The epithet is a part of speech. What is an epithet in literature? Examples

Epithet- this is a figurative definition that gives an artistic description of a phenomenon or object. An epithet is a comparison and can be expressed as an adjective, as well as a noun, verb or adverb.

Golden autumn, blue sea, snow-white winter, velvet leather, crystal ringing

The epithet is one of the main terms of the theory of literature, which is a definition of a word and affects its expressiveness. Basically, when writing epithets, adjectives are used. But adverbs are also widely used, for example " hot kiss". Nouns are used to write epithets (example: joy cry), numerals (example: first friend), as well as verbs (example: volunteer help). An epithet is a single word or a whole phrase that acquires a new semantic connotation and meaning due to its location in the text and the corresponding context. No specific view of the epithet still exists. Some are sure that epithets refer to figures, others boldly put them on a par with paths and figures, as an independent means for poetic depiction.

An epithet is a word or expression (syntactic whole) in a literary text, usually poetic, lyrical, which carries in itself especially expressive properties and emphasizes something in the image object that is inherent only to it alone. With the help of epithets, a special subtlety, expressiveness, and depth are achieved. The construction of the epithet is usually simple. It's an adjective + noun. The epithet in the text most often appears in postposition, after the word being defined. If the epithets are located vertically in the text, that is, separated from each other, then this only enhances their specific sound and gives a special depth to the text. Here, for example, in A. Blok's poem, epithets end the line:

Everything is as it was. Only strange

reigned silence.

And in your window foggy

Only street scary.

epithet " strange" creates the effect of breaking silence, and after the word " foggy The reader has a feeling of mystery, a booming echo. There are simple epithets, which include one adjective, for example: " dove clouds"(S. A. Yesenin). Or fused, consisting of two or even three roots, but perceived by ear as one whole, for example: “ convincing false story". (A. K. Tolstoy)

There are author's epithets, which are quite rare, carrying an additional expressive load, conveying a special meaning not just of a word, but often of a whole group of words: In saucers - lifebuoy goggles"(V. Mayakovsky). By reading and thinking about such an epithet, we can gradually understand the complexity and breadth of the author's view of familiar things. There is also a lexical subtext in the epithet of V. Mayakovsky, a special semantic depth filled with irony, bitterness, sarcasm, bewilderment ...

And all this is achieved with the help of just one artistic and expressive means of language - the epithet.

The role of epithets can be defined in one wording: when epithets are part of a complex syntactic construction, which, as a whole, should also not only convey the author's idea to the reader, but also emotionally enrich it. Thanks to a successful combination of epithets, personifications, comparisons, metaphors, writers create non-standard images.

« In a white coat with bloody lining, shuffling with a cavalry gait, in the early morning of the fourteenth day of the spring month of Nisan, the procurator of Judea, Pontius Pilate, entered the covered colonnade between the two wings of the palace of Herod the Great ...» M. Bulgakov, "Master and Margarita".

The author strings epithets on top of each other, and uses epithets that not only outline color or gait, but also convey information. The lining of the cloak is not just red, but symbolically bloody. And the epithets for describing the gait give an idea of ​​the past of its owner and the fact that he retained the bearing of a military man. Other epithets are descriptions of circumstances of place and time.

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Our speech would be poor without words that describe the features of the objects that we tell the interlocutor about. Epithets help to convey how the speaker relates to this or that phenomenon, what assessment he gives to him.

Consider what an epithet is in the literature, give a definition of this term, analyze with an example what it is for, note the importance of its use in a particular case.

The word has ancient Greek roots, its meaning is clear from the translation - “applied”. The function of an epithet is to emphasize the word next to it.

It gives meaning to the phrase. It can be an adjective (beautiful fence), an adverb (run fast), as well as a noun, numeral (third number), verb,.

Epithets are used in the poem to emphasize imagery, emotional coloring, the author's vision, hidden or explicit meaning.

The epithet is often used in both poetry and prose. Its structure and textual functionality give the word colors, a new meaning, emotionality. The role of the word is described by experts in different ways. They do not have a single vision. Although this is one of the oldest terms in stylistics.

Some rank it among the figures and paths, considering it an independent unit. Others argue that it should only be used in poetry and not in prose.

