What climate prevails. Types of climates in Russia - Knowledge Hypermarket. Arid climate of low latitudes
The Earth's climate has a large number of regularities and is formed under the influence of many factors. At the same time, it is fair to attribute to it a variety of phenomena in the atmosphere. The climatic state of our planet largely determines the state of the natural environment and human activities, especially economic ones.
The climatic conditions of the Earth are formed by three large-scale geophysical processes of a cyclic type:
- Heat transfer- exchange of heat between the earth's surface and the atmosphere.
- moisture circulation- the intensity of water evaporation into the atmosphere and its correlation with the level of precipitation.
- General atmospheric circulation- a set of air currents over the Earth. The state of the troposphere is determined by the features of the distribution of air masses, for which cyclones and anticyclones are responsible. Atmospheric circulation occurs due to the unequal distribution of atmospheric pressure, which is due to the division of the planet into land and water bodies, as well as uneven access to ultraviolet radiation. The intensity of the sun's rays is determined not only by geographical features, but also by the proximity of the ocean, the frequency of precipitation.
Climate should be distinguished from weather, which is the state of the environment at the current moment. However, weather characteristics are often the subject of climatology, or even the most important factors in changing the Earth's climate. The level of heat plays a special role in the development of the earth's climate, as well as weather conditions. Also, the climate is influenced by sea currents and relief features, in particular, the proximity of mountain ranges. No less important role belongs to the prevailing winds: warm or cold.
In the study of the Earth's climate, careful attention is paid to such meteorological phenomena as atmospheric pressure, relative humidity, wind parameters, temperature indicators, and precipitation. They also try to take into account solar radiation in compiling a general planetary picture.
climate-forming factors
- Astronomical factors: the brightness of the Sun, the ratio of the Sun and the Earth, the features of the orbits, the density of matter in space. These factors affect the level of solar radiation on our planet, daily weather changes, and the spread of heat between the hemispheres.
- Geographical factors: the weight and parameters of the Earth, gravity, air components, the mass of the atmosphere, currents in the ocean, the nature of the earth's relief, sea level, etc. These features determine the level of heat received in accordance with the weather season, continent and hemisphere of the earth.
The industrial revolution led to the inclusion in the list of climate-forming factors of active human activity. However, all characteristics of the Earth's climate are largely influenced by the energy of the Sun and the angle of incidence of ultraviolet rays.
Earth climate types
There are many classifications of the planet's climatic zones. Various researchers take as the basis for the separation, both individual characteristics and the general circulation of the atmosphere or the geographical component. Most often, the basis for distinguishing a separate type of climate is the solar climate - the influx of solar radiation. The proximity of water bodies and the ratio of land to sea are also important.
The simplest classification identifies 4 basic belts in each hemisphere:
- equatorial;
- tropical;
- moderate;
- polar.
Between the main zones there are transitional sections. They have the same names, but with the prefix "sub". The first two climates, together with the transitions, can be called hot. In the equatorial region, there is a lot of precipitation. The temperate climate has more pronounced seasonal differences, especially in the case of temperature. As for the cold climate zone, these are the most severe conditions caused by the absence of solar heat and water vapor.
This division takes into account atmospheric circulation. According to the predominance of air masses, it is easier to divide the climate into oceanic, continental, and also the climate of the eastern or western coasts. Some researchers define the continental, maritime and monsoon climate additionally. Often in climatology there are descriptions of mountainous, arid, nival and humid climates.
Ozone layer
This concept refers to a layer of the stratosphere with an increased level of ozone, which is formed due to the influence of sunlight on molecular oxygen. Due to the absorption of ultraviolet radiation by atmospheric ozone, the living world is protected from combustion and widespread cancer. Without the ozone layer, which appeared 500 million years ago, the first organisms would not have been able to get out of the water.
Since the second half of the 20th century, it has been customary to talk about the problem of the "ozone hole" - a local decrease in the concentration of ozone in the atmosphere. The main factor of such change is anthropogenic in nature. The ozone hole can lead to increased mortality of living organisms.
Global changes in the Earth's climate
(Increase in mean air temperature over the past century since the 1900s)
Large-scale climate transformations are considered by some scientists as a natural process. Others believe that this is a harbinger of a global catastrophe. Such changes mean a strong warming of the air masses, an increase in the level of aridity and a softening of winters. We are also talking about frequent hurricanes, typhoons, floods and droughts. The cause of climate change is the instability of the Sun, which leads to magnetic storms. Changes in the earth's orbit, the outlines of the oceans and continents, and volcanic eruptions also play a role. The greenhouse effect is also often associated with destructive human activities, namely: atmospheric pollution, deforestation, plowing land, burning fuel.
Global warming
(Climate change towards warming in the second half of the 20th century)
An increase in the average temperature of the Earth has been recorded since the second half of the 20th century. Scientists believe that the reason for this is the high levels of greenhouse gases due to human activity. The consequence of rising global temperatures is changing precipitation, the growth of deserts, the frequency of extreme weather events, the extinction of some biological species, and the rise in sea levels. Worst of all, in the Arctic, this leads to a decrease in glaciers. Together, this can radically change the habitat of various animals and plants, shift the boundaries of natural areas and cause serious problems with agriculture and human immunity.
