How to distinguish a drawing from an engraving. How to distinguish a genuine engraving from a fake. Various manners and techniques of etching

Engraving (French gravure, from graver - cut; German graben - dig) -
1) any image made using engraving, that is, cutting, scratching on a stone, on a wooden board or on metal;
2) a type of graphic art, which includes works (engravings) created by printing from an engraved form (board); 3) a printed impression (print) on paper (or some similar material) from a plate on which a drawing is cut.

View of the Caralez Valley 1824. Artist Karl von Kügelgen (Johann Karl Ferdinand von Kügelgen, 1772 - 1832). Lithography

According to the established tradition, engraving is also called lithography, in which engraving (cutting, scratching) is not used. Depending on the method of processing the printing plate, there are convex (xylography, linocut), in-depth (engravings on metal) and flat (lithography) engraving. In turn, in engraving on metal, there are mechanical methods for creating a printing plate (cutting engraving, “dry needle”, mezzotint) and chemical ones - by etching an image with acid (etching, “soft varnish”, lavis, dotted line). The specificity of engraving as an art form lies in its circulation - the ability to obtain many prints from one printing plate.

Engraving has been known for a very long time. The simplest prints are still made by children, imprinting raised designs or tinting coins and pressing them onto paper. By their very nature, all engraving techniques come from crafts: from carved heels, with which a design is applied to fabric, from jewelry, which uses metal carving and etching, from weapon decorating techniques. It is no coincidence that engraving moved from crafts to paper - a person always wanted to repeat a drawing, a picture, an ornament, a sign without changes, preserving their accuracy and beauty. Therefore, first in China, and then in Europe, they began to engrave what they wanted to replicate - images of saints, popular sheets, playing cards and books. And now there is an engraving in every house - these are stamps, and paper money, and illustrations in some old books, and the books themselves.

The most ancient engravings - woodcuts (woodcuts) - appeared in the 6th-7th centuries in China and then in Japan. And the first European engravings began to be printed only at the end of the 14th century in southern Germany. They were absolutely simple in design, without frills, sometimes painted by hand with paints. These were leaflets with pictures on scenes from the Bible and church history. For the population unable to read, such leaflets and sermons were the only source of knowledge of the Holy Scriptures, and, probably, allegorical images, alphabets, and calendars appeared at the same time. Around 1430, the first "block" (woodcut) books were made, during the publication of which the image and text were cut out on one board, and around 1461, the first book was typed, illustrated with woodcuts. In fact, the printed book of the time of Johannes Gutenberg was itself an engraving, since the text in it is laid out and multiplied by prints from relief clichés.

The desire to make a color image and “draw” not only with lines, but also with a spot, “sculpt” chiaroscuro and give tone, led to the invention of the “chiaroscuro” color woodcut, in which printing was carried out from several boards using the basic colors of the color spectrum. It was invented and patented by the Venetian Hugo da Carpi (c. 1455 - c. 1523). This technique, however, was laborious, and it was rarely used - its "second birth" occurred only at the end of the 19th century.

So, woodcut allows you to make a lot of prints - until the "original" is erased. And the further history of inventions in engraving was directly dependent on the desire to increase the number of prints, bring the drawing to greater complexity and reproduce the smallest details even more accurately. So, almost after woodcuts - at the end of the 15th century. - a cutting engraving on metal (copper board) appeared, which made it possible to work in a drawing more flexibly, to vary the width and depth of the line, to convey light and moving outlines, to make the tone thicker with different shadings, to more accurately reproduce what the artist intended - in fact, to make a drawing of any complexity. The most significant masters who worked in this technique were the Germans - Albrecht Dürer, Martin Schongauer and the Italians - Antonio Pollaiolo and Andrea Mantegna.

