words without considering their semantics changes the meaning of the statement: The beginning of 1992 was marked by a deterioration climatic conditions - blizzards, a sharp drop in temperature. The author had in mind, of course, weather conditions ( bad weather), the climate could not change in one year.

When reading a manuscript, the editor has to weigh each word, eliminating such errors. Stylistic editing in such cases often comes down to a simple lexical replacement:

However, sometimes, in order to achieve accuracy and clarity, one has to resort to more complex types of editing, updating the lexical composition of the sentence, changing the wording, rebuilding the construction. Consider examples of such stylistic changes:

The use of words without taking into account their semantics can cause illogicality and even absurdity of the statement.

In one essay it was written: "... And our Far Eastern birch trees stand in their wedding shroud"(The author mixed up the shroud and veil).

Such errors arise under the influence of false associations. At the entrance exam to the Academy of Printing Arts, the young man wrote in an essay: “I know that the ancestors of A.S. Pushkin" (of course, he meant the descendants of the poet). The absurdity of the statement in such cases gives the phrase a comical sound.

The inaccuracy of word usage is explained not only by the low speech culture of the author; sometimes they deliberately do not want to use this or that word in order to disguise negative meaning statements. They write: he fantasizes instead of lying, he accepted gifts instead of taking bribes, etc. Recall an episode from the story of A.I. Kuprin “Inquiry”: “Ask him, did he take the tops from Esipaki?

The second lieutenant was again convinced of his inexperience and cowardice, because out of some bashful and delicate feeling he could not pronounce the real word "stole". Words and expressions that soften the rough meaning of speech are called euphemisms (from Gr. eu - good, phēmi - I say). The euphemism of speech is often explained by the author's desire to dull the critical sharpness of the statement when describing the negative phenomena of our life. For example, in a local newspaper, a correspondent reported: The collective farm board paid little attention to the protection of public property, while it should be recognized that the collective farm board treated the protection of public property irresponsibly (or turned a blind eye to the plunder of public property). The inaccuracy of speech in such cases leads the reader away from the truth, distorts the meaning.

Wrong word choice can cause various speech errors. So, due to inaccurate word usage, anachronism may arise (violation of chronological accuracy when using words related to a certain historical era): In ancient Rome, plebeians dissatisfied with the laws held rallies (the word “rally” appeared much later, and in England); In the 18th century, several printing houses were closed in Leningrad (the name of the city on the Neva, which the author used, was unknown in the 18th century, it should have been written: in St. Petersburg).

Incorrect word usage often leads to logical errors. Among them we will name alogism - a comparison of disparate concepts, for example: The syntax of encyclopedic articles is different from others scientific articles. It turns out that the syntax is compared with scientific articles. Eliminating alogism, you can write: The syntax of encyclopedic articles differs from the syntax of other scientific articles, or: The syntax of encyclopedic articles has a number of features that are unusual for the syntax of other scientific articles. Often the identification of alogism does not cause difficulties, stylistic editing in these cases is simple:

However, sometimes alogisms are not so obvious, and in order to eliminate them, one has to significantly change the author's text. For example: Our knowledge of the wealth of the bowels of the earth is only an insignificant part of the hidden, even greater wealth. We can offer the following options for stylistic editing of this phrase: We still know so little about the richest deposits of minerals, the secret of which is kept by the bowels of the earth; Huge riches are hidden in the bowels of the earth, about which we still know so little; Our knowledge of minerals is still so incomplete! We know only about an insignificant part of the wealth hidden in the bowels of the earth.

The reason for the illogicality of the statement may be the substitution of the concept, which often occurs as a result of incorrect word usage: It is bad when the same movie title is shown in all the cinemas of the city. Of course, the film is being shown, not its title. You could write: It's bad when the same film is shown in all the cinemas of the city. Similar errors in speech also arise due to insufficiently clear differentiation of concepts, for example: The theater staff is waiting for the approaching day of the premiere with special excitement (they are not waiting for the approach of the premiere, but when the premiere will take place).

In the case of a concept substitution, stylistic editing can be different: sometimes it is enough to replace an unsuccessfully used word, in other cases lexical replacement is combined with the use of new, clarifying words, and finally, sometimes it is necessary to redo the sentence in order to correctly convey the author's idea.

Our speech is also made illogical by the unjustified expansion or narrowing of the concept that arises as a result of mixing generic and specific categories: With good care from each animal, you can milk 12 liters of milk (it was not necessary to use the generic name - animal, but the specific name - cow); At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the child. It was necessary to write: At any time of the day, medicine should come to the aid of the patient (after all, not only children need medical care).

It is especially common to observe the use of a generic name instead of a specific one, and this not only deprives speech of accuracy, leads to the loss of those specific information that make up the living fabric of the narrative, but also gives the style an official, sometimes clerical, coloring. Generic names are often presented by the speaker as more significant, giving the impression of the “importance” of the statement. Therefore, as the writer P. Nilin noted, “a person who wants to express himself “uncivilized” sometimes does not dare to call a hat a hat, and a jacket a jacket. And instead he pronounces strict words: a headdress or outerwear ”(Nilin P. The danger is not there // New world. - 1958. - No. 4.). K.I. Chukovsky, in his book “Live Like Life,” recalled how, during the preparation of a radio broadcast, they “edited” the speech of a young writer who was going to say: “Gone heavy rains". “The head of the club grimaced:

So it doesn't fit. It should be more literary. Write something better like this: "Heavy rainfall fell."

Unfortunately, this unreasonable predilection for generic names becomes a kind of template: some authors, without hesitation, prefer precipitation before rains, downpours, drizzle, snow, snowstorm; green spaces- in front of lilac, jasmine, mountain ash, bird cherry; reservoirs - in front of lakes, ponds, rivers, streams ... Replacing species categories with generic ones makes our speech colorless, bureaucratic. It is no coincidence that the great artist of the word S.Ya. Marshak addressed his contemporaries with bitter reproach: "... We called lunches and dinners food, but the room was living space for us."

The reason for the illogicality of the statement, the distortion of its meaning sometimes lies in the fuzzy distinction between concrete and abstract concepts, for example: You need to think about winter feed for public animal husbandry (meaning, of course, feed for animals, livestock).

Consider examples of stylistic correction of sentences in which the illogicality of the statement is the result of an unjustified expansion of the concept or its narrowing, the replacement of a specific concept by an abstract one:

The distortion of the meaning and even the absurdity of the statement arise as a result of the discrepancy between the premise and the consequence, for example: The speed of reproduction of pests depends on how persistently and systematically the fight against them is carried out. It turns out that the more they fight pests, the faster they multiply. In this case, one should write not about the reproduction of pests, but about destruction, then the idea would be formulated correctly. Various options for stylistic editing of the sentence are acceptable: The speed of destruction of pests depends on how persistently and systematically the fight against them is carried out; Persistent pest control leads to their faster destruction; In order to exterminate pests more quickly, it is necessary to wage a stubborn and systematic struggle with them; At stubborn struggle with pests, you can quickly achieve their destruction, etc.

Logical errors in speech are a great evil: they not only give rise to ambiguity of the statement, distort its meaning, but also lead to absurdity, inappropriate comicality of speech. The parodic sounding of certain statements in such cases nullifies their informative value. One ad, praising pills for those who want to lose weight, claims: The company guarantees weight loss by a hundred percent.

Another example. Working on the manuscript of the article "Physical Education and Health", the editor finds in it the reasoning:

It is not old age that is terrible, but decrepitude, therefore better to die young and healthy. Many people think so.

The absurdity of the statement in this case arose due to the fact that the author did not notice the substitution of the concept, using the word die, but he should have written: It would be nice to stay young and healthy until the end of his life, or: Keep vigor and health until old age. Careful attention to vocabulary, the correct choice of words, thoughtful analysis of the logical side of speech will help the author and editor avoid such mistakes.

1.2.4. Lexical compatibility

For the correct use of words in speech, it is not enough to know their exact meaning; it is also necessary to take into account the peculiarities of the lexical compatibility of words, i.e. their ability to connect with each other. So, “similar” adjectives long, long, long, long, long are “attracted” to nouns in different ways: long period, long period (but not long, long, long period); long way, long way; long-term fees, long-term credit. Often words with the same meaning can have different lexical compatibility (cf .: a true friend is a genuine document).