Types of climates of the globe
In accordance with the classification of climates by B.P. Alisov, in various climatic zones on the land the following main types of climate are formed ( fig.10).
Fig.10. Climatic zones of the Earth:
1 - equatorial; 2 - subequatorial; 3 - tropical; 4 - subtropical; 5 - moderate; 6 - subarctic; 7 - subantarctic; 8 - arctic; 9 - Antarctic
equatorial belt located in equatorial latitudes, reaching 8° latitude in places. The total solar radiation is 100–160 kcal/cm2 year, the radiation balance is 60–70 kcal/cm2 year.
Equatorial hot humid climate occupies the western and central parts of the continents and the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Malay Archipelago in the equatorial belt. Average monthly temperatures are +25 - +28° all year round, seasonal fluctuations are 1–3°. The circulation is monsoonal: in January, the winds are northern, in July - southern. Annual precipitation is usually 1000–3000 mm (sometimes more), with uniform precipitation throughout the year. Humidification is excessive. Constantly high temperatures and high air humidity make this type of climate extremely difficult for a person, especially for a European. There is the possibility of year-round tropical farming with the cultivation of two crops per year.
With at backquato R ial belts located in the subequatorial latitudes of both hemispheres, sometimes reaching 20 ° latitude, as well as in equatorial latitudes on the eastern margins of the continents. The total solar radiation is 140–170 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance 70–80 kcal/cm 2 year. In connection with the seasonal movement of the intertropical baric depression from one hemisphere to another following the zenithal position of the Sun, there is a seasonal change in air masses, winds and weather. In winter, each hemisphere is dominated by CTs, trade winds towards the equator, and anticyclonic weather. In the summer of each hemisphere, computers dominate, winds (equatorial monsoon) of the counter-trade wind from the equator, cyclonic weather.
Subequatorial climate with sufficient moisture adjoins directly to the equatorial climate and occupies most of the subequatorial belts, except for regions adjacent to tropical climates. Average temperatures in winter are +20 - +24°, in summer - +24 - +29°, seasonal fluctuations are within 4–5°. The annual precipitation is usually 500–2000 mm (maximum in Cherrapunji). The dry winter season is associated with the dominance of continental tropical air, the wet summer season is usually associated with the equatorial monsoon and the passage of cyclones along the ETC line and lasts more than six months. The exceptions are the eastern slopes of the Hindustan and Indochina peninsulas and northeast Sri Lanka, where the maximum precipitation is winter, due to the saturation of the winter continental monsoon with moisture over the South China Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Humidification on average per year is from close to sufficient to excessive, but it is distributed very unevenly over the seasons. The climate is favorable for growing tropical crops.
Subequatorial climate with insufficient moistureeniem adjoins tropical climates: in South America - Caatinga, in Africa - the Sahelip-s of Somalia, in Asia - the west of the Indo-Gangetic lowland and north-west of Hindustan, in Australia - the south coast of the Carpentaria and Arnhemland peninsula. high in the northern hemisphere (due to the vast area of \u200b\u200bthe continents in these latitudes) + 27 - + 32 °, somewhat lower in the southern - + 25 - + 30 °; seasonal fluctuations are 6–12°. Here, most of the year (up to 10 months) is dominated by CT and anticyclonic weather. The annual rainfall is 250–700 mm. The dry winter season is due to the dominance of tropical air; the wet summer season is associated with the equatorial monsoon and lasts less than half a year, in some places only 2 months. Moisture is inadequate everywhere. The climate makes it possible to grow tropical crops after carrying out measures to improve soil fertility and with additional irrigation.
T R optically e belts located in tropical latitudes, reaching 30–35° latitude in places; and on the western margins of South America and Africa in the southern hemisphere, the tropical belt wedges out, because here, due to cold ocean currents, the intertropical baric depression is located north of the equator all year round and the southern subtropical climatic zone reaches the equator. Tropical air masses and trade wind circulation dominate throughout the year. The total solar radiation reaches its maximum on the planet: 180–220 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance 60–70 kcal/cm2 year.
Tropical climate bedesert deserts formed on the western outskirts of the continents under the influence of cold ocean currents. Average winter temperatures are +10 - +20°, summer - +16 - +28°, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 6–8°. Tropical sea chilled air is carried throughout the year by the trade winds blowing along the coast. The annual amount of precipitation is low due to the trade wind inversion - 50–250 mm and only in some places up to 400 mm. Precipitation falls mainly in the form of clouds and fogs. Humidification is severely inadequate. Tropical farming is possible only in oases with artificial irrigation and systematic work to improve soil fertility.
Clandmat of tropical continental deserts typical for the interior regions of the continents and is distinguished by the most pronounced features of continentality within the tropical zones. The average winter temperatures are +10 - +24 °, summer - in the northern hemisphere +29 - + 38 °, in the southern - +24 - + 32 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations in the northern hemisphere 16–19°, in the southern - 8–14°; diurnal fluctuations often reach 30°. Throughout the year, dry KTV dominates, carried by trade winds. The annual amount of precipitation is 50–250 mm. Precipitation falls sporadically, extremely unevenly: in some areas it may not rain for several years, and then a downpour will pass. There are frequent cases when raindrops do not reach the ground, evaporating in the air when approaching the hot surface of a rocky or sandy desert. Humidification is severely inadequate. Due to extremely high summer temperatures and dryness, this type of climate is extremely unfavorable for agriculture: tropical agriculture is possible only in oases on abundant and systematically irrigated lands.