If Durer's woodcuts, made by him at the end of the 15th century, were sold by his wife from a cart right on the market, then his “master engravings”, made 20 years later with a cutter on metal (including a dry needle), were already recognized masterpieces and were valued like genuine works of art. So, finally, the 16th century appreciated engraving as a high art - similar to painting, but using graphic drawing with its technical intrigue and peculiar beauty. So, the outstanding masters of the XVI century. they turned engraving from mass applied material into high art with their own language, their own themes. These are the engravings of Albrecht Dürer, Luke of Leiden, Marco Antonio Raimondi, Titian, Pieter Brueghel the Elder, Parmigianino, Altdorfer, Urs Graf, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Hans Baldung Grin and many other outstanding masters.

By the end of the 16th century, engraving on metal reached perfection: a simple drawing was replaced by rich plasticity, the most complex methods of parallel and cross hatching, with which artists achieved original effects of chiaroscuro and volume. This general desire to achieve complex chiaroscuro effects and a more refined pattern led to experiments with the chemical effect on the board - with etching, and, ultimately, contributed to the birth of a new technique - etching, which flourished in the 17th century. It was the time of the best master engravers, different in temperament, tastes, tasks and attitude to technology. Rembrandt made individual prints, achieving the most complex light and shade effects by etching and shading on different papers. Jacques Callot etched his life and engraved a whole universe of portraits, scenes, human types; Claude Lorrain reproduced all his paintings in etchings so that they would not be faked. He called the book of etchings he collected "The Book of Truth". Peter Paul Rubens even arranged a special workshop where copies of his paintings were made in engravings, Anthony van Dyck engraved a whole series of portraits of his contemporaries with an etching needle.

At this time, a variety of genres were represented in etching - portrait, landscape, pastoral, battle scene; image of animals, flowers and fruits. In the XVIII century, almost all major masters try their hand at etching - A. Watteau, F. Boucher, O. Fragonard - in France, J. B. Tiepolo, J. D. Tiepolo, A. Canaletto, F. Guardi - in Italy. Large series of engraving sheets appear, united by themes, plots, sometimes they are collected into entire books, such as, for example, satirical sheets by W. Hogarth and genre miniatures by D. Chodovetsky, architectural vedus by J. B. Piranesi or a series of etchings with aquatint by F. Goya.
The flourishing of engraving techniques is largely due to the need for a rapidly developing book publishing. And the love of art, which constantly demanded more and more accurate reproductions of famous paintings, contributed to the development of reproduction engraving. The main role that engraving played in society was comparable to photography. It was the need for reproduction that led to a large number of technical discoveries in engraving at the end of the 18th century. This is how varieties of etching appeared - dotted line (when tone transitions are created by thickening and rarefaction of points stuffed with special pointed rods - punches), aquatint (i.e., colored water; a drawing on a metal board is etched with acid through asphalt or rosin dust applied to it), lavis (when the drawing is applied with an acid-moistened brush directly to the board, and when printed, the paint fills the etched places), pencil style (reproduces the rough and grainy stroke of a pencil). Apparently, for the second time at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th century, the mezzotint tone engraving, invented back in 1643, was discovered.

An even greater development of reproduction technology was facilitated by the invention by the Englishman Thomas Buick in the 1780s of end woodcuts. Now the artist did not depend on the structure of the wood fibers, as it was before, when he was dealing with a longitudinal cut, now he worked on a cross cut of hard wood and could create more complex and sophisticated compositions with a chisel.