Important! Previously, the term "decorating epithet" was used, but it did not quite accurately characterize this phenomenon.

A simple epithet is an expression without a figurative meaning. A high term can be attributed to a metaphor.

It is difficult to overestimate the meaning of this word, since without its use the poems would be faded and inexpressive.

Defining words allow not only to emphasize the property of the subject, but also to emotionally color the author's attitude to this subject. Then the reader also feels the emotions that the author of the text wanted to convey.

Examples of epithets

Such techniques help to highlight the main idea or emphasize the merits. Some expressions were so popular with people that they began to be used in speech. This suggests that the writer coped with his task: his work was not only remembered, but it also went to the people.

Sometimes it is only with the help of these definitions that the author can use his personality and come up with a unique definition. It may be the fruit inner world the author, his attitude to the situation.

Use in literature

With the help of reception allocate significant trait what the author wanted to say. It can be a word or a phrase. Two types can be used in a poem:

• pictorial;
• lyrical.

The first option is used when you want to underline a word, but avoid evaluation. Examples: red sunset, yellow sun, blue sky. So it's more of a statement of fact. The second option is the attitude of the author to what he describes (noisy aspen, the most beautiful action).

Epithets: interpretation and role in language

With well-chosen epithets, the writer or poet draws more attention to the words he wants to emphasize or highlight. Therefore, it is important to find expressions that will give expressiveness to the work.

A well-chosen definition can give speech refinement, depth and enhanced expression of properties. Most often, these words are adjectives. They are located after the defined word.

Alexander Blok used amplifications in his works, placing them far from each other. This technique colored their sound. They were located at the end of the line of the poem.

Epithets in different parts of speech

Knowing what an epithet is in literature, a writer can easily use it to enhance the semantic effect, as well as create author's definitions. This is more an exception than a rule, but they are present in the work of V. Mayakovsky, for example.

With their help, he gives expression to the expression, using not one word, but several. After reading such a combination of words, a person will think about the author’s thought and appreciate how difficult and broad it is to look at everyday things.

After rereading the expression several times, it is easy to find the subtext and the veiled message that the author wanted to convey to the reader.

Permanent epithets

Many people wonder what permanent, well-established epithets are. This is a beautiful definition that is connected with the word and forms an inextricable, stable connection with it.

In fact, these are phrases fixed in the language that came to literature from folklore. Most often they are adjectives.

Epithet definition, examples

Many examples of these stable phrases are easy to find in fairy tales and epics. As a rule, this is the highest quality in the described subject. They organically fit into the meaning of the works.

Permanent epithets describe the idealized world of the work, its perfection. They are also used in songs for lyrical evaluation.

Their application occurs systematically, they imperceptibly take root in speech. For example:

• red girl;
• sugar lips;
• clear sun;
• gray bunny;
• gold autumn;
• white little hands;
• crackling frost;
• clear field.

They are used so often that they lose their original meaning. But their main use was in folk art.

Examples of epithets

The linguistic term "means of expression" is a certain combination of several words that form one whole.

This term artistically describes words. He:

• defines features and qualities;
• creates an impression;
• expresses the emotionality of the author;
• conveys the mood;
• describes the image;
• evaluates and characterizes.

Types of epithets

There are the following types:

1. Steady or poetic. Most often they find their application in folklore, as well as in poems.
2. figurative or descriptive.
3. Lyrical, emotionally colored.
4. Double, triple.
5. Metaphorical.
6. Metanomic.

Types of epithets

Important! Epithets are the main building blocks that the author uses to create the artistic world of the work. With their help, you can plunge into the atmosphere of the poem, become a witness of the era.

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Summing up

When the author endows the most simple words unusual features, he emphasizes the brightness and expressiveness of the story he wants to tell. This technique gives volume to the word and expression, the process of emotional evaluation takes place.

With the help of colorful definitions, the world that a writer or poet creates becomes alive and tangible. After reading such a work, a person, on the basis of figurative words, easily imagines the world and the described atmosphere.

Imagine people talking to each other like machines. They would exchange combinations of zeros and ones - bare data and no emotions. It would be harder for us to find mutual language? I think that yes, it is more difficult.