The climate is tropicalesky wet confined to the eastern margins of the continents. Formed under the influence of warm ocean currents. Average temperatures in winter are +12 - +24°, in summer - +20 - +29°, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 4–17°. The warmed MTV, brought from the ocean by trade winds, dominates all year round. The annual precipitation is 500–3000 mm, and the eastern windward slopes receive about twice as much precipitation as the western leeward slopes. Precipitation falls throughout the year with a summer maximum. Humidification is sufficient, only in some places on the leeward slopes it is somewhat insufficient. The climate is favorable for tropical agriculture, but the combination of high temperatures with high humidity makes it hard to bear for humans.
subtropical e belt located beyond the tropical belts in subtropical latitudes, reaching 42–45 ° latitude. Everywhere there is a seasonal change in air masses: moderate air masses dominate in winter, and tropical ones in summer. The total solar radiation is within 120–170 kcal/cm2 year. The radiation balance is usually 50–60 kcal/cm2 year, only in some places it decreases to 45 kcal (in South America) or rises to 70 kcal (in Florida).
subtropical avgeMediterranean climate formed on the western outskirts of the mainland and adjacent islands. The average winter temperatures under the influence of the MU invasion are homogeneous: +4 - + 12 °, frosts occur, but rare and short; °; seasonal fluctuations in temperatures 12–14 °. There is a seasonal change of air masses, winds and weather. The winter of each hemisphere is dominated by ISW, westerly winds and cyclonic weather; in summer - KTV, trade winds and anticyclonic weather. Annual precipitation is 500–2000 mm. Precipitation is extremely uneven: western windward slopes usually receive twice as much precipitation as eastern leeward slopes. Periods alternate: wet winter (due to the ISW and the passage of cyclones along the polar front) and dry summer (due to the predominance of CTs). Precipitation falls more often in the form of rains, in winter occasionally - in the form of snow, moreover, a stable snow cover does not form and after a few days the fallen snow melts. Humidification is sufficient on the western and insufficient on the eastern slopes. This climate is the most comfortable for living on the planet. It is favorable for agriculture, especially subtropical (irrigation is sometimes required on the leeward slopes), and is also very favorable for human habitation. This contributed to the fact that it was in the areas of this type of climate that the most ancient civilizations were born and a large number of the population has long been concentrated. Currently, there are many resorts in the areas of the Mediterranean climate.
subtropical continenal arid climate confined to the interior regions of the continents in subtropical zones. Average winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere are often negative -8 - + 4 °, in the southern - +4 - + 10 °; summer temperatures in the northern hemisphere + 20 - + 32 ° and in the southern - +20 - + 24 °; °, in the south - 14–16 °. Continental air masses dominate throughout the year: moderate in winter, tropical in summer. Annual precipitation in the northern hemisphere is 50–500 mm, in the southern hemisphere - 200–500 mm. Humidification is insufficient, especially sharply insufficient in the northern hemisphere. In this climate, agriculture is possible only with artificial irrigation, pasture cattle breeding is also possible.
Subtropicalequal toerno wetmonsoonalclimate characteristic of the eastern margins of the continents in the subtropical belts. Formed under the influence of warm ocean currents. The average winter temperatures in the northern hemisphere are -8 - +12° and in the southern - +6 - +10°, in the summer in the northern hemisphere +20 - +28° and in the southern - +18 - +24°; seasonal temperature fluctuations in the northern hemisphere are 16–28° and in the southern hemisphere - 12–14°. There is a seasonal change in air masses and winds during year-round cyclonic weather: in winter, the KUV dominates, brought by the winds of the western directions, in summer - the warm MTV, brought by the winds of the eastern directions. Annual rainfall is 800–1500 mm, in some places up to 2000 mm. At the same time, precipitation falls throughout the year: in winter due to the passage of cyclones along the polar front, in summer they are brought by oceanic monsoons formed from trade winds. In winter, precipitation in the form of snow prevails in the northern hemisphere, while in the southern hemisphere, winter snowfalls are very rare. In the northern hemisphere, snow cover can form for weeks to months (especially in inland areas), while in the southern hemisphere, as a rule, no snow cover forms. Humidification is sufficient, on the eastern slopes - somewhat excessive. This type of climate is favorable for human habitation and for economic activity, however, in some regions, winter frosts limit the spread of subtropical agriculture.
Mind R military belts are located beyond the subtropical belts in both hemispheres, reaching in places 58–67 ° N. latitude. in the northern hemisphere and 60–70° S.l. - in the south. The total solar radiation is usually in the range of 60–120 kcal/cm 2 year, and only over the northern part of Central Asia, due to the predominance of anticyclonic weather there, does it reach 140–160 kcal/cm 2 year. The annual radiation balance in the northern hemisphere is 25–50 kcal/cm 2 and 40–50 kcal/cm 2 in the southern hemisphere due to the predominance of land areas adjacent to the subtropical zone. Moderate air masses dominate throughout the year.