The next "revolution" occurred in 1796, when Aloysius Senefelder came up with lithography - a flat print from a stone. This technique saved the artist from the mediation of a reproductionist - now he himself could draw a picture on the surface of the stone and print it without resorting to the services of carvers-engravers. From the 2nd quarter of the 19th century, with the growing popularity of lithography, the era of mass printed graphics began, and this was connected, first of all, with book publishing. Engravings illustrated fashion magazines, satirical magazines, albums of artists and travelers, textbooks and manuals. Everything was engraved - botanical atlases, country history books, "booklets" with city sights, landscapes, poetry collections and novels. And when the attitude towards art changed in the 19th century - artists were finally no longer considered artisans, and graphics left the role of a servant of painting, the revival of the original engraving, self-valuable in its artistic features and techniques of printmaking, began. Representatives of romanticism - E. Delacroix, T. Gericault, French landscape painters - C. Corot, J. F. Millet and C. F. Daubigny, impressionists - Auguste Renoir, Edgar Degas and Pizarro played their role here. In 1866, a society of aquafortists was created in Paris, whose members were E. Manet, E. Degas, J. M. Whistler, J. B. Jongkind. They were engaged in the publication of author's albums of etchings. Thus, for the first time, an association of artists was created who dealt with the actual problems of engraving art, the search for new forms, which designated their occupations as a special kind of artistic activity. In 1871, such a society was founded in St. Petersburg with the participation of N. Ge, I. Kramskoy and. Shishkin.

Further, the development of engraving was already in line with the search for its original language. By the 20th century, the history of engraving techniques and this art itself seemed to close the cycle: from simplicity, engraving came to complexity, and having reached it, it again began to look for expressive sharpness of a laconic stroke and generalization to a sign. And, if for four centuries she tried to avoid exposing her material, now she is again interested in its possibilities.

A significant phenomenon in the history of printed graphics of the late 19th - early 20th century was the flourishing of the Russian and Soviet school of engraving, represented by a large number of talented artists and several major phenomena of European artistic life, such as the St. Petersburg association "World of Art", avant-garde movements of the first years of the twentieth century , form-creative searches for the graphs of the Favorsky circle and unofficial art of the 1960-80s.

Woodcut
Woodcut (from the Greek xylon - tree, grapho - I draw), a type of woodcut. To create such an engraving, the design is cut out on a wooden board, covered with ink, and printed on paper or a similar material. Distinguish edged and tone (reproduction) engraving. It has been known in Western European art since the end of the 14th century, color woodcuts from several boards - from the 15th century.

Linocut
Linocut (from "linoleum" and "engraving") - a type of engraving, to create which the image is cut on linoleum or other polymer base and then printed on a sheet of paper. Invented at the beginning of the 20th century, it is close to woodcuts in its techniques. The simplest of letterpress printing techniques.

Lithography
Lithography (from the Greek lythos - stone, grapho - I draw) is a type of printed graphics, usually referred to as engraving (although there are no engraving techniques in it), in which the image is printed from a flat stone surface. The principle of work lies in the name itself - from Greek it translates as "I draw on a stone."

Etching
Etching (French eau-forte, Italian acquaforte [aquaforte] - “strong, strong water”, i.e. nitric acid) is a type of engraving in which the chemical etching process replaces the mechanical method of processing the board with various engraving tools. It became widespread from the end of the 16th century.

Cutting engraving
Cutter engraving is the oldest type of engraving on metal. The drawing is applied to the surface of a metal board (most often copper) with sharp engravers. Then the surface of the board is thoroughly cleaned of chips with a smoothing scraper, the paint is rolled with a roller so that it fills the grooves of the pattern, the paint is carefully wiped off the smooth surfaces and an impression is made.

Silk screen printing (English silk screen printing - printing from silk fabric, silk screen printing) is a type of screen printing in which an image is applied with oil or water paints on a mesh (originally made of silk or other durable matter) stretched over a frame.

The main feature of a lithographic print is the absence of any onslaught in all elements of the image. The ink lies evenly on the surface of the paper.

In the places of the sheet outside the stone, the paper has its own texture, but in the places in contact with the stone, its surface is leveled from the pressure of the raber (a raber is a long bar pointed at the bottom in a lithographic printing press that presses the paper against the stone when the stone is superimposed on it paper is dragged under the rib).

In very rare cases, an onslaught similar to the onslaught in metal engravings can be on an impression from a lithograph on an aluminum or zinc plate (alggraphy) made on an etching or some other machine.