The doctrine of lexical compatibility is based on the position of Acad. V.V. Vinogradov about the phraseologically related meanings of words that have single compatibility (bosom friend) or limited compatibility possibilities (stale bread, loaf; stale person, but you can’t say “stale candy” (chocolate), “stale comrade” (father, son).

For the development of the theory of lexical compatibility, Vinogradov's selection of phraseological combinations and the establishment of the main types of lexical meanings of words in the Russian language were of great importance. Phraseological combinations Phraseology is engaged in, the subject of lexical stylistics is the study of the combination in speech of words that have free meanings, and the definition of those restrictions that are imposed by the language on their lexical compatibility.

Many linguists emphasize that the lexical compatibility of a word is inseparable from its meaning. Some scientists, studying the problems of lexical compatibility, come to the conclusion that there are no absolutely free combinations of lexemes in the language, there are only groups of words with different possibilities of compatibility. With such a formulation of the question, the difference between free combinations and phraseologically connected ones is destroyed.

Combining words into phrases can run into various kinds of restrictions. Firstly, words may not be combined due to their semantic incompatibility (purple orange, leaned back, water is on fire); secondly, the combination of words into a phrase can be excluded due to their grammatical nature (mine - swim, close - cheerful); thirdly, their lexical features can prevent the unification of words (words denoting seemingly connected concepts do not combine; they say to cause grief, trouble, but one cannot say to cause joy, pleasure).

Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, there are three types of compatibility: semantic (from the term "semantics" - the meaning of the word), grammatical (more precisely, syntactic) and lexical.

Semantic compatibility is broken, for example, in such cases: today's hour no information yet; Need to speed up bloodshed settlement; Maiden name my father Sobakin; After the death of Lensky, no duel, Olga married a hussar ... Funny combinations of words, isn't it? But if you think about it, in other cases a very undesirable underlying meaning arises: not to stop, but only to settle the bloodshed? ..

A parodic example of a violation of grammatical compatibility is known: My yours does not understand (possessive adjectives cannot be combined with verbs in the personal form). More examples: Our leader healthy inside and out ; Most of the time deputies spend on discussions.

The most drastic violation of the laws of “attraction of words” is lexical inconsistency: The voice of numbers is not comforting; In the recent past we all had our tongues clamped. The bright effect of “deceived expectation” is played by comedians in caustic jokes: We have been victorious and no longer have the right to delay; Reached the gaping peaks.

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the incorrect use of polysemantic words. So, in its basic meaning, the word deep can be freely combined with any other, suitable in meaning: deep (that is, having great depth) well, bay, body of water, lake, river. However, in the meaning of “reached the limit, complete, perfect”, this word is combined with a few (deep autumn, winter, but not summer, not spring, deep night, silence, but not morning, not day, not noise; deep old age, but not youth). Therefore, we are laughing at the statement: deep childhood he looked like his mother.

The word to take place is interpreted in dictionaries by means of synonyms to happen, to come true, however, unlike them, this verb is appropriate if the planned events were being prepared, planned (A meeting was held; A meeting of the candidate for the Duma with voters took place). And if the correspondent writes: On the streets of the city armed clashes took place, - you might think that armed clashes were being prepared, planned by someone. As you can see, a violation of lexical compatibility can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement.

Lexical stylistics should focus on the assessment of lexical compatibility. However, the boundaries between various types combinability is very fuzzy, therefore, in the stylistic analysis of the text, one has to talk not only about “pure” lexical combinability, but also take into account various transitional cases.

All significant words that have free meanings can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within their subject-logical connections; such are, for example, adjectives characterizing physical properties objects - color, volume, weight, temperature (red, black, large, small, light, heavy, hot, cold), many nouns (table, house, person, tree), verbs (live, see, work, know). Another group is formed by words that have limited lexical compatibility (and in the case of polysemy of words, this restriction can only apply to their individual meanings). This group of words is of particular interest.

Lexical compatibility restrictions are usually inherent in words that rarely occur in speech. Words with the maximum frequency of use (they are included in the 2500 most frequent words of the Russian language) easily enter into lexical relationships. For example, when comparing the compatibility of the words fear and fear, it turned out that the word fear is more actively combined with various verbs.

The lexical compatibility of words has an intralinguistic character. In our native language, we usually “predict” possible variants of lexical connections of words (mostly by intuition). Marks of lexical compatibility in explanatory dictionaries are rare and inconsistent. Practical value has a "Dictionary of the compatibility of words of the Russian language" ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkina (2nd ed. M., 1983).

1.2.5. Violation of lexical compatibility as a stylistic device

The assessment of lexical compatibility in expressive speech cannot be approached with the usual yardstick, here the laws of “attraction” of words to each other are special. In fiction and journalistic works, the boundaries of lexical compatibility can be expanded. For example, it has been noted that the restrictions of semantic compatibility do not apply to figurative word usage: phrases are possible that seem meaningless if their constituent words are understood in a literal sense (the sunset is burning, the years are flying, black thoughts). The semantic incompatibility of words is not an obstacle to the creation of artistic images. It is the violation of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, that underlies many classical images that have become textbook examples of epithets, metaphors, metonyms: gray winter threat (P.); The bell cries loudly, and laughs, and squeals (Vyaz.); Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness ... (L.); pot-bellied walnut bureau (G.); mental and moral neckline, bald syllogism (S.-Shch.).

Violation of lexical compatibility can become an effective means of creating a comic sound of speech in a humorous context: From that day on, glory befell Evstigneyka (M. G.); an apple with a mole, a seething lazybones (I. and P.); on the basis of a comprehensive and double-edged squabble (I. Ilf); single fox terrier (L. Lench). Violation of lexical compatibility as a vivid stylistic device for creating a comic effect underlies various jokes, aphorisms, which are usually published on the humorous pages of magazines and newspapers. For example: Genius was recognized alive ("LG"); It is difficult to forgive other people's shortcomings, but it is even more difficult to forgive other people's virtues; our sworn friends; hardened leader; Finally, the government achieved a significant deterioration in the life of the people; With perestroika, another event befell us: humanitarian aid West (from the newspaper).

Incompatibility makes headlines catchy: "A genre doomed to success" (about parody); "Memories of the Future" (movie title); “Alone with everyone” (play by A. Gelman); "Lifetime Friend" (about the "friendship" of V. Zhirinovsky with Saddam Hussein); "Stalkers of Heaven" (about helicopter pilots who worked in areas of high radiation); "Turn on the silence"; “What was silent about in the subway”; "Long, serial life"; "Bouquet of stars" (variety). Often poets violate lexical compatibility. Unusual combinations of words in the songs of Vl. Vysotsky: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their barefoot souls into blood. In a non-expressive, prosaic speech, the phrases “walk on your heels”, “barefoot souls” would seem impossible, absurd, but, in a poetic context, they amaze with their artistic power. Another example from a song by the same author: In the morning, they shot the silent mountain echo ... And the stones, like tears, splashed out of the wounded rocks.

1.2.6. Violation of lexical compatibility as a speech error

If the author does not strive to achieve a certain stylistic goal, the violation of lexical compatibility becomes a speech error. This reflects a characteristic feature of the dialectical nature of the language: in one case, the phenomenon, which is a deviation from the linguistic norm, turns out to be an effective means of creating speech expression, in the other, it is evidence of the author’s carelessness, inattentive attitude to the word. Involuntary violation of lexical compatibility is a very common speech error.

“Although in these competitions our favorite skaters defeated, the spectators greet them standing up,” says the sportscaster (but: win, lose). “Maybe insomnia has come to you, and you are lying without closing your blue eyes,” the poet writes (but: you can close your eyes, not your eyes). In the essay, the journalist notes: “The basin produced cozy impression” (you can make a pleasant impression, not a cozy one). Some words are often used in speech in the wrong combinations (meeting convened, conversation read, increase attention, give importance, increase horizons, etc.).

Violation of lexical compatibility can be caused by contamination of outwardly similar phrases. For example, they say: to meet modern needs, mixing combinations to meet the requirements and meet the needs; From him recover property damage in favor of the victims (material damage can be compensated; money can be recovered); The artistic level of the expositions of the folk museums has been improved (the level can increase, increase; the quality can be improved). More examples of word combinations contamination: take measures (take measures - take steps); deserved fame (acquired fame - deserved respect); unflagging help (constant help - unflagging attention); does not matter (does not matter - does not matter). The confusion of phrases was the reason for the joke:

Tastes could not be discussed:

Some respect apricots in brine,

Others like jam with mustard.