Diedecurrent maritime climate It is formed on the western outskirts of the continents and adjacent islands under the influence of warm ocean currents, and only in South America - the cold Peruvian current. Winters are mild: average temperatures are +4 - +8°, summers are cool: average temperatures are +8 - +16°, seasonal temperature fluctuations are 4–8°. All-the-year-round prevailing winds and westerly transfer winds, the air is characterized by high relative and moderate absolute humidity, fogs are frequent. The windward slopes of western exposure receive especially a lot of precipitation: 1000–3000 mm/year; on the eastern leeward slopes, precipitation is 700–1000 mm. The number of cloudy days in a year is very high; precipitation falls throughout the year with a summer maximum associated with the passage of cyclones along the polar front. Humidification is excessive on the western slopes and sufficient on the eastern ones. The mildness and humidity of the climate are favorable for horticulture and meadow growing, and in connection with this, dairy farming. There are conditions for year-round marine fisheries.
temperate climate, laneerunning frommaritimeto continental, is formed in areas immediately adjacent from the east to areas of temperate maritime climate. Winter is moderately cold: in the northern hemisphere 0 - -16 °, there are thaws, in the southern - 0 - + 6 °; summer is not hot: +12 - +24° in the northern hemisphere, +9 - +20° in the southern hemisphere; seasonal temperature fluctuations in the northern hemisphere are 12–40°, in the southern hemisphere - 9–14°. This transitional climate is formed when the influence of western transport is weakened as the air moves eastward, as a result, the air cools and loses moisture in winter, and warms up more strongly in summer. Precipitation is 300–1000 mm/year; the maximum precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones along the polar front: at higher latitudes in summer, at lower latitudes in spring and autumn. Due to significant differences in temperature and precipitation, humidification is from excessive to insufficient. In general, this type of climate is quite favorable for human habitation: it is possible to grow crops with a short growing season and livestock, especially dairy.
temperate continental climate formed in the interior of the continents only in the northern hemisphere. Winter is the coldest in temperate zones, long, with persistent frosts: average temperatures in North America are -4 - -26 °, in Eurasia - -16 - -40 °; summer is the hottest in temperate zones: average temperatures are +16 - +26°, in some places up to +30°; seasonal temperature fluctuations in North America are 30–42°, in Eurasia - 32–56°. A more severe winter in Eurasia is due to the larger size of the continent in these latitudes and the vast expanses occupied by permafrost. The WHC dominates all year round; in winter, stable winter anticyclones with anticyclonic weather are established over the territory of these regions. Annual precipitation is more often in the range of 400–1000 mm, only in Central Asia it decreases to less than 200 mm. Precipitation falls unevenly throughout the year, the maximum is usually confined to the warm season and is associated with the passage of cyclones along the polar front. Humidification is heterogeneous: there are territories with sufficient and unstable moisture, there are also arid regions. Human habitat conditions are quite diverse: logging, forestry and fisheries are possible; opportunities for agriculture and animal husbandry are limited.
Moderatemonsoonalclimate formed on the eastern outskirts of Eurasia. Winter is cold: average temperatures are -10 - -32 °, summer is not hot: average temperatures are +12 - + 24 °; seasonal fluctuations in temperatures 34–44 °. There is a seasonal change in air masses, winds, and weather: in winter, KUV, northwestern winds, and anticyclonic weather prevail; in summer - MUW, southeasterly winds and cyclonic weather. Annual precipitation is 500–1200 mm with a pronounced summer maximum. In winter, a small snow cover forms. Humidification is sufficient and somewhat excessive (on the eastern slopes), the continentality of the climate increases from east to west. The climate is favorable for human habitation: agriculture and various animal husbandry, forestry and crafts are possible.
Temperate climate with cold and snowy winters is formed on the northeastern margins of the continents of the northern hemisphere within the temperate zone under the influence of cold ocean currents. Winter is cold and long: average temperatures are -8 - -28 °; summer is relatively short and cool: average temperatures are +8 - +16 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 24–36°. In winter, the KUV dominates, sometimes the KAV breaks through; MUV penetrates in summer. The annual rainfall is 400–1000 mm. Precipitation falls throughout the year: in winter, heavy snowfalls are generated by the invasion of cyclones along the Arctic front, a long and stable snow cover exceeds 1 m; in summer, precipitation is brought by the oceanic monsoon and is associated with cyclones along the polar front. Humidification is excessive. The climate is difficult for human habitation and economic activity: there are conditions for the development of reindeer herding, breeding sled dogs, and fishing; farming opportunities are limited by a short growing season.
Suba R ktictic belt located beyond the temperate belt in subarctic latitudes and reaches 65–75° N. latitude. The total solar radiation is 60–90 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance +15 - +25 kcal / cm 2 year. Seasonal change of air masses: arctic air masses dominate in winter, moderate in summer.