But these two cases are an exception, and in general, as we have already said, there is no onslaught in lithography.

Lithographs made with a pencil on rooted stone are characterized by strokes consisting of small dots of irregular shape, irregular and of different sizes.

In old lithographs, there was a fine, even graining, on which the drawing was made with smooth tonal transitions, achieved by even shading with a pencil. Needle work is often seen, weakening the tone in the right places in the pattern.

The asphalt scraping technique is clearly distinguishable from other techniques with a white pattern on a black background. The tonality is also formed from dots, similar in shape to dots in pencil lithography, but white on black.

The work with the needle is not auxiliary, as in the previous case, but defining the image.

Lithography on a smooth stone almost does not differ in appearance from drawings with a pen, brush or in any other way, but without streaks and unevenness about the paint layer, characteristic of these drawings. On the lithographic print, we see a smooth surface of paint with the absence of any pressure on paper and paint, typical for lithography.

From the 40s. 19th century lithographs were often painted with watercolors.

Circulations were often printed from a transfer to another stone, which preserved the original stone and made it possible to print from several stones at once. Translations were usually republished.

After the invention of the new method, Firmin Gilot began to make transfers of lithography to zinc. Such translations were placed in one printed form with a set, which facilitated and reduced the cost of printing. These translations, or, as they were called, bilotazh, were also published as separate sheets in series and, like lithographs, were painted with watercolors.

An example of such publications is Gavarni's Masks and Faces series. The first edition was printed from the original stones, the second - from the transfer to a smooth stone and the third - from the vests. All three editions were colored in watercolor.

Transfers from the original stone to another stone, and even more so to zinc, entailed, of course, some losses in the drawing. Therefore, artists who made lithographs for transfer to zinc deliberately coarsened their work so that, in the end, the drawing would not lose its details during translation. Delacroix, for example, did this when he made originals for magazine waistcoats.

Zincographic translations from lithographs differ from lithographs by the onslaught typical of letterpress printing and the roundness of printing elements characteristic of the etched form. Strokes, on the other hand, have jagged edges from undercuts (see below for zincography).

Later, lithography, in turn, was used to print translations of engravings on metal and woodcuts from stone, as mentioned above. Such prints are determined by the already mentioned features of lithography in the style of a particular engraving technique.

At the end of the 19th century Lithography began to be widely used for reproduction in color of paintings and color graphics. These are the so-called chromolithographs, in the manufacturing process of which a large number of stones were used, conveying many shades of color and tone.

The most characteristic feature of this type of lithography, in addition to a large number of printing plates (12-20 stones), is the transfer of tonal and color transitions by a combination of dots applied with a pen on a smooth stone.

engraving printing technique authenticity

Lithography (from the Greek. lythos- stone, grapho- I draw) - a type of printed graphics, usually referred to as engraving (although there are no engraving techniques in it), in which the image is printed from a flat surface of a stone.

The principle of work lies in the name itself - from Greek it translates as "I draw on a stone." Since the image is not cut through and the printed surface has no relief, the lithography technique is referred to as "flat printing". An image is drawn on a carefully polished stone of a special kind of bluish, yellowish or gray limestone - with a special fat pencil, pen or brush. Then the surface of the stone is etched with a solution of gum arabic or nitric acid, while the pattern remains unetched, since the acid does not act on fat. Then greasy printing ink is applied to the moistened stone - it is fixed only in the drawing, literally repeating it, and will not stick to the etched surfaces of the stone. After that, the stone is fixed in the machine and an impression is made.

Lithography, which the artist makes himself from beginning to end, without giving his drawing to the work of a reproductionist, is called autolithography (Greek autos - self, independent). At the end of the XIX century. the technique of color lithography was born - chromolithography (from the Greek chromos - color) from several stones or plates (i.e., mixed colors are obtained by overlaying paints of three primary colors one on top of the other).