People exchange many messages every day: “What did you eat today?”, “What movie did you watch?”, “How is grandma feeling?” To say that you ate soup is simply to provide information. And say that the soup was delightful means to complicate the message with additional meanings. Hand over Additional information that they liked the soup, that it was delicious - and thereby praise the mother who cooked it, give her a hint about what kind of dinner to please another time.

And so with all other things: the film was scary, or cheerful, or romantic. Grandma was cheerful or tired- each of these messages evokes additional emotions, tells the whole story in just one word, describes it with one definition. And this definition is called an epithet.

• Epithet- a means of speech expressiveness, the main purpose of which is to describe the significant properties of an object, to give it a figurative description.

Functions of epithets

Without epithets, speech would be poor and inexpressive. After all, the imagery of speech simplifies the perception of information. One well-aimed word can not only convey a message about a fact, but also tell what emotions it evokes, what significance this fact has.

Epithets can differ in the strength of the emotions conveyed and in the degree of expression of a particular characteristic. For example, say " cold water» - and you will get only approximate temperature information. Say "ice water" - and along with the basic information you will convey sensations, emotions, an expressive metaphorical image and associations with the prickly, penetrating cold of ice.

At the same time, epithets can be distinguished commonly used understandable and familiar to everyone, and unique, copyright, such usually happen with writers. An example of the former would be almost any descriptive definition from Everyday life: the dress cheerful colors, book boring. To illustrate the author's, unique epithets, it is worth looking into fiction, best of all - into poetry.

For example, examples of epithets from works of art may look like this: “And the fox became downy wash your paws. || uplifted fiery tail sail ”(V. Khlebnikov). Or like this: "Face thousand-eyed trust shines with even electricity ”(V. Mayakovsky). Or even quite like this: “Every morning, with six-wheeled exactly, at the same hour and at the same minute, we, millions, rise as one. At the same hour one million start work - one million we are finishing” (E. Zamyatin).

Structure of epithets

Epithets are not necessarily adjectives, although from the ancient Greek the word ἐπίθετον it translates that way.

The most common epithets with the structure object+definition, expressed different parts speech. Often used as a definition adjective:

• “Nothing is given for free: fate || Victims redemptive asks” (N. Nekrasov).

But with equal success and even greater degree artistic expressiveness can also act as epithets nouns, adverbs and other parts of speech.

• Nouns: “Sitting in the pavilion, he saw a young lady of short stature walking along the embankment, blonde"(A. Chekhov); "And so public opinion! || Spring of honor, our idol!|| And this is what the world revolves on! (A. Pushkin);
• Adverbs: “There is grass all around funny bloomed” (I. Turgenev);
• Participles and verbal adjectives: “What if I, spellbound, || Soz-nanya breaking the thread, || I will return home humiliated, || Can you forgive me?" (A. Blok);
• Participles: “I love a thunderstorm in early May, || When spring, the first thunder, || As if frolicking and playing, || It rumbles in the blue sky ”(F. Tyutchev).

! It should be borne in mind that not every adjective or other part of speech, even if in some way they denote a sign, are necessarily epithets. They can carry a logical load in the statement and perform certain syntactic functions in the sentence (be a predicate, object or circumstance). And for this reason, epithets are not.

Classification of epithets

In general, an attempt to classify epithets based on their structure lies in the field of linguistics. Other parameters are important for literary criticism. In particular, the fact that epithets can be divided into groups:

• decorating;
• permanent;
• copyright.

decorating epithets - any descriptive characteristics: sea affectionate, silence ringing. permanent they call such epithets that have long been firmly entrenched in the minds of many people for certain words. There are many of them in the works of oral folk art, folklore and fairy tales: red sun, clear month, kind well done, mighty shoulders, red girl, etc.

Evolution of epithets

In historical and cultural terms, epithets have undergone changes over time and depending on the geography of residence of the people who created them. The conditions in which we live. What experience do we get during our life. What phenomena do we encounter and how do we comprehend them in our culture. All this affects the images of speech and the meanings and feelings encoded in them.

It is widely known, for example, that the peoples Far North there are dozens of synonyms-epithets for the word "white". A resident of tropical islands is unlikely to come up with one or two.