But all this is irrelevant

And besides, it doesn't matter.

(E. Svistunov)

When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, a violation of lexical compatibility often becomes the cause of the comic sound of speech. For example: Serious problems came crashing down on young entrepreneurs by surprise ; Leaders paid close attention to deficiencies achieved; They worked like the most notorious specialists; People came to us dejected by experience. Comic in such cases arises because words that have limited lexical compatibility suggest variants of phrases with often directly opposite meanings (cf .: successes achieved, notorious scammers, dejected by grief).

Consider examples of stylistic editing of sentences in which lexical compatibility is violated:

As you can see, stylistic editing basically comes down to replacing words, the use of which led to a violation of lexical compatibility.

1.2.7. Speech deficiency

A careless attitude to the language can cause speech insufficiency - an accidental omission of words necessary for the exact expression of thought: The directorate should strive to avoid this indifference (missed to get rid of); Oil paintings are placed in frames (painted missing). Speech impairment often occurs in oral speech when the speaker is in a hurry and does not follow the correctness of the statement. In this case, comic situations arise if the “speaker” addresses the audience using a microphone. So, at the dog show you can hear appeals to the owners of thoroughbred dogs:

Dear participants, sort by breed and get ready for the parade!

Fellow participants, carefully wipe the muzzle from saliva to facilitate examination of the dental system!

Prize-winners, urgently come for the awards. Owners without muzzles will not be awarded.

From such appeals of the administrator it follows that all these tests await not dogs, but their owners, because it is to them that the speech is addressed. With speech insufficiency, ambiguity very often occurs, here are examples of such errors that have fallen into protocols and others. business documents: Gr. Kalinovsky L.L. followed the street without a license plate; Set the date of delivery of insurance agents to the accounting department before the 10th day of each month; We will send the persons you are interested in by mail; For class teachers ensure the attendance of their parents.

Due to speech insufficiency, the grammatical and logical connections of words in a sentence are violated, its meaning is obscured. The omission of words can completely distort the author's thought: In order to improve production indicators, it is necessary to unite all workers involved in economic issues (it is necessary: ​​to unite the efforts of all workers); Due to the cold in the room, we only do urgent fractures - an announcement on the door of the X-ray room (meaning urgent X-ray images of fractures).

Due to the omission of a word, various logical errors can occur. Thus, the absence of the necessary link in the expression of thought leads to alogism: The language of Sholokhov's heroes differs sharply from the heroes of other writers (one can compare the language of Sholokhov's heroes only with the language of the heroes of other writers); The conditions of the city are different from the village (it is permissible to compare the conditions of life in the city only with the conditions of life in the village).

Often, as a result of the omission of a word, a substitution of the concept occurs. For example: Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive - we are talking about patient cards, and from the text it follows that "patients are handed over to the archive." Such speech insufficiency gives rise to the comic and absurdity of the statement [The Kuibyshev river port produces men for permanent and temporary work as port workers (“Kr.”); She took second place in gymnastics among girls of the 2nd category (“Kr.”); The National Insurance Inspectorate invites you to the State Insurance on any Thursday for injury (announcement)].

Speech deficiency, which occurs as a result of the author's stylistic negligence, can be easily corrected: you need to insert an accidentally missed word or phrase. For example:

If the speaker "does not find words" for the correct expression of thought and builds a sentence somehow, omitting certain links in the chain of logically connected concepts, the phrase becomes insufficiently informative, chaotic, and the editor who corrects such a statement has to work hard to achieve clarity. For example, in the manuscript of an article about the restoration of a printing enterprise, we read: At first, equipment was installed in a floor format printed sheet. Based on this "truncated" information, it is not easy to guess that when the printing plant was reopened, equipment was first installed only for the production of products with a format of half a printed sheet. Insufficient information content of the sentence, in which important words and phrases, especially often leads to the absurdity of the statement, which could be observed in the "stagnation times", when our newspapers printed numerous reports on "victories and conquests" in the implementation of the five-year plans. For example: On this shift, between 16 and 20 hours, the thousandth billion of Soviet power engineers were worked out. It is not easy to recover the truth from such a message; in fact, we are talking about the fact that Soviet power engineers, who worked the evening shift, gave the country a thousandth billion kilowatt-hours of electricity.

Speech deficiency as a common mistake should be distinguished from ellipsis - a stylistic figure based on the deliberate omission of one or another sentence member to create special expressiveness. The most expressive are elliptical constructions without a verb-predicate, conveying the dynamism of movement (I am for a candle, a candle - in the stove! I am for a book, that one is to run and jump under the bed. - Chuk.). With an ellipsis, there is no need to "restore" the missing members of the sentence, since the meaning elliptical designs is clear, and the introduction of qualifying words into them will deprive them of the expression, their inherent lightness. In case of speech insufficiency, on the contrary, the restoration of missing words is necessary; without them, the sentence is stylistically unacceptable.

1.2.8. Speech redundancy

The ability to find the exact words for naming certain concepts helps to achieve brevity in the expression of thought, and, on the contrary, the author's stylistic helplessness often leads to speech redundancy - verbosity. Verbosity as a great evil was repeatedly pointed out by scientists, writers A.P. Chekhov remarked: "Brevity is the sister of talent." A.M. Gorky wrote that laconicism, as well as accuracy of presentation, are not easy for the writer: “... It is extremely difficult to find the exact words and put them in such a way that a lot is said to a few,“ so that words are cramped, thoughts are spacious.

Verbosity comes in various forms. Often one can observe an obsessive explanation of well-known truths: Consumption of milk is a good tradition, not only children eat milk, the need for milk, the habit of milk persists until old age. Is this a bad habit? Should it be abandoned? - Not! Such idle talk, of course, is suppressed by the editor: reasoning that is not of informative value is excluded during literary editing. However, such an edit-abbreviation is not directly related to the lexical style, since it affects not the lexical side of the text, but its content.

The subject of lexical stylistics is speech redundancy that occurs when the same thought is repeated, for example: They were shocked by the sight of a fire, which they were witnesses; Our athletes arrived at international competitions in order to to take part in competitions in which not only ours, but also foreign athletes will participate; He could not stay away from family conflicts, as a woman's husband and children's father; The machine park was updated with new machines (highlighted words are superfluous).

Sometimes the manifestation of verbal redundancy borders on the absurd: The corpse was dead and did not hide it. Stylists call such examples of verbosity lapalissiads. The origin of this term is not without interest: it is formed on behalf of the French marshal Marquise La Palisa, who died in 1525. The soldiers composed a song about him, in which were the words: Our commander was still alive 25 minutes before his death. The absurdity of the lapalissiada lies in the assertion of a self-evident truth.

Lapalissiades give speech an inappropriate comedy, often in situations that arose as a result of tragic circumstances. For example: Since the responsible editor of the collection has died, it is necessary to introduce a new living editor to the editorial board; The dead corpse lay motionless and showed no signs of life .

Speech redundancy can take the form of pleonasm. Pleonasm (from Gr. pleonasmos - excess) is the use in speech of words that are close in meaning and therefore unnecessary words (the main essence, everyday routine, it is useless to disappear, to anticipate in advance, valuable treasures, dark darkness, etc.). Often pleonasms appear when synonyms are combined kissed and kissed; long and long; courageous and bold; only; nevertheless, however; for example.

More A.S. Pushkin, considering brevity as one of the merits of the work, reproached P.A. Vyazemsky in a letter to him for the fact that in his fairy tale "The Line of the Terrain" the speech of one of the characters is "stretched", and the phrase "Even more painful is almost doubly pleonasm."

Pleonasms usually arise due to the stylistic negligence of the author. For example: Local forest workers are not limited only to the protection of the taiga, but they also do not allow the richest gifts of nature to be wasted in vain. When stylistic editing, the highlighted words must be excluded. However, such a manifestation of speech redundancy should be distinguished from "imaginary pleonasm", to which the author refers consciously as a means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. In this case, pleonasm becomes a striking stylistic device. Let's remember F. Tyutchev: The vault of heaven, burning with star glory. Mysteriously looks from the depths, And we swim, a flaming abyss surrounded on all sides; S. Yesenina: Give me a paw, Jim, for good luck. I have never seen such a paw. Let's bark with you in the moonlight quiet, silent weather ... Another example: The time will not return when the history of our country was rewritten for the sake of a false ideology (from the gas.).