Lithography is one of the most common engraving techniques. It was invented almost by accident in 1796 by the actor, playwright and musician from Bohemia Aloysius Senefelder, who was in dire need of a fast and cheap way to print music. One day he wrote down the bill from the washerwoman in greasy ink on a stone and suddenly discovered that prints could be obtained from this stone. He appreciated his discovery with dignity - in 1806 he opened his own printing house in Munich, and in 1818 he published a manual on lithographic printing. Since that time, lithography has actually conquered the book market and the field of printed graphics, displacing woodcuts. Its popularity was also explained by the fact that for a long time there was a need for such printed graphics that would best convey a pencil stroke, a brushstroke, but most importantly, would allow the artist himself to make an engraving without using the services of engravers. By the way, that is why lithography was widely introduced into book printing in the 19th century. in the countries of Islam, where non-handwritten technical reproduction of the holy book of the Koran was prohibited.

Lithography gave the artist complete freedom, but there was also a danger in it - the loss of the features of graphic technology as such, turning into a copy of the drawing with an ordinary pencil, sanguine, watercolor, etc. Linearity and clear contouring do not suit lithography, because its beauty and charm are in rough, velvety stroke, thick or translucent shadows, airy complexity of space. It is due to the ease of drawing that it has become widely used for printing posters, fashion pictures, magazine illustrations, leaflets. And for its expressive qualities, French and English romantics, Barbizons, Impressionists and Symbolists of the late 19th century fell in love.

In the first half of the XIX century. lithography also attracted Russian artists who worked in portrait and landscape - O. Kiprensky, A. Venetsianov, K. Bryullov. A little later, in the 2nd half of the XIX century. genre lithographs, satirical sheets, caricature and book illustration appeared. At the same time, a number of major artists turned to lithography - I. Shishkin in landscape, I. Repin in genre scenes, V. Serov - in portrait. If in the first half - the middle of the XIX century. lithographic technique was used primarily as a convenient reproduction method, then from the 1900s. an original lithography is born - artists are looking for ways to reveal its possibilities, without turning it into a simple duplication of a pencil, sanguine, charcoal, etc. Representatives of the artistic association "World of Art" worked very successfully in this direction - A. Benois, A. Ostroumova-Lebedeva, M. Dobuzhinsky, P. Kuznetsov.
In the era of the avant-garde, in the 1910s, lithography was widely used in the publications of cubo-futurist poets. At this time, lithographed books were widely used, which were illustrated by the outstanding avant-garde artists A. Lentulov, N. Goncharova, O. Rozanova, M. Larionov.

In Soviet times, lithography also had its significant masters. Eminent artists worked in lithography graphic artists V. Lebedev, N. Tyrsa, N. Kupreyanov, E. Charushin, K. Rudakov, E. Kibrik, A. Kaplan and others. Experimental lithographic workshops provided ample opportunities for the development and improvement of technology.

In the 2nd half of the XX century. lithography is in demand by representatives of unofficial art, the "second Russian avant-garde", conceptualists such as M. Grobman, I. Makarevich, D. Plavinsky, M. Shemyakin and many others.

Engraving (fr. graver - cut) is a type of graphic art that allows you to get prints from printing plates. These forms are made of metal, wood, plastic and other materials. The prints themselves are also called engravings.

There are various techniques and techniques for creating engravings. It is obtained using intaglio, flat or letterpress printing, which differ from each other in the arrangement of the elements of the printing form compared to the blank elements. So, for gravure printing plates they are concave, for letterpress printing they are raised, and for flat printing they are at the same level.

Next, we will consider the main techniques with which engravings have been made since ancient times. Almost all of them relate to metal engraving and gravure printing. However, some techniques use mechanical way engraving (dry point, mezzotint, cutter, dotted line, pencil style), while others use chemical method(classic etching, aquatint, lavis, soft varnish, pencil style).