Or take black, which has a diametrically opposite meaning in the cultures of different peoples. In Europe, it symbolizes mourning and sorrow, and in Japan, joy. Traditionally, Europeans wear black for funerals, the Japanese for weddings.

Accordingly, the role of epithets with the word "black" also changes when they are used in the speech of Europeans or Japanese.

It is curious that in early oral folk art and literature at its early stages, epithets did not so much express emotions as literally described phenomena and objects in terms of their physical properties and key features. In addition, there were obvious epic exaggerations of the properties of phenomena and objects.

Remember that in Russian epics, enemy rati always countless, forests dense, monsters filthy, and the heroes are completely kind well done.

With the development of literature, both the epithets themselves and the roles played by epithets in literary works are modified. As a result of evolution, epithets became structurally and semantically more complex. Poetry gives us particularly curious examples. Silver Age and postmodern prose.

Epithets in folklore

To better imagine all of the above, let's look at fairy tales and other folklore works of the peoples of the world, prose and poetic texts different periods- and look for epithets in them.

Let's start with fairy tales. The vocabulary of epithets, its richness and imagery are largely determined by the traditions of the people who created it.

So, in the Russian folk tale "Finist the Bright Falcon" one can see descriptions of nature and man traditional for folklore. You can easily find the epithets of distance traditional for folk art:

• And a young man appeared to her beauty indescribable. By morning the fellow hit the floor and became a falcon. Maryushka opened the window for him, and the falcon flew to blue sky."
• “Maryushka ordered three iron shoes, three iron staffs, three iron caps and set off on her way. distant, search desired Finista - clear falcon. She walked clean field, walking dark forest, high mountains. birdies funny songs pleased her heart, streams face white washed, forests dark welcomed."
• “Your clear falcon is far away, in distant state."

But Iranian fairy tales are examples of oriental figurative, ornate and rich in various epithets of speech. Let's look at the fairy tale "The Story of Sultan Sanjar":

• “They say that a certain pious and wise a sultan named Sanjar, extraordinary diligence who delved into the affairs of the state and subjects, not relying on his close associates in this.
• O moon-faced, about pearl beauty! Who did you such harm? Why is fate so unkind to you?

On the example of these two tales, one can already notice how very interesting at the level of epithets and other means of expression are traced cultural characteristics one people or another. Take, for example, Russian epics about the glorious deeds of heroes, Celtic heroic legends and ancient Greek myths. They are united by heroic pathos, metaphor and obvious fantasy of the events described. And phenomena of the same order are described in them by epithets of a comparable level of emotionality:

• Russian epics: “Take off your dress, take off your bast shoes turntables, give me your hat downy yes your stick humpbacked: I'll dress myself as a walker, so that they don't recognize Idolishche filthy me, Ilya Muromets.
• Ancient Greek myths: “In the beginning there was only eternal, boundless, dark Chaos ". "Far under the Earth, as far as far from us immeasurable, light sky, in immeasurable deep was born gloomy Tartarus – terrible abyss, full of eternal darkness ».
• Celtic myths: “But the children of Calatin continued to fill the plain with the ghosts of battle, and fire and smoke rose to the sky, and the winds carried wild screams and groans, monstrous laughter and the sound of trumpets and horns."

Those. in all three examples (underlined) some monstrous, amazing and creatures, places, events or phenomena that frighten a person are described by epithets with a sharply negative connotation. And the task of these epithets is not only to give these creatures, places, events or phenomena a description and definition, but also to form a given, necessary attitude for the narrator. To evoke the emotions necessary for the perception of further narrative.

! By the way, translated texts bear the imprint of the translator's cultural heritage, including the traditions of his imagery. mother tongue. This means that the epithet in Russian, English or Chinese can be used differently for the same phenomena. Although in a talented professional translation, as a rule, epithets are chosen so as not to distort the original meaning and correspond to the linguistic culture of the original text.

Epithets in literary classics

Over time, the evocative impact of epithets and other language tools expressiveness began to be used in literature (and not only) much more often and more widely. After all, it is important for writers and poets to stimulate the empathy of listeners and readers - it is one of the necessary components of joint creativity. Which, without a doubt, is the creation and subsequent reading of any talented work.