Subarcticmaritime climate confined to the marginal regions of the continents in the subarctic zone. Winter is long, but moderately severe: average temperatures are -14 - -30 °, only in Western Europe warm currents soften the winter to -2 °; summer is short and cool: average temperatures are +4 - +12 °; seasonal fluctuations in temperatures 26–34 °. Seasonal change of air masses: Arctic predominantly sea air in winter, moderate sea air in summer. The annual amount of precipitation is 250–600 mm, and on the windward slopes of the coastal mountains - up to 1000–1100 mm. Precipitation falls throughout the year. Winter precipitation is associated with the passage of cyclones along the Arctic front, which bring snowfalls and snowstorms. In summer, precipitation is associated with the penetration of ISW - it falls in the form of rain, but there are also snowfalls, dense fogs are often observed, especially in coastal areas. Humidification is sufficient, and on the coasts - excessive. The conditions for human habitation are rather harsh: the development of agriculture is limited to a cool short summer with a corresponding short growing season.
Subarcticcontinemental climate is formed in the interior of the continents in the subarctic zone. In winter, long, severe and persistent frosts: average temperatures -24 - -50 °; summer is cool and short: average temperatures are +8 - +14 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations are 38–58°, and in some years they can reach 100°. In winter, the CAW dominates, which spreads in different directions from winter continental anticyclones (Canadian and Siberian); in summer, the EHW and its inherent western transport predominate. Precipitation is 200–600 mm per year, the summer maximum of precipitation is clearly pronounced due to the penetration of the ISW into the mainland at this time; snowy winter. Humidification is sufficient. The conditions for human habitation are very harsh: farming at low summer temperatures and a short growing season is difficult, there are opportunities for forestry and crafts.
Subantarctic belt is located beyond the southern temperate zone and reaches 63–73°S. The total solar radiation is 65–75 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance +20 - +30kcal/cm2 year. Seasonal change of air masses: Antarctic air dominates in winter, moderate in summer.
Subantarcticmaritime climate occupies the entire subantarctic belt, land only on the Antarctic Peninsula and on individual islands. Winter is long and moderately severe: average temperatures are -8 - -12 °; summer is short, very cool and damp: average temperatures are +2 - + 4 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations are 10 - 12 °. eastward winds inherent in it, while the CAW, as it passes over the ocean, heats up a little and transforms into MAW; in summer, ISW and westward winds dominate. The annual precipitation is 500–700 mm with a winter maximum associated with the passage of cyclones along the Antarctic front. Humidification is excessive. The conditions for human habitation are harsh, there is an opportunity for the development of seasonal marine fisheries.
arctic belt located in the northern subpolar latitudes. The total solar radiation is 60–80 kcal/cm2 year. Radiation balance +5 - +15 kcal / cm 2 year. Arctic air masses dominate throughout the year.
Arctic climate with relatively mild winters confined to areas of the Arctic belt subject to the softening influence of the relatively warm waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans: in North America - the coast of the Beaufort Sea, the north of Baffin Island and the coast of Greenland; in Eurasia - on the islands from Svalbard to Severnaya Zemlya and on the mainland from the Yamal Peninsula to western Taimyr. Winter is long, relatively mild: average temperatures are -16 - -32 °; summer is short, average temperatures are 0 - + 8 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 24–32°. Arctic, predominantly maritime air masses dominate all year round, sea air has a softening effect. The annual precipitation is 150–600 mm at the summer maximum associated with the passage of cyclones along the Arctic front. Humidification is sufficient and excessive. The climate for human habitation is unfavorable due to its severity and constancy of low temperatures; there is the possibility of seasonal fisheries.
Arctic climate with cold winters occupies the rest of the Arctic belt, except for the interior of Greenland, is influenced by the cold waters of the Arctic Ocean. Winter is long and severe: average temperatures are -32 - -38 °; summers are short and cold: average temperatures are 0 - + 8 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 38–40°. KAV dominates all year round. The annual rainfall is 50–250 mm. Humidification is sufficient. Conditions for human habitation are extreme due to constantly low temperatures. Life is possible only if there are stable external ties to provide food, fuel, clothing, etc. Seasonal marine fisheries are possible.
Arctic climate with coldest winters stands out in the interior of Greenland, is formed under the year-round influence of the Greenland ice sheet and the Greenland anticyclone. Winter lasts almost the whole year, severe: average temperatures are -36 - -49 °; in summer, there are no stable positive temperatures: average temperatures are 0 - -14 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 35–46°. Year-round dominance of the KAV and spreading winds in all directions. Humidification is sufficient. Climatic conditions for human habitation are the most extreme on the planet due to constant very low temperatures in the absence of local sources of heat and food. Life is possible only if there are stable external ties to provide food, fuel, clothing, etc. There are no opportunities for fishing.
Antarctic belt is located in the southern subpolar latitudes, mainly on the continent of Antarctica, and the climate is formed under the dominant influence of the ice sheet of Antarctica and the Antarctic belt of relatively high pressure. The total solar radiation is 75–120 kcal/cm2 per year. Due to the year-round dominance of the continental Antarctic air, dry and transparent over the ice sheet, and the multiple reflection of the sun's rays during the polar day in summer from the surface of ice, snow and clouds, the value of the total solar radiation in the interior of Antarctica reaches the value of the total radiation in the subtropical zone. However, the radiation balance is -5 - -10 kcal / cm 2 year, and the whole year it is negative, which is due to the large albedo of the ice sheet surface (up to 90% of solar radiation is reflected). The exceptions are small oases, freed from snow in summer. Antarctic air masses dominate throughout the year.