Cutter engraving (cutter)

A cutting engraving is created using a special tool - a chisel (German: Stichel - a cutter). It requires high precision, great effort, patience from the engraver and can take several weeks or even months.

Before work, the master thoroughly polishes the metal plate, creates an image on it with the help of a jewelry punch (sharp tool) and proceeds to detailed processing of the drawing with a chisel. Before printing, ink is rubbed into the plate, its excess is removed and prints are made.

Distinctive features of incisive engraving:

• the points are triangular in shape, as they are placed by the end of the engraver;
• strokes have sharp ends on one or both sides (at the entry or exit points of the engraver from the plate);
• due to the significant pressure on the engraver, the lines turn out to be stiff and change their thickness with different immersion of the tool.

Dry Needle

Drypoint engraving is so called because it does not cover the surface of the plate with varnish and without etching (chemical engraving techniques are presented below).

For this technology, needles of different sizes, a scraper and a trowel are used. First, the metal plate is prepared for work: they grind, polish, process the edge and corners. Then the desired pattern is applied to the plate using a graphite pencil or a thin needle, and the process of engraving itself begins.

The nature of the final image depends on the type of needle selected and the degree of pressure on the tool. If the master presses the needle weakly, then a line with clean edges is obtained, with strong pressure, the edges of the lines become torn with notches and burrs (barbs) rising up. During printing, the ink fills these recesses and accumulates near the barbs, due to which the image is very rich and velvety.

Drypoint engraving can be distinguished by the following features:

• lines have sharp ends (often in the form of hooks);
• velvety streaks of paint may occur on the strokes if the barbs were not erased due to numerous prints or were not removed forcibly;
• angular and straight lines predominate.

dotted manner

This technique involves applying a system of dots of various shapes and sizes to the engraving plate.

In the process of work, the master can use punches with ends of different sharpness and shape (in the form of a triangle, square, etc.), a matuar and an engraving hammer. Using tools of different shapes, as well as different degrees of pressure, the engraver builds a whole system of various points. If necessary, it thickens or thins out the points, creating the effect of shadow or light. The result is an image with soft transitions. To make the contours of the drawing smoother, the master can punch dots through the varnish.

Distinctive features of the dotted technique:

• When examining the image, dots of various shapes are visible.
• In the dark places of the picture, the dots are larger in size.

Mezzotint

In the mezzotint technique (from Italian Mezzo - half, tinto - painted), which is also called the black manner or the English manner, the work is not done with creating recesses in the prepared plate, but with smoothing certain areas. To do this, the metal plate is roughened using a graining technique. That is, initially there are already recesses on it, and the task of the engraver is to erase those areas that should be lighter (the paint almost does not linger on smooth areas). He works with the image using a scraper and a smooth glider. Engraving is carried out from the blackest color to the brightest light (hence the name of the black manner), which is the opposite of other mechanical engraving techniques.

The main features of engraving using the mezzotint technique:

• with sufficient magnification, small notches (grains) are visible;
• there are no sharp lines, the image is soft, with a velvety texture and a smooth change from one tone to another.

Etching

The name of this technique comes from the French word eau-forte, which translates as strong vodka (nitric acid was called in the old days). It was nitric acid that was originally the main substance for creating etchings.

With this technology, a metal plate is coated with an acid-resistant varnish. Then the drawing is applied and scratched with needles. After that, the master immerses the plate in a container with acid, which leads to etching of the unvarnished pattern. After washing and drying, the procedure is repeated several times, achieving deeper etching in individual areas. At the last stage, the protective varnish is removed with kerosene. The resulting printed form is filled with ink.

The main features of engraving by etching technique:

• the lines are free and the same in thickness throughout, have slightly torn edges;
• dots are always round or oval;
• strokes have blunt ends;
• dots and other defects may be present due to acid damage to the varnish (if the master has not removed them).