The use of pleonastic combinations is also characteristic of folklore: Where are you going, Volga? Where are you heading? To give you a place by name, by patronymic ... In oral folk art, expressively colored pleonastic combinations of sadness-longing, sea-okiya, path-path and so on have traditionally been used.

A variation of pleonasm is tautology (from Gr. tauto - the same thing, logos - a word). Tautology as a phenomenon of lexical stylistics can arise when repeating words with the same root (tell a story, multiply many times, ask a question, resume again), as well as when combining a foreign and Russian word that duplicates its meaning (memorable souvenirs, debuted for the first time, an unusual phenomenon that drives keynote). In the latter case, one sometimes speaks of a hidden tautology.

The repetition of cognate words, which creates a tautology, is a very common mistake (Plaintiff proves his case unsubstantiated evidence; The rise in crime has risen; Citizens pedestrians! Cross the street only pedestrian crossings!). The use of words with the same root creates unnecessary "marking time", for example: ... Quite naturally, the definition follows that labor productivity at certain stages of technological development is determined completely certain patterns. To comprehend similar statement, it is necessary, first of all, to get rid of the tautology. The following variant of stylistic correction is possible: A well-founded conclusion follows that labor productivity at various stages of technological development is determined by objective laws.

However, the repetition of cognate words should not always be regarded as a stylistic error. Many stylists rightly believe that it is not always necessary to exclude single-root words from sentences, replacing them with synonyms: in some cases this is impossible, in others it can lead to impoverishment, discoloration of speech. Several cognates in a close context are stylistically justified if related words are the only carriers of the corresponding meanings and cannot be replaced by synonyms (coach - to train; elections, voters - to choose; habit - to wean; close - cover; cook - jam, etc. .). How to avoid, say, the use of words with the same root, when you need to say: White flowers bloomed on the bushes; The book was edited by the editor-in-chief?

There are many tautological combinations in the language, the use of which is inevitable, since they use terminological vocabulary (a dictionary of foreign words, a fifth-level link, a foreman of the first brigade, etc.). We have to put up with such, for example, word usage: the investigating authorities ... investigated; suffer from Graves' disease; the seam is cut by a cutting machine, etc.

Many related words from an etymological point of view in the modern language have lost their word-building connections (cf.: remove - raise - understand - hug - accept, song - rooster, morning - tomorrow). Such words, having a common etymological root, do not form tautological phrases (black ink, red paint, white linen).

The tautology that occurs when a Russian word and a foreign word are combined, which coincide in meaning, usually indicates that the speaker does not understand the exact meaning of the borrowed word. This is how combinations young child prodigy, tiny little things, interior design, leading leader, break interval, etc. Tautological combinations of this type sometimes become acceptable and are fixed in speech, which is associated with a change in the meanings of words. An example of loss of tautology would be a combination of time periods. In the past, linguists considered this expression tautological, since the Greek word period means "time". However, the word period gradually acquired the meaning of "a period of time", and therefore the expression period of time became possible. Combinations of a monumental monument, reality, exhibits of an exhibition, a second-hand book and some others have also become fixed in speech, because in them definitions have ceased to be a simple repetition of the main feature already contained in the word being defined. The tautology that occurs when using abbreviations in scientific and official business styles does not require stylistic editing, for example: SI system [i.e. "System International System" (about physical units)]; Institute BelNIISH (Institute Belarusian Scientific Research Institute of Agriculture).

Tautology, like pleonasm, can be a stylistic device that enhances the effectiveness of speech. In colloquial speech, such tautological combinations are used as to serve a service, all sorts of things, bitter grief, etc., which bring a special expression. Tautology underlies many phraseological units (eat, see the views, walk with a shaker, sit in the seat, chock-full, go to waste). Especially important stylistic significance is acquired by tautological repetitions in artistic speech, mainly in poetic speech.

There are tautological combinations of several types: combinations with a tautological epithet (And it was not old again, but new new and victorious. - Sl.), with a tautological instrumental(And suddenly a white-white birch in a gloomy spruce forest alone. - Sol.). Tautological combinations in the text stand out against the background of other words; this makes it possible, resorting to tautology, to pay attention to especially important concepts (So, lawlessness was legalized; Less and less remains with nature unsolved mysteries). An important semantic function is played by the tautology in the headlines of newspaper articles (“Green shield asks for protection”; “ Extremes North”, “Is it an accident?”, “Is the old bicycle obsolete?”).

Tautological repetition can give the statement a special significance, aphorism ( Winner student from defeated teacher. - Bug.; Fortunately, the fashion circle is no longer in vogue. - P.; And old fashioned, and the old is delirious with novelty. - P.). As a source of speech expression, tautology is especially effective if single-root words are compared as synonyms (It’s as if they hadn’t seen each other for two years, their kiss was long, long. - Ch.), antonyms (When did we learn to be strangers? When did we forget how to speak? - Evt. ).

Like any repetitions, tautological combinations increase the emotionality of publicistic speech [The Seventh Symphony (Shostakovich) is dedicated to the triumph human in man... To the threat of fascism - dehumanize a person- the composer answered with a symphony about the victorious triumph of everything high and beautiful. - A. T.].

The stringing of single-root words is used in gradation (from Latin gradatio - gradualness) - a stylistic figure based on a consistent increase or decrease in emotional and expressive significance (Oh! for the sake of our past days deceased, ruined happiness, do not destroy in my soul to the past of the last fate! - Og.).

In expressively colored speech, tautological repetitions, like the repetition of sounds, can become an expressive means of phonics (Then the tractors with guns stretched, the field kitchen passed, then the infantry went. - Shol.). Poets often combine both techniques - the repetition of roots and the repetition of sounds (Everything is fine: the poet sings, the critic criticizes. - Mayak.).

The possibility of a punning clash of cognate words makes it possible to use tautology as a means of creating comedy, satirical coloring. This technique was brilliantly mastered by N.V. Gogol, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (Let you not allow this; The writer pees, and the reader reads). As a means of comic use tautology and modern authors humorous stories, feuilletons, jokes (Efficiency: Do not do it, but you can’t redo all the things; The cow, nicknamed God’s, godlessly destroys potato plantings. - “LG”).

1.2.9. Word repetition

The repetition of words should be distinguished from tautology, although it is often a manifestation of speech redundancy. Unjustified lexical repetitions, which are often accompanied by tautology and pleonasms, usually indicate the author's inability to clearly and concisely formulate an idea. For example, in the minutes of the meeting of the pedagogical council we read: The essay has been copied, and the one who copied does not deny that he copied the essay, and the one who allowed it to be copied even wrote that he gave the essay to be copied. So the fact is established. Was it not possible to formulate this idea briefly? One had only to indicate the names of the perpetrators of what happened: Ivanov does not deny that he copied the essay from Petrov, who allowed him to do this.

To avoid lexical repetitions, literary editing often has to significantly change the author's text:

However, the repetition of words does not always indicate the stylistic helplessness of the author: it can become a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Lexical repetitions help to highlight an important concept in the text (Live for a century, learn for a century. - last; They pay good for good. - proverb.). This stylistic device was skillfully used by L.N. Tolstoy: She [Anna] was charming in her simple black dress, her full arms with bracelets were charming, her firm neck with a string of pearls was charming, curly hair of a disordered hairstyle was charming, graceful light movements of small legs and hands were charming, this beautiful face was charming in its revival; but there was something terrible and cruel in her charms. Publicists turn to the repetition of words as a means of logical selection of concepts. For example, the headlines of newspaper articles are interesting: “The mighty forces of a mighty region” (about Siberia), “Opera about the opera” (about a musical theater performance), “Be a man, man!”

The repetition of words is usually characteristic of emotionally colored speech. Therefore, lexical repetitions are often found in poetry. Let us recall Pushkin's lines: A classic, old-fashioned novel, remarkably long, long, long...