Let's take Russian classics from school course literature and epithets in it. For example, a couple of quotes from the novel "Fathers and Sons" by I. Turgenev:

• « <…>dry the maple leaf is torn off and falls to the ground; its movements are completely similar to the flight of a butterfly. Isn't it strange? The saddest thing and dead- similar to most cheerful and alive».
• "Whatever passionate, sinful, rebellious the heart is not hidden in the grave, the flowers growing on it, serenely look at us with their innocent eyes: not about one eternal calmness they tell us about great serenity" indifferent» nature; they also talk about eternal reconciliation and life endless…»

Poetry shows us many examples of how epithets create mood and set the tone for the story. In poems, epithets are used even more often than other tropes.

• "Child, look around; baby, to me; || There is a lot of fun in my side: || Flowers turquoise, pearl jets; || Made of gold my halls". V. Zhukovsky, the poem "The Forest Tsar".
• "On such an evening golden and clear, || In this breath of spring all-victorious|| Remember me not my friend beautiful, || You are about our love timid and poor". A. Fet.
• “Like a straw, you drink my soul. || I know the taste of her bitter and hoppy. || But I will not break the torture of prayer. || Oh my peace many weeks". A. Akhmatova.

The role of epithets in poems and prose can also be realized in this way: when epithets are part of a complex syntactic construction, which, as a whole, should also not only convey the author’s idea to the reader, but also emotionally enrich it:

• "AT white raincoat with bloody lining, shuffling cavalry gait, early on the morning of the fourteenth day of the spring month of Nisan in covered the colonnade between the two wings of the palace of Herod the Great came out the procurator of Judea, Pontius Pilate ... "M. Bulkagov," The Master and Margarita ".

The author strings epithets on top of each other, giving this segment of the text a rhythm similar to an old man's gait. And he uses epithets that not only describe color or gait, but also convey information beyond the text. The lining of the cloak is not just red, but symbolically bloody. And the epithets for describing the gait give an idea of ​​the past of its owner and the fact that he retained the bearing of a military man. Other epithets are descriptions of circumstances of place and time.

Successfully combining epithets, personifications, comparisons, metaphors, writers create non-standard images:

• "You Book! You alone will not deceive, you will not hit, you will not offend, you will not leave! Quiet- and laugh, shout, eat; submissive- you amaze, tease, lure; small- and in you peoples without number; a handful of letters, just something, but if you want, you will turn your head, confuse, wrap, cloud, tears will bubble up, your breath will become cold, your whole soul will be agitated like a canvas in the wind, it will rise in waves, it will flap its wings! T. Tolstaya, "Kys".

Conclusion

Epithets play a very important role in communication at its various levels: from everyday life to the level of art and literature. They make speech not only interesting and pleasant for perception, but also more informative. Since in the form of epithets additional, beyond textual information and emotions are encoded.

There are several ways to classify epithets and break them into groups. The basis for this division is the structure of epithets, their origin, frequency of use in speech.

Epithets reflect the traditions of the language and culture of a certain people, and are also a kind of sign of the time that gave rise to them.

Illustrative examples of epithets different levels difficulties can be found in the folklore and literature of subsequent periods.

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What is one of the main charms of interaction between people? Of course, in communication, exchanging your thoughts, emotions, feelings with each other through language. Now imagine if all our conversations were reduced solely to the transfer of this or that information, bare data without any figurative characteristics and additional meanings that reflect our attitude to what was said. It would be reminiscent of this communication of machines exchanging various combinations zeros and ones, only instead of numbers - words that do not carry any emotional coloring. The expressiveness of speech is important not only in everyday communication, but also in literature (and here it is "vital"). Agree, it is difficult to imagine a novel, a poem or a fairy tale that does not use figurative definitions and others. That is why epithets are important in our speech, both oral and written. What it is? That is what helps to make the words and phrases used more colorful, more accurately convey their essential features and express our attitude towards them. Next, we will consider this concept in more detail, determine the role and meaning of epithets in speech, and also try to classify them depending on the purposes and features of the application.

The concept of the epithet and the types of its constructions

Let's start by presenting a complete and deeper understanding of the word "epithet": what it is, what structure it has, how it is used in certain situations.