In which an imprint of a pattern on paper is obtained by transferring an ink layer under pressure from a printing plate to a paper medium. This method of printing belongs to the most ancient art, it was invented in the 19th century in Munich. In fact, lithography is a technique based on the opposition of fat-containing substances and water. The basis for the printing plate is a specially processed stone with a smooth surface, consisting of a homogeneous limestone. Before a drawing obtained by lithography is created, the following steps must be performed:

On the polished surface of the stone, a drawing is applied with lithographic ink or a special pencil containing fat;

The applied pattern is etched with a special mixture with dextrin;

After etching, the surface of the stone is able to absorb moisture, while repelling printing ink with a high concentration of fat;

In conclusion, the drawing is washed off with a special tincture containing a high concentration of solvents.

Advantages of lithography

Thus, in order for the image to appear when this printing method was used, the physical and chemical properties of the objects are used.

Lithography is often confused with engraving, but these are completely different methods of drawing. The engraving is a print from specially prepared forms. Carving a design on a piece of wood is what engraving is, lithography requires no prior effort. As a result of a chemical reaction, a pattern appears on paper using the imprint method. The resulting image can be replicated many times. A drawing made by lithography can be the only one of its kind. In addition, lithography has undeniable advantages. Masters who repeatedly use the lithography method in their work note that lithography is also a relatively cheap printing method. The following are its advantages:

In the process of making a drawing, you can freely make corrections, change the plot of the drawing, add new details;

The stone form can be used repeatedly, having previously polished it again;

Unlike engraving, the method allows you to make color drawings, for each color the drawing is applied to a separate stone;

The technique is relatively easy to implement.

Image printing

In order for the image to be clear, with precise, not blurry edges, the lithographic stone must be securely fixed on a special machine. The initially applied pattern is washed off, after which a special paint is applied to the pre-moistened base, which is made from drying oil. The porous printing paper is pressed tightly against a stone richly covered with printing ink, then rolled from above by a machine roller. The result is an image of a pattern covered with a single-color paint.

What is oleography

The technique by imprinting on a stone is called oleography. The technology is not much different from conventional lithography, it is exactly the same set of actions as flat printing. Prints on paper of each of the colors are made in a strict sequence from light to dark tones.

A separate lithographic stone is prepared for each color. Each color is printed alternately on one sheet of paper. In printing workshops, the artist is responsible for creating and applying the drawing to paper, and the apprentice is engaged in the processing of stones.

Varieties of lithography

In the modern world, lithography is rather a technique for forming electronic circuits and images with nanometer resolution on a special material.

There is optical, electronic and X-ray lithography. X-ray lithography is a modern technique in which a beam is passed through a special blank, which exposes the smallest details of the pattern onto a special substrate. Optical lithography is used when it becomes necessary to transfer an electronic circuit design from a special template onto a semiconductor substrate.

Electronic lithography is a technique in which a focused electron beam highlights the necessary details of a circuit or pattern on a special light-sensitive element.

What is an autograph

Autography is a modern printing technique in which the artist applies images not to a lithographic stone, but to a special transfer paper. From this paper, the drawing is automatically transferred to the stone. Artists appreciated this method of lithography. The main advantage of autography is the possibility of sketching from nature. By applying the image through transfer paper, the artist gets the opportunity to make a clear image without the effect of specularity.

Lithography in the modern world

In the last century, with the help of lithography, paintings were made, black-and-white prints were printed for sale, and geographical maps were made. The lithography technique was used to print illustrations in books and methodological collections.

Being a specific type of replicated graphics, lithography is widely used today. This printing method, which is easy to perform, is used by modern artists to create black and white images. Graphic images are necessary for illustrating methodological literature, special manuals, brochures and magazines. However, printing paper is no longer needed to create a lithograph. In the field of nanotechnology, modern varieties of graphics, electronic and optical lithography are widely used. Projection lithography using laser radiation is widely used for the development of the latest optical technology in order to improve metrological equipment with its further introduction into production.