In poetic speech, lexical repetitions are often combined with various methods poetic syntax, enhancing emphatic intonation. For example: You hear: the drum rumbles. Soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye to her, the platoon goes into fog, fog, fog, and the past is clearer, clearer, clearer ... (Ok.) One of the researchers wittily remarked that repetition does not at all mean an invitation to say goodbye twice; it can mean: “soldier, hurry up to say goodbye, the platoon is already leaving”, or “soldier, say goodbye to her, say goodbye forever, you will never see her again”, or “soldier, say goodbye to her, to your only one”, etc. . Thus, the "doubling" of the word does not mean a simple repetition of the concept, but becomes a means of creating a poetic "subtext" that deepens the content of the statement.

By stringing the same words, one can reflect the nature of the visual impressions (But the infantry goes, the infantry goes past the pines, pines, pines without end. - Lug.). Lexical repetitions sometimes, like a gesture, enhance the expressiveness of speech:

The battle thundered for the crossing,

And below, a little to the south -

Germans from left to right,

Late, they made their way. (...)

And on the left on the move, on the move

Rippled bayonets.

They were pushed into the water, into the water,

And the water is flowing...

(A.T. Tvardovsky)

Lexical repetitions can also be used as a means of humor. In a parodic text, a pile of identical words and expressions reflects the comic nature of the described situation:

It is very important to know how to behave in society. If, when inviting a lady to dance, you stepped on her foot and she pretended not to notice it, then you must pretend not to notice, as she noticed, but pretended not to notice. - "LG".

Thus, in artistic speech, verbal repetitions can perform a variety of stylistic functions. This must be taken into account when giving a stylistic assessment of the use of the word in the text.

Lecture 4. Lexical norms

Vocabulary. Types of lexical units

The concept of lexical norm and typical lexical errors

Violation of accuracy, clarity, consistency, brevity of speech as a result of lexical errors

1. Vocabulary. Types of lexical items

Vocabulary- the vocabulary of the language, which covers individual words and stable combinations of words. All words can be divided into several groups depending on their lexical features.

Depending on the number of lexical meanings, single-valued and polysemantic words are distinguished. single word can have only one lexical meaning ( book, table, monologue, alert). polysemantic word has two or more values endure, green). In the explanatory dictionary, all meanings of a polysemantic word are given in one dictionary entry, each meaning is numbered, and before interpreting the word there may be a note, for example, trans.(figurative meaning). The direct meaning is the basic meaning of the word. A figurative meaning is a secondary meaning that arose on the basis of a direct one.

Lexical units, depending on the semantic relationships between words, are divided into synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, paronyms. Synonyms- these are words of the same part of speech, different in sound, the same or close in meaning. Synonyms can differ from each other in shades of meaning, stylistic coloring, or both. Antonyms- Words that are opposite in meaning. Antonyms denote contrasting concepts that are correlated with each other. Antonyms can express opposite concepts of time (a long time ago - recently), place (up - down), space (north - south), etc. Homonyms- words that are identical in spelling and sound, related to one part of speech, but not related in meaning, for example: In dictionaries, homonyms, unlike polysemantic words, are given in different dictionary entries, since homonyms, unlike polysemantic words, are not have a common value component. Paronyms words are called that are similar in sound, but different in meaning, having, as a rule, the same root and belonging to the same part of speech, for example: spectacular - effective, addressee - addresser, tactical - tactful.

Lexical units are subdivided in terms of the scope of use. Common called vocabulary, understandable to all native speakers of the Russian language. Uncommon words are used only by one or another social group. These words are jargon(emotionally expressive words that are used by a particular social group and have a correspondence in the literary language), dialectisms(words that are used only by residents of a certain territory), argotisms ( words used in the speech of people of a certain social environment in order to hide the content of speech from representatives of others social groups), professionalism, terms.

Lexical units may be characteristic of only one style of speech, or they may be neutral i.e. to be used in any style.

Depending on the origin, the words are native Russian and borrowed. Native Russian Borrowings(foreign vocabulary) - words that came into the Russian language from other languages ​​​​and are used according to the laws of the Russian language.

Depending on the frequency of use, passive and active vocabulary is distinguished. Vocabulary of everyday use is active (table, house, work, contract, tax, etc.). Passive vocabulary is rarely used. Passive vocabulary includes obsolete words that have gone out of active use. They are divided into two groups: historicisms and archaisms. Historicisms - words denoting objects, phenomena that are not in modern life: corvee, quitrent, veche, arshin. Archaisms- words whose lexical meaning has changed. Archaisms have synonyms in the modern Russian language, because the objects and phenomena denoted by these words have not been lost. For example, forehead (forehead), fingers (fingers), shame (spectacle), shuytsa (left hand), right hand (right hand). In addition to obsolete words, passive vocabulary includes neologisms(new vocabulary units). Neologisms can be individually-author's and general language. Individual author's neologisms belong to book speech, are created consciously, are not widely used, and are not recorded in dictionaries. Such neologisms are created in order to give expressiveness to speech. General language neologisms arise when there is a need to name the desired subject.

2. The concept of lexical norm and typical lexical errors

Lexical norms- word usage rules:

the use of words in accordance with their meaning, stylistic coloring, evaluative properties;

correct combination of words (semantic and lexical).

Typical lexical errors are associated with a violation of the norms of word usage.

Using a word without regard to its lexical meaning

ignorance of the lexical meaning of the word

the influence of paronomasia, i.e. sound similarity of words with different roots: mirage - turn, injection - infection

desire for euphemism -: This phenomenon is not given enough attention. Uncomfortable in the workshop: it is in disrepair.

b) Violation of lexical compatibility

Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. Some words have free compatibility, i.e. easily combined with other words: hard work, hard task, difficult character; others are limited to one or two uses: pitch darkness, pouring rain, tribute. The limited lexical compatibility of certain words is explained by their use in special meanings. Polysemantic words are selectively combined with other words: in each case, it is necessary to take into account the specific meaning of the word. For example, you can say deep night, but you can't deep evening; you can say the Velvet season, but you can't velvet autumn.

In many cases, the ban on word compatibility is imposed by linguistic tradition: play a role(norm - play the role), have features (perform functions). Intentional incompatibility is a vivid means of expression often used by humorous writers to give a comical tone to speech. For example: It is difficult to forgive other people's shortcomings, even more difficult to forgive other people's virtues..

Causes of violation of lexical compatibility:

association with a phrase that is close in meaning, for example , In deep childhood, his favorite pastime was the game of war;

the emotional-expressive coloring of words is not taken into account: the combination of words of different expressive coloring (negative and positive expression): All notorious specialists were invited to an international conference. There is a comic expression;

bad choice of synonym: This event took place a few days ago(right - happened);

mix of paronyms: At the first meeting, Dina did not perceiveUmov seriously.

pleonasm (a speech error that occurs in a phrase in which one of the words is superfluous, because its meaning duplicates the meaning of another word);

tautology (unjustified repetition of cognate words in a sentence);

c) Violation of semantic compatibility

Logical compatibility is determined by the connection of objects and phenomena of reality.

Causes of violation of semantic compatibility

Mixing paronyms. Some paronyms differ in meaning (shades of meanings), some only in lexical compatibility. When mixing paronyms that have different semantic shades, semantic errors arise. For example, This is the critical moment of the game.(full of criticism - critical, turning point - critical).

False associations arising under the influence of paronomasia (sound similarity of words with different roots). For example, Motorcycle shows are always a real celebration of stuntmen and spectators, here you can see suchmirages (right - turns).

The use of a polysemantic word without taking into account semantic compatibility ( low health in meaning poor health, low knowledge etc.).

Convergence of words by adjacency (metonymic replacement of the desired word): prices are expensive.

Careless use of antonyms. Because of their weakness the decision was postponed for a week.

3. Violation of accuracy, clarity, consistency, brevity of speech as a result of lexical errors

Lexical errors can lead to a violation of the brevity of speech. Verbosity is the use of words and phrases that carry optional, unnecessary information. For example: Still not doing well enough to meet commitments(instead of Commitments are still not being fulfilled well enough; Passion for computer games is one of the most important signs of the times, a modern phenomenon.(instead of Passion for computer games is one of the most important signs of the times(or modern phenomenon)).

Typical lexical errors that violate the brevity of speech are pleonasm and tautology.

Pleonasm is the use of words that are close in meaning and therefore superfluous. For example: The expression on her face is very expressive.(facial expressions- that's the facial expression ; Loud applause and ovations erupted(applause and ovation- synonyms).