Antarctic climate with comparatively mild winters formed over the marginal waters of the Antarctic continent. Winter is long and somewhat softened by Antarctic waters: average temperatures are -10 - -35 °; summer is short and cold: average temperatures are -4 - -20 °, only in oases are summer temperatures of the surface air layer positive; seasonal temperature fluctuations 6–15°. The Antarctic maritime air has a moderating effect on the climate, especially in summer, penetrating with cyclones along the Antarctic front. The annual precipitation of 100–300 mm with a summer maximum is associated with cyclonic activity along the Antarctic front. Precipitation in the form of snow prevails throughout the year. Humidification is excessive. The climate for human habitation is unfavorable due to its severity and the constancy of low temperatures; it is possible to conduct seasonal fisheries.
Antarctic climate with the coldest winter confined to the interior regions of the Antarctic continent. Temperatures are negative all year round, there are no thaws: average winter temperatures are -45 - -72 °, summer - -25 - -35 °; seasonal temperature fluctuations 20–37°. Continental Antarctic air dominates all year round, winds spread from the anticyclonic center of the periphery, southeast direction prevails. The annual precipitation is 40–100 mm, precipitation falls in the form of ice needles and hoarfrost, less often in the form of snow. Throughout the year, anticyclonic cloudy weather prevails. Humidification is sufficient. Living conditions for humans are similar to the Arctic climate with cold winters.
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Climatic zones are continuous or discontinuous areas that are parallel to the latitudes of the planet. Between themselves, they differ in the circulation of air currents and the amount of solar energy. The terrain, proximity to or are also important climate-forming factors.
According to the classification of the Soviet climatologist B.P. Alisov, there are seven main types of Earth's climate: equatorial, two tropical, two temperate and two polar (one each in the hemispheres). In addition, Alisov identified six intermediate belts, three in each hemisphere: two subequatorial, two subtropical, as well as subarctic and subantarctic.
Arctic and Antarctic climate zone
Arctic and Antarctic climate zone on the world map
The polar region adjacent to the North Pole is called the Arctic. It includes the territory of the Arctic Ocean, margins and Eurasia. The belt is represented by icy and, which are characterized by long severe winters. The maximum summer temperature is +5°C. Arctic ice affects the climate of the Earth as a whole, preventing it from overheating.
The Antarctic belt is located in the very south of the planet. Nearby islands are also under his influence. The cold pole is located on the mainland, so winter temperatures average -60°C. Summer figures do not rise above -20°C. The territory is located in the Arctic desert zone. The mainland is almost completely covered with ice. Land areas are found only in the coastal zone.
Subarctic and Subantarctic climate zone
Subarctic and Subantarctic climate zone on the world map
The subarctic zone includes Northern Canada, the south of Greenland, Alaska, the north of Scandinavia, the northern regions of Siberia and the Far East. The average winter temperature is -30°C. With the advent of a short summer, the mark rises to +20°C. In the north of this climatic zone dominates, which is characterized by high humidity, swampiness and frequent winds. The south is located in the forest-tundra zone. The soil has time to warm up during the summer, so bushes and woodlands grow here.
Within the subantarctic belt are the islands of the Southern Ocean near Antarctica. The zone is subject to the seasonal influence of air masses. In winter, arctic air dominates here, and in summer masses come from the temperate zone. The average temperature in winter is -15°C. Storms, fogs and snowfalls often occur on the islands. In the cold season, the entire water area is occupied by ice, but with the onset of summer, they melt. Warm months average -2°C. The climate can hardly be called favorable. The flora is represented by algae, lichens, mosses and herbs.
temperate climate zone
Temperate climate zone on the world map
In the temperate zone lies a quarter of the entire surface of the planet: North America, and. Its main feature is a clear expression of the seasons of the year. The prevailing air masses give high humidity and low pressure. The average winter temperature is 0°C. In summer, the mark rises above fifteen degrees. Cyclones prevailing in the northern part of the zone provoke snow and rain. Most of the precipitation falls as summer rain.
Territories deep into the continents are prone to droughts. represented by an alternation of forests and arid regions. It grows in the north, the flora of which is adapted to low temperatures and high humidity. Gradually it is replaced by a zone of mixed broad-leaved forests. The strip of steppes in the south encircles all the continents. The zone of semi-deserts and deserts covers the western part of North America and Asia.
Temperate climates are subdivided into the following subtypes:
- nautical;
- temperate continental;
- sharply continental;
- monsoon.
Subtropical climate zone
Subtropical climate zone on the world map
In the subtropical zone there is a part of the Black Sea coast, the southwest and, the south of the North and. In winter, the territories are influenced by air moving from the temperate zone. The thermometer rarely drops below zero. In summer, the climate zone is affected by subtropical cyclones, which warm the earth well. Humid air prevails in the eastern part of the continents. There are long summers and mild winters without frost. The western coasts are characterized by dry summers and warm winters.