Adjectives as epithets

From the ancient Greek "epithet" is translated as something "attached" or "added" to the main one. And there is. These special expressive words always go as a supplement to others denoting some kind of object (object or subject). Usually this is a "definition + noun" construction, where the epithet is a definition, usually an adjective (but not necessarily). Here are simple examples: black melancholy, dead night, powerful shoulders, sugar lips, a hot kiss, cheerful colors, etc.

In this case, adjectives are epithets that allow us to draw a more complete picture of a particular subject: not just melancholy, but "black", oppressive, impenetrable; not just a kiss, but "hot", passionate, giving pleasure - such a description makes you feel deeper what the author wants to convey, experience some sensations and emotions.

Use of other parts of speech as epithets

However, not only the adjective can play the role of epithets, often adverbs, nouns, pronouns, and even participles and adverbial phrases(that is, not one word, but a combination of them). Often it is these parts of speech that allow you to more accurately and vividly convey the image and create the right atmosphere than adjectives would do.

Consider examples of using various parts of speech as epithets:

1. Adverbs. In a sentence, they are circumstances. Examples: "The grass bloomed merrily" (Turgenev); "And I bitterly complain, and bitterly shed tears" (Pushkin).
2. Nouns. They give a figurative description of the subject. They act as applications or predicates. Examples: "Oh, cab Mother Volga ran back!" (Tolstoy); "Spring of honor, our idol!" (Pushkin).
3. Pronouns. They are used as epithets when expressing superlatives any phenomenon. Example: "... combat fights ... they say, what else!" (Lermontov).
4. Communions. Example: "... I, spellbound, breaking the thread of consciousness ..." (Block).
5. Participle turns. Examples: "Leaf, ringing and dancing in the silence of centuries" (Krasko); "... writers ... who have nothing in their language, except for words that do not remember kinship" (Saltykov-Shchedrin).
6. Participles and participles. Examples: "... playing hide and seek, the sky comes down from the attic" (Pasternak); "... frolicking and playing, rumbles ..." (Tyutchev).

Thus, epithets in speech can be not only adjectives, but also other parts of speech, if they help convey the image and more accurately express the properties of the described object.

Independent epithets

Rarely, but there are cases when expressive means are used in the text without the main word, epithets act as independent definitions without defined ones. Example: "I am looking for strange and new things on the pages of old written books" (Block). Here the epithets "strange" and "new" play two roles at the same time - both defining and being defined. This technique is typical for the literature of the era of symbolism.

Methods for classifying epithets

So, now we have a fairly clear idea of ​​such an important term in literary theory as epithets. What it is and how it is used, we examined. However, for a better understanding of this phenomenon, it is important to be able to distinguish and classify epithets according to certain criteria. Although the main and most the main objective use of these means of expression always comes down to one thing - describe, give artistic definition object or phenomenon, all epithets can be classified. They are divided into groups according to different parameters, which we will consider below.

Types of epithets in terms of genetics

The first group divides epithets into types depending on the genetic origin:

• general language (decorating);
• folk-poetic (permanent);
• individually-author's.

General language, they are also called decorating, are any characteristics that describe objects and phenomena and their properties. Examples: gentle sea, deathly silence, leaden clouds, ringing silence, etc. We usually use them in everyday speech in order to better convey the atmosphere of the event / object being described and our feelings to the interlocutor.

Folk poetic, or permanent, epithets are such words or whole expressions that long years firmly entrenched in the minds of people for some specific words. Examples: good fellow, red maiden, clear moon, open field and others.

Individually-author's epithets are a product of the creative thought of the author himself. That is, previously these words or phrases were not used in speech in this sense, and therefore were not epithets. There are a lot of them in fiction especially in poetry. Examples: "the face of a thousand-eyed trust..." (Mayakovsky); "transparent flattery necklace", "golden rosary of wisdom" (Pushkin); "... an eternal motive in the middle of life" (Brodsky).

Epithets based on metaphor and metonymy

It is possible to divide epithets into groups on another basis. Since figurative epithets are often associated with the use of words in a figurative sense, depending on the type of this figurative word(which is an epithet) can be distinguished:

• metaphorical;
• metonymic.