Tautology is the repetition of the same or the same root words in one sentence. For example: heavy rain, ask a question. The tautology can be hidden, it is found in sentences in which a Russian and a foreign word with the same meaning is used. Their similarity is found when translating a foreign word into Russian. For example: memorial monument (memorial- serving to perpetuate the memory of someone) , souvenir(souvenir- a keepsake).

Intentional repetition of words and forms is a means of semantic and emotionally expressive expressiveness: bitter grief, vanity of vanities, live and live. In a number of cases, tautological expressions have become fixed in speech due to changes in the meaning of a particular word and the absence of the necessary equivalent in the language. Yes, the expression patriot of his country became permissible because the word patriot in addition to the meaning “loving the homeland”, it acquired an additional meaning - “loving something, devoted to something”: patriot of his land, patriot of his school. entrenched in speech and expression used book and reality.

Thus, knowledge of lexical norms is one of the conditions for good speech, since lexical norms contribute to the accurate expression of thoughts without verbosity, idle talk, provide clarity and consistency of the statement.

Lexical errors can be avoided by using dictionaries.

Explanatory dictionaries fix the lexical meaning of the word. In dictionaries of foreign words the source language is indicated, the meaning of the word and examples of its use are given.

In phraseological dictionaries the meanings of phraseological units are presented, i.e. set expressions, the value of which is not derived from their constituent components.

You can also use dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, dictionaries of lexical compatibility. In the dictionaries of synonyms, synonymous series are given, it is indicated general meaning each row, the difference of synonyms from each other is noted, examples of the use of synonyms are given, sometimes the origin of the word.

These dictionaries reflect the richness of the Russian language and are the most important means of raising the level of human speech culture: enriching speech, forming the accuracy and clarity of speech.

Literature

Reference books

Vvedenskaya L.A., Pavlova L.G., Kashaeva E.Yu. Russian language and culture of speech: Tutorial for universities. 14th ed. - Rostov n / D: Phoenix, 2005. - 544 p.

Ippolitova N.A., Knyazeva O.Yu., Savova M.R. Russian language and culture of speech: a course of lectures / Ed. ON THE. Ippolitova. - M .: TK Velby, Publishing House Prospekt, 2007. - 344 p.

Culture of Russian speech: Textbook for universities / Ed. ed. d.ph.s., prof. OK. Graudina and Doctor of Philological Sciences, prof. E.N. Shiryaev. – M.: Norma, 2006. – 560 p.

Russian language and culture of speech: Textbook for universities / A.I. Dunev, M.Ya. Dymarsky, A.Yu. Kozhevnikov and others; Ed. V.D. Chernyak. - M .: Higher school; S.-Pb.: Publishing house of the Russian State Pedagogical University im. A.I. Herzen, 2002.

Belchikov Yu.A., Panyusheva M.S. Dictionary of paronyms of the Russian language. M., 1994.

Krysin A.P. Dictionary foreign words. M., 1998.

Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. M., 1984.

Dictionary of new words of the Russian language. Ed. N.Z. Kotelova. St. Petersburg, 1995.

Dictionary of homonyms of the Russian language. M., 1974.

Dictionary of compatibility of words of the Russian language. M., 1983.

Modern dictionary of foreign words. M., 2000.

Thematic dictionary of the Russian language. Ed. V.V. Morkovkin. M., 2000.

Dictionary Russian language at the end of the 20th century. / Ch. ed. Sklyarevskaya G.N. - St. Petersburg, 2000.

Phraseological dictionary of the Russian literary language: In 2 volumes / Compiled by A.I. Fedorov. – M.: Citadel, 1997.

Word matching and accuracy

The accuracy of speech requires not only knowledge of the semantics of words, but also the ability to take them into account. compatibility - the ability to connect with other words in context. It is in the context, in combination with other words, that the semantics of the word is realized, clarity and certainty are acquired. It is known that the compatibility of words is determined by their lexical features, grammatical properties, stylistic coloring. In accordance with this, three types of compatibility can be distinguished: lexical, grammatical (syntactic) and stylistic. The boundaries between them in specific acts of communication are very fuzzy; all types of compatibility are organically interconnected.

Lexical compatibility determined by the semantic features of the word. Depending on the lexical meaning of the word, there are two main types of it - free and not free, limited by a fairly strict list of words. In the first case, we mean the compatibility of words with a direct, nominative meaning. It is due to the subject-logical nature of words, it is based on the semantic incompatibility of lexemes. For example, the verb to take is combined with words denoting objects that can be "taken in hands, grabbed with hands, teeth, any devices": take a stick, pen, spoon, knife, glass, lamp, branch, etc. Such lexical connections correspond to real, logical connections and relations of objects, concepts, expressed by matching words.

The boundaries of the lexical compatibility of words with a nominative, or direct, meaning are determined primarily by the subject-logical relationships in reality of the denotations of the corresponding words.

The combination of words that are semantically incompatible with each other leads to alogisms (voiced silence, ordinary miracle, smart fool, trudge fast, etc.).

Non-free compatibility is due to intra-linguistic, semantic relationships and relationships. It is typical for words with phraseologically related meanings. Compatibility in this case is selective, lexemes are not combined with all semantically compatible ones. For example, the adjective inevitable is combined with the nouns death, death, failure, but not combined with the nouns victory, life, success, etc.

The rules of lexical compatibility are of a dictionary nature, they are individual for each word and are not yet sufficiently codified and fully codified. Therefore, one of the most common mistakes in speech is the violation of norms.

Stylistically unmotivated, unintentional violations of lexical compatibility lead to inaccurate speech, and sometimes to unjustified comedy. For example: At the meeting, the achieved shortcomings were sharply criticized (the lexeme lack is not semantically combined with the lexeme achieved).

Grammar(syntactic) compatibility of a word is determined by its grammatical meaning, belonging to a particular class or category. The laws of grammatical compatibility are manifested, for example, in the fact that adjectives are easily combined with nouns (an interesting interlocutor, a cheerful person, green leaves, etc.) and are not combined with cardinal numbers and verbs. Or the compatibility of collective nouns majority, minority is limited to words denoting objects that can be counted (most students, workers, cities, parks, etc.), and words like group, population, people, intelligentsia, in the collective meaning of which the concept of what -the number of homogeneous single objects. The combinations of the majority / minority type of time, space, and rest that occur in speech are erroneous.

Stylistic compatibility associated with the stylistic connotations of language units. Stylistically marked words are freely combined with lexemes that have identical coloring. Neutral words that have bookish and colloquial synonyms are freely combined only with neutral ones (N + N): to talk nonsense, a bad habit, to be stubborn in vain, to tell the truth; bookish - with bookish (K + K): speak the truth, vainly persist, persecute, sing of valor; colloquial - with colloquial (R + R): chatting nonsense, bad habits. Combinations of words with different stylistic coloring are limited in use. So, the phrases to utter stupidity (N + K), bad habits (N + P), vainly stubborn (K + P) are permissible only with a specific stylistic purpose.

Stylistic restrictions on the compatibility of words, in comparison with grammatical and lexical ones, do not have the character of absolute, "hard" norms. In this case, much depends not only on the stylistic marking of words, but also on the specific conditions of their use. The combination of stylistically contrasting words is justified in a playful or ironic context. Here, stylistic restrictions are deliberately violated in order to create irony, humor, satire. For example, I. Ilf in "Notes" next to the high word radiant uses a vulgar mug: "They wandered knee-deep in the water of the Pacific Ocean, and a magnificent sunset illuminated their radiant-drunk hari ...".

Unmotivated violation of the boundaries of stylistic compatibility leads to stylistic inconsistency, stylistically unjustified comedy, i.e. to stylistic errors. Whether the combination of stylistically heterogeneous words is a mistake or a stylistic device can only be determined on the basis of an analysis of a specific text.

Violation of lexical compatibility as a speech error

The lecture considers compatibility as a property of lexical units, analyzes typical mistakes associated with incompatibility

Lexical word compatibility

The lecture considers compatibility as a property of lexical units, analyzes typical errors associated with violation of compatibility.

Lecture plan

9.1 Word compatibility

9.2. Compatibility violation

9.3. Types of word compatibility

9.4 Violation of compatibility as a stylistic device

9.1. Word compatibility

When using words in speech, it is always necessary to take into account the features word compatibility- their ability to connect with each other.