Temperatures are much higher in the interior regions of the climate zone. The weather is almost always clear. Most of the precipitation falls during the cold period, when the air masses shift to the side. On the coasts, hard-leaved forests grow with an undergrowth of evergreen shrubs. In the northern hemisphere, they are replaced by a zone of subtropical steppes, smoothly flowing into the desert. In the southern hemisphere, the steppes turn into broad-leaved and deciduous forests. Mountain areas are represented by forest-meadow zones.
In the subtropical climate zone, the following climate subtypes are distinguished:
- subtropical oceanic climate and Mediterranean climate;
- subtropical inland climate;
- subtropical monsoon climate;
- climate of high subtropical highlands.
Tropical climate zone
Tropical climate zone on the world map
The tropical climate zone covers separate territories in everything except Antarctica. An area of high pressure dominates the oceans all year round. Because of this, there is little rainfall in the climate zone. Summer temperatures in both hemispheres exceed +35°C. Average winter temperatures are +10°C. The average daily temperature fluctuation is felt in the interior of the continents.
Most of the time the weather is clear and dry. Most of the precipitation occurs during the winter months. Significant temperature fluctuations provoke dust storms. On the coasts, the climate is much milder: winters are warm, and summers are mild and humid. Strong winds are practically absent, precipitation falls in the calendar summer. The dominant natural areas are tropical forests, deserts and semi-deserts.
The tropical climate zone includes the following climate subtypes:
- trade wind climate;
- tropical dry climate;
- tropical monsoon climate;
- monsoon climate on tropical plateaus.
Subequatorial climate zone
Subequatorial climatic zone on the world map
The subequatorial climatic zone affects both hemispheres of the Earth. In summer, the zone is influenced by equatorial wet winds. In winter, the trade winds dominate. The average annual temperature is +28°C. Daily temperature fluctuations are insignificant. Most of the precipitation falls during the warm season under the influence of the summer monsoons. The closer to the equator, the more abundant it rains. In summer, most rivers overflow their banks, and in winter they dry up completely.
The flora is represented by monsoon mixed forests and light forests. The foliage on the trees turns yellow and falls off during the drought period. With the arrival of rains, it is restored. In the open spaces of the savannas, cereals and herbs grow. The plant world adapted to periods of rain and drought. Some remote forest areas have not yet been studied by man.
Equatorial climate zone
Equatorial climate zone on the world map
The belt is located on both sides of the equator. The constant flow of solar radiation creates a hot climate. Weather conditions are affected by air masses coming from the equator. The difference between winter and summer temperatures is only 3°C. Unlike other climatic zones, the equatorial climate remains virtually unchanged throughout the year. Temperatures do not fall below +27°C. Due to heavy rainfall, high humidity, fogs and clouds are formed. Strong winds are practically absent, which favorably affects the flora.
Typical for a given region of the Earth, as if the average weather for many years. The term "climate" was introduced into scientific circulation 2200 years ago by the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus and means in Greek "tilt" ("klimatos"). The scientist had in mind the inclination of the earth's surface to the sun's rays, the difference of which was already then considered the main reason for the differences in weather in. Later, the climate was called the average state in a certain area of the Earth, which is characterized by features that are practically unchanged for one generation, that is, about 30-40 years. These features include the amplitude of temperature fluctuations, .
Distinguish macroclimate and microclimate:
macroclimate(Greek makros - large) - the climate of the largest territories, this is the climate of the Earth as a whole, as well as large regions of land and water areas of the oceans or seas. In the macroclimate, the level and patterns of atmospheric circulation are determined;
Microclimate(Greek mikros - small) - part of the local climate. The microclimate mainly depends on differences in soils, spring and autumn frosts, the timing of snow and ice melting on water bodies. Accounting for the microclimate is essential for the placement of crops, for the construction of cities, the laying of roads, for any economic activity of a person, as well as for his health.
The description of the climate is compiled from observations of the weather over many years. It includes the average long-term indicators and the number of months, the frequency of various types of weather. But the description of the climate will be incomplete if it does not give deviations from the average. Typically, the description includes information about the highest and lowest temperatures, the largest and least amount of precipitation for the entire time of observation.
It changes not only in space, but also in time. A huge number of facts on this issue are given by paleoclimatology - the science of ancient climates. Studies have shown that the geological past of the Earth is the alternation of the eras of the seas and the eras of the land. This alternation is associated with slow oscillations, during which the area of \u200b\u200bthe ocean either decreased or increased. In the era of increasing area, the sun's rays are absorbed by water and heat the Earth, from which the atmosphere also heats up. General warming will inevitably cause the spread of heat-loving plants and animals. The spread of the warm climate of "eternal spring" in the era of the sea is also explained by an increase in the concentration of CO2, which causes the phenomenon. Thanks to him, the warming increases.
With the onset of the land era, the picture changes. This is due to the fact that land, unlike water, reflects the sun's rays more, which means it heats up less. This leads to less heating of the atmosphere, and inevitably the climate will become colder.
Many scientists consider space to be one of the important causes of the Earth. For example, fairly strong evidence of solar-terrestrial relationships is given. With an increase in the activity of the Sun, changes in solar radiation are associated, and the frequency increases. A decrease in solar activity can lead to droughts.