Metaphorical epithets, as the name already implies, are based on "light patterns", "winter silver" (Pushkin); "dismal, sad friendship", "sad, mournful reflection" (Herzen); "barren fields" (Lermontov).

Metonymic epithets are based on the figurative metonymic meaning of the word. Examples: "her hot, scratchy whisper" (Bitter); "birch, cheerful language" (Yesenin).

In addition, epithets based on a metaphorical or metonymic meaning can incorporate the properties of other tropes: combined with hyperbole, personification and other

Examples: "Loudly winged arrows, beating behind the shoulders, sounded / In the procession of an angry god: he walked, like the night" (Homer); “He cursed, begged, cut / climbed after someone to bite into his sides. / Red in the sky, like a Marseillaise / trembled, round, the sunset” (Mayakovsky).

Such use of epithets makes it possible to express the perception of some phenomena/objects by the author even brighter, stronger, more accurately and convey these feelings to readers or listeners.

Epithets from the point of view of the author's assessment

Epithets can be divided into groups depending on how the author's assessment is expressed in the work:

• pictorial;
• expressive.

The former are used to express features and focus on some significant differences, properties of the subject without expressing the author's assessment of it. Examples: "... in the autumn twilight, how ghostly the transparency of the garden reigns" (Brodsky); "Your fences have a cast-iron pattern / And a blue punch flame" (Pushkin).

Expressive epithets (as the name already implies) give readers the opportunity to hear the author's attitude, his clearly expressed assessment of the described object or phenomenon. Examples: "meaningless and dim light" (Block); "the heart is a cold piece of iron" (Mayakovsky).

However, it should be noted that such a division is very conditional, since often pictorial epithets also have an emotional color and are a consequence of the author's perception of certain objects.

The evolution of the use of epithets in literature

Arguing about what epithets are in literature, one cannot help but touch on the topic of their evolution over time. They are constantly undergoing changes both historically and culturally. In addition, epithets differ depending on the geography (place of residence) of the people who created them. Our upbringing, the characteristics and conditions of life, the events and phenomena experienced, the experience gained - all this affects created images in speech, as well as the meaning that is embedded in them.

Epithets and Russian folk art

Epithets - what are these images in oral folk art? At an early stage in the development of literature, epithets, as a rule, described any physical properties objects and singled out their essential, key features. The emotional component and the expression of attitude towards the described object faded into the background or were completely absent. In addition, folk epithets were distinguished by exaggeration of the properties of objects and phenomena. Examples: good fellow, untold wealth, etc.

Epithets of the Silver Age and postmodernism

With the passage of time and the development of literature, epithets became more complex, their constructions changed, and their role in works changed. The novelty of the poetic language, and hence the use of epithets, is especially well seen in the literary works of the Silver Age. Wars, rapid scientific and technological progress and related changes in the world led to changes in the worldview of man. Writers and poets set off in search of new literary forms. Hence - the appearance of a large number of "own" (that is, author's) words due to the violation of the usual morphemes, stem connections, new forms of words and new ways of combining them.

Examples: "Curls sleep on the shoulders of snowy whiteness" (Ants); "Laughers ... who laugh with laughter, who laugh with laughter, oh, laugh with laughter!" (Khlebnikov).

Lots of interesting examples in the use of words and the unusual depiction of objects can be found in the work of Mayakovsky. What is the poem "Violin and a little tenderly" worth, in which "the drum ... darted at the burning Kuznetsky and left", "the silly cymbal clanged out", "the helikon-copper-faced" shouted something to the violin, etc.

Notable in terms of the use of epithets is the literature of postmodernism. This trend (which arose in the 40s and received its greatest dawn in the 80s) opposes itself to realism (especially socialist realism), which dominated Russia until the end of the 70s. Representatives of postmodernism reject the rules and norms developed cultural traditions. In their work, the boundaries between reality and fiction, reality and art are erased. From here - a large number of new verbal forms and techniques, a curious and very interesting use of epithets.

Examples: "Diathesis bloomed / Diapers were golden" (Kibrov); "An acacia branch ... smells of creosote, tambour dust ... in the evening it tiptoes back into the garden and listens to the movement of electric trains" (Sokolov).

The works of the era of postmodernism are replete with examples of what epithets are in