The possibilities of compatibility are largely determined by the semantic features of the word, its meaning.

For example, the combination of the word strong used in different meanings can be represented as follows:

Though the words hatred and envy, like love, means "feelings" rain, heat and humidity, like frost, wind, refer to "weather and climatic conditions", however, it is impossible to say: * strong hatred, envy (you can: strong love); * hard rain, strong heat, humidity (but: strongfreezing).

§ 9 .2. Violation of compatibility

The compatibility of a word is determined by the semantic (semantic) features of words, however, it has its own boundaries.

For example:

1) Unlike the word wash, its synonym wash is combined only with the names of objects made of fabric, or having the properties of fabric.

2) Boost you can do what we apply the parameter to tall:

high yield - increase yield;

high speed - increase speed.

Therefore, one cannot say: “to improve the training of specialists” (only: improve preparation...),"increase the output of machine tools" (to increase the output of machine tools).

Combinations of words that contain deny-each other semantic features: Because of the imminent departure. Pretext due to implies that the action has already taken place, but the adjective forthcoming suggests the opposite. It should be said: in view of the imminent departure.

Errors in word combinations may be due to the fact that one of the words is used only in relation to something negative, bad, and the other means, on the contrary, something positive, good. For example: hordes (-) of workers (+); due to (+) disease (-).

9 .3. Types of word compatibility

As you can see, the combination of words into phrases can run into all sorts of restrictions. Depending on the restrictions governing the combination of words, there are different types of compatibility:

1) semantic compatibility;

2) lexical compatibility;

3) stylistic compatibility.

Semantic compatibility is determined by the meaning of words, as well as subject-logical relations between objects of the surrounding world. So, semantic compatibility is broken in the following examples:

borrow money from someone word borrow has the meaning "to lend, for temporary use", so it should have been said: borrow money from someone

most of the time - word majority combined with words denoting objects that can be counted: painmajority of writers, majority of villages, majority of votes; since the collective meaning contains the concept of a certain number of homogeneous single objects; the word does not satisfy this condition time, so you should say: most of time

believe in inevitable victory- word inevitable close in value to word inevitable, but associated with something undesirable: imminent disaster imminent war imminent gilinen etc.; should have said: believe in inevitable victory;

priority attention - word priority means "simple, requiring implementation in the first place"; these meanings are not applicable to the word Attention; you can say: a main attention, Special attention etc.

Lexical compatibility is determined by the tradition of using words in a language. With From the point of view of the modern language, it is often difficult or even impossible to explain the reasons for the different compatibility of words that are similar in meaning: pay attention to / attach importance to the development of sports. Many combinations of words are fixed by language tradition. These combinations in " ready-made" are included in the vocabulary of native speakers, and the ability to use them is part of a person's linguistic culture. For example, in Russian they don’t say “do a feat”, only accomplish a feat.

Often a violation of lexical compatibility is associated with the incorrect use of polysemantic words:

deep autumn, but not summer, Spring;

deep old age, but not childhood, youth;

deep night, but not day, morning.

Stylistic compatibility is determined by the stylistic and emotionally expressive coloring of the combined words. Stylistically heterogeneous words cannot form the correct combination: A new cowshed and a bathhouse were erected on the collective farm. Bookish, solemn verbs erect and erect do not match with nouns barn and bath. In this sentence, it is better to use the verb built.

9.4. Violation of compatibility as a stylistic device

In the artistic and journalistic styles of speech, the violation of the compatibility of words can be used as a stylistic device that enhances the expressiveness of speech. Violation of the usual connections of words can give them new shades of meaning and create vivid artistic images: Poets walk with their heels on the blade of a knife and cut their barefoot souls into blood (V. Vysotsky); “Tomorrow there was a war” (B. Vasilyev), “Hot snow” (Yu. Bondarev)

On the combination of words with mutually exclusive meanings, such a stylistic device is built as oxymoron. For example: I love magnificent nature withering(A. Pushkin); But beauty them ugly I soon comprehended the sacrament (M. Lermontov); Look, her fun to be sad, such smartly nude(A. Akhmatova).

Stylistic mismatch can be used for comic effect: The forest owner likes to feast on polydrupes and angiosperms ... And when the siverko blows, how dashing bad weather makes fun - the general metabolism of Toptygin sharply slows down, the tone of the gastrointestinal tract decreases with a concomitant increase in the lipid layer. Yes, the minus range of Mikhailo Ivanovich is not terrible: at least where the hairline is, and the epidermis is noble (T. Tolstaya).

Description of the combinational possibilities of the most common words of the Russian language is given in a special dictionary: Compatibility Dictionary of Words of the Russian Language / Ed. P.N. Denisova, V.V. Morkovkin. - M.: Rus. yaz., 1983.

training exercise

Look for errors related to violation of compatibility rules. Test yourself.

1. Some dressed as a bear - in a fur coat turned inside out, some as a goat - pulling on a mask with horns and enlisting a broomstick.

2. He says this with the conviction of a man who has already overestimated some things in life.

3. Shortly before the end of the meeting, the Greek footballers equalized the result.

4. One saint will rise to his full height, and the second, Methodius, as planned by the author, kneeling, should hold a huge cross.

5. Voropaev examined everything that was rushing towards the car with a feeling of great anxiety, as if he was about to recognize a familiar creature in the speeding cavalcade of rocks, bushes and birds.

6. He, a Sukhumi resident, came to the Zhiguli plant after graduation and in six years became its inveterate patriot.

7. Many comments and valuable suggestions were made during the discussion of the issue.

8. Perhaps, while studying at the institute, Pivovarov showed some special merit?

9. Tractors and tractors rescued wood located on the banks of the river.

10. Almost all inveterate mathematicians are in the class.

Introduction

Lexical compatibility is the ability of words to connect with each other. Indeed, in speech, words are used not one at a time, not in isolation, but in phrases.At the same time, some words are freely combined with others if they fit them in meaning, while others have limited lexical compatibility. So, very similar definitions - long, long, long, long - are attracted to nouns in different ways: you can say a long (long) period, but not a long (long) period.

The limitations of lexical compatibility for certain words are often explained by their use in special meanings. For example, the word round in its main meaning - "one that resembles the shape of a circle, ring, ball" - freely connects with the words of the corresponding subject-thematic group: round table, round box; round window. But, speaking in the meaning of “whole, whole, without interruption” (about time), the word round is combined only with nouns year, day, and in the meaning of “full, perfect” - with such as an excellent student, an ignoramus.

In other cases, the reason for limiting lexical compatibility is the assignment of a word to set expressions. For example, the Velvet season- "autumn months (September, October) in the south." This expression has a stable character and it is impossible to replace the word "season" with any other, even the closest in meaning, for example, "velvet autumn".

Violation of lexical compatibility is often explained by the association of similar phrases. For example, they write: “meet modern requirements”, mixing combinations “meet requirements” and “meet needs”; “the conversation was read” (“a lecture was given” and “a conversation was held”); "improve the level" ("improve the quality" and "raise the level").

1. Violation of lexical compatibility

Semantic errors

Violation of lexical compatibility is caused by semantic errors of two types - logical and linguistic.

Logical errors are associated with the indistinguishability of concepts that are close in any respect. Often people do not distinguish between areas of activity, cause and effect, part and whole, related phenomena.

Thus, in the sentence “Residents of a seaside town witnessed a large theatrical performance”, an error is found in the phrase “witnesses of the performance”. The word "witness" means "eyewitness" - this is the name of a person who finds himself at the scene of an incident. This word is associated with the sphere of judicial and legal activity. In the field of theatrical and concert activity, about which in question in the sentence, the word "spectator" is used. This error is associated with a lack of distinction between areas of activity.

The erroneous combination “prices have risen in price” is associated with a lack of distinction between the related concepts of “prices” and “goods”: goods rise in price, and prices rise.

Linguistic errors are associated with the indistinguishability of denoting words that are in any semantic relationship. These are mostly synonyms and paronyms.

The indistinguishability of synonyms that are close or coinciding in meaning of words leads to errors in use.For example, the words "role" and "function" in the sense of "work, circle of activity" are synonymous, but genetically they are associated with different designations: the role - with the sphere of theater and cinema, and the function - with logic. Hence the established lexical compatibility: the role is played (played), and the function is performed (performed). The words "brave" and "brave" are synonymous, but "brave" is associated with outward manifestation called quality, and "bold" - both external and internal, therefore, a thought, a decision, an idea can only be bold, but not brave.