>>Types of Russian climates
§ 20. Types of climates in Russia
Different types of climates are formed on the territory of Russia. Each of them is characterized by such common features as temperature, precipitation, prevailing types weather for the seasons.
Within the same type of climate, the quantitative indicators of each element can vary significantly, which makes it possible to distinguish climatic regions. The internal differences are especially great in the largest climatic zone of Russia - the temperate one: from the taiga to the deserts, from the sea climate and coasts to sharply continental inside the mainland at the same latitude.
The Arctic climate is typical for the islands of the Arctic Ocean and its Siberian coasts. Here the surface receives very little solar heat. Cold arctic air and anticyclones dominate throughout the year. The severity of the climate is exacerbated by the long polar night, when solar radiation does not reach the surface.
This lengthens the winter and reduces the remaining seasons of the year to 1.5-2 months.
In this climate, there are practically two seasons of the year: a long cold winter and a short cool summer. Average January temperatures are -24-30 CC. Summer temperatures are low: +2-5 °С. Rainfall is limited to 200-300 mm per year. They fall mainly in the winter in the form of snow.
subarctic climate characteristic of territories located beyond the Arctic Circle on the East European and West Siberian plains. AT Eastern Siberia this type of climate is common up to 60 ° N. sh. Winters are long and harsh, and the severity of the climate increases as you move from west to east. Summer is warmer than in the Arctic zone, but still short and rather cold (average July temperatures are from +4 to +12 °C). The annual amount of precipitation is 200-400 mm, but due to low evaporation rates, moisture is excessive. The influence of Atlantic air masses leads to the fact that in the tundra of the Kola Peninsula, compared with the mainland rainfall increases, and winter temperatures are higher than in the Asian part.
Climate of the temperate zone. The temperate climatic zone is the largest climatic zone in Russia in terms of area. It is characterized by significant differences in temperature and moisture as it moves from west to east and from north to south. Common to the entire belt are clearly defined four seasons of the year.
temperate continental climate dominates the European part of Russia. Its main features are: warm summer (July temperature +12--24 °C), frosty winter (average January temperatures from -4 to -20 CC), annual precipitation of more than 800 mm in the west and up to 500 mm in the center of the Russian Plain. This climate is formed under the influence of the western transfer of Atlantic air masses, relatively warm in winter and cool in summer, and, moreover, constantly humid. In the temperate continental climate, moisture changes from excessive in the north and northwest to insufficient in the east and southeast. This is reflected in the change of natural zones from taiga to steppe.
continental climate temperate zone is typical for Western Siberia. This climate is formed under the influence of continental air masses of temperate latitudes, moving most often in a latitudinal direction. In the meridional direction from north to south, cold arctic air moves, and continental tropical air penetrates far to the north of the forest belt. Therefore, precipitation here falls 600 mm per year in the north and less - mm - in the south. Summers are warm, even hot in the south (average July temperatures are from +15 to +26 °С). Winter is severe compared to the temperate continental climate, with average January temperatures ranging from -15 to -25 °C.
Sharply continental climate temperate zone is common in Eastern Siberia. This climate is distinguished by the constant dominance of continental air of temperate latitudes. The sharply continental climate is characterized by low cloudiness, meager precipitation, the bulk of which falls in the warm part of the year. Small clouds contribute to the rapid heating of the earth's surface by the sun's rays during the day and summer, and, conversely, to its rapid cooling at night and in winter. Hence the large amplitudes (differences) in air temperatures, warm and hot summers and frosty winters with little snow. Little snow during severe frosts (the average January temperature is from -25 to -45 ° C) ensures deep freezing of soils and grounds, and this, in temperate latitudes, causes the preservation of permafrost. Summer is sunny and warm (average July temperatures are from +16 to +20 °C). The annual rainfall is less than 500 mm. The moisture coefficient is close to unity.
Monsoon climate temperate zone is typical for the southern regions Far East. When the mainland cools in winter and the atmospheric pressure rises in connection with this, dry and cold air rushes towards warmer air over the ocean. In summer, the mainland warms up more than the ocean, and colder oceanic air tends to the continent, bringing clouds and heavy precipitation. The average January temperatures here are from -15 to -30 °С; in summer, in July, from +10 to +20 °С. Precipitation (up to 600-800 mm per year) falls mainly in summer. If the melting of snow in the mountains coincides with heavy rains, floods occur. Humidification is excessive everywhere (humidity coefficient is greater than unity).
Questions and tasks
1. Using the maps, determine in which of the climatic zones the main part of the territory of Russia is located. What climatic zones occupy the smallest area in our country?
2. Explain why in the temperate zone there are the greatest differences in climatic conditions as you move from west to east.
3. What are the main features of the continental climate. How does this climate affect other components of nature?
Geography of Russia: Nature. Population. Economy. 8 cells : studies. for 8 cells. general education institutions / V. P. Dronov, I. I. Barinova, V. Ya. Rom, A. A. Lobzhanidze; ed. V. P. Dronova. - 10th ed., stereotype. - M. : Bustard, 2009. - 271 p. : ill., maps.
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