Non-distinguishing of paronyms, i.e. words that partially coincide in sound also lead to errors in use; most paronyms are single-root words that differ in suffixes or prefixes and, as a result, shades of meaning, as well as stylistic coloring.For example, a misdemeanor (offense) is an act (action committed by someone); guilty (who committed a crime) - guilty (guilty of something, violating the rules of morality, politeness, etc.); to pay (for something) - to pay (for something).

Stylistic mistakes

Stylistic errors are a violation of the requirements of the unity of the functional style, the unjustified use of emotionally colored, stylistically marked means. Stylistic errors are associated with ignoring the restrictions that its stylistic coloring imposes on the use of a word.

The most common stylistic mistakes include:

The use of clericalisms - words and phrases characteristic of the official business style.For example, "As the revenue side of my budget increased, I decided to buy a new car for permanent use" - "I began to receive a lot of money, so I decided to buy a new car."

The use of words (expressions) of inappropriate stylistic coloring.So, in a literary context, the use of jargon, vernacular, abusive vocabulary is inappropriate; in a business text, colloquial and expressively colored words should be avoided. For example, "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor" - "The trustee of charitable institutions fawns over the auditor."

Mixing styles -unjustified use in one text of words, syntactic constructions, typical for different styles Russian language. For example, a mixture of scientific and colloquial styles.

A mixture of vocabulary from different historical eras.For example, “On the heroes of chain mail, trousers, mittens” - “On the heroes of chain mail, armor, mittens.”

Wrong construction of the sentence.For example, "Despite his youth, he good man". There are several ways to correct these errors. First, change the word order in the sentence: “There are many works that tell about the author’s childhood in world literature” - “In world literature there are many works that tell about the author’s childhood.”

Secondly, to remake the sentence: “From other sporting events, let's talk about the barbell” - “From other sporting events, barbell competitions should be highlighted.”

Pleonasm is a verbal excess,the use of words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view.

Tautology - the use of single-root words within the boundaries of one sentence. For example, "Tell a story"; "Ask a question."

Lexical repetitions in the text.For example, "In order to study well, students must pay more attention to learning." Words that are repeated should be replaced with synonyms, nouns should be replaced with pronouns, or a repeating word should be removed altogether, if possible - "To achieve success, students must pay more attention to classes."

Concept change.This error occurs as a result of missing a word. For example, “Patients who have not visited the outpatient clinic for three years are laid out in the archive” (we are talking about patient cards, and from the text of the proposal it follows that the patients themselves were handed over to the outpatient clinic).

Choice of singular or plural forms.Often there are problems with the use of the singular or plural. Examples of correct use are combinations: two or more options, three or more forms, there are several options, there are some options.

Word agreement in a sentence. Often there are errors in the agreement of words in a sentence, especially with regard to the control of verbs. For example, "This section talks about opening, working and saving a document" - "This section describes the procedures for opening and saving documents, as well as working with them."

Poverty and monotony of syntactic constructions. For example, “The man was wearing a burnt padded jacket. The quilted jacket was roughly darned. The boots were almost new. Moth-eaten socks" - "The man was dressed in a roughly darned burnt padded jacket. Although the boots were almost new, the socks were moth-eaten.

Stylistically unjustified use of tropes.The use of tropes can cause a variety of speech errors. Unsuccessful imagery of speech is a fairly common flaw in the style of authors who have poor pen skills.

For example, “The judge was just as simple and humble.

2. Errors in the use of borrowed words

AT last years The Russian language is intensively replenished with borrowed words. This is because the country has entered a new socio-political formation, as well as free market relations. Language always responds quickly and flexibly to the needs of society. It can be said without exaggeration that there was a linguistic explosion. However, there is nothing wrong with this, because borrowed words are the result of contacts, relationships between peoples and states.

The presence in one language of words from other languages ​​and their use in speech is an objective reality. The number of such words is constantly increasing due to the penetration of new words and the expansion of the scope of old ones, used in a narrow sense.

Unfortunately, when using borrowed words, many mistakes are made (spelling, orthoepic, grammatical, lexical), which are explained by the special position of foreign words: in a new language for themselves, they have weak family ties(or don't have them at all), so their root for mostnative speakers is confusing, the meaning is unclear, but their modernity is felt in comparison with familiar Russian or borrowed words that have long been mastered.

The most common type of error is associated with the unreasonable use of a foreign word, which does not introduce anything new in comparison with its Russian or a borrowed synonym that has long been mastered.For example, “The presentation of the perfume took place last Friday; The perfume sold well." If the word "perfume" has the meaning of a particular type of perfume, or denotes some class of perfumery, which includes the perfume in question, a comment should be made; if the word "perfume" is used in its direct meaning of "perfume", then the need for its use in this text is highly doubtful.

Among borrowings there is a special group of words denoting concepts that are characteristic of a completely specific country (a number of countries) or people. Such borrowings are called exoticisms.. For example, prairies are flat steppe spaces in North America, and savannahs are plains in South America and Africa, covered with grassy vegetation, among which groups of trees and shrubs are scattered. Exoticisms are quite appropriate in texts describing the reality with which these words are correlated (here it is necessary to ensure that the prairies do not end up in South America, and the savannas - in North).

I would also like to note that the incorrect use of borrowed words leads to the following errors:

Violation of orthoepic norms.

This section includes errors in the pronunciation of borrowings, as well as incorrect placement of stress in foreign words. For example, "expert instead of expert, kv" artal instead of quart "al, cat" alog instead of catal "og", kilo "meters instead of kilo" meters.

Spelling violation.For example, the word "billiard" instead of "billiards".

Violation of grammatical norms.For example, "two shampoos", "two shoes" is the wrong gender.

Violation of the rules of word compatibility. For example, "Only here there were interesting nuances."

Conclusion

Analyzing the above, we can distinguish a number of features of the violation of lexical compatibility, namely:

Errors are predominant in relation to grammatical and stylistic norms proper. The leading types of violations in the field of vocabulary are the use of words in an unusual meaning, the indistinguishability of the meanings of synonyms and paronyms;

Are characterized by "genre stability";

Possess "quality stability". This is a misnomer and combination.

To a greater extent, words of certain parts of speech are subject to misuse (primarily verbs that have specific features of lexical meaning, as a rule, the presence of a differential feature that specifies compatibility), words that are in certain systemic relationships (a significant number of synonyms, a branched semantic structure, etc.). .P.).

The compatibility of words plays a particularly important role in artistic speech. The expansion of the usual connections of words, giving them new shades of meaning, underlies many classic images of great masters of artistic speech: “a gray winter threat” (A.S. Pushkin), “pot-bellied walnut bureau” (N.V. Gogol), “rubber thought” (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). Humorists often resort to violation of lexical compatibility to give speech a comic connotation. For example, "The population of the circulation ark fell asleep"; "an apple with a mole" (I. Ilf and E. Petrov). This stylistic device underlies various jokes: “The genius was recognized alive; "He was appointed director of his own free will."

In search of unexpected images, vivid speech expression, poets especially often expand their lexical compatibility. Suffice it to recall the classic lines of M.Yu. Lermontov: “Sometimes he falls passionately in love with his elegant sadness”; A.A. Feta: “September has died. And the dahlias burned with the breath of the night "; B. Pasternak: “February. Get ink and cry! Write about February sobbing. This stylistic device is also appreciated by contemporary poets: small forest asked alms for snow from greedy or impoverished skies "(B. Akhmadulina). When using words that have extremely limited possibilities of lexical connections, a violation of compatibility often causes a comic sound of speech: "Students worked on their experimental site as the most notorious specialists"; “Children, dejected by experience, came to the circle of young naturalists.” Lexical errors in such cases cause damage not only to the style, but also to the content of the phrase, because the associations that arise in this case suggest the opposite meaning. , and in other cases, it will allow you to use unusual combinations of words to create vivid images or as a source of humor.

Bibliography

Bragina A.A. Neologisms in Russian. M. - 1995.

Fomenko Yu.V. Types of speech errors. Novosibirsk - 1994.

Zeitlin S.N. Speech errors and their prevention. M. - 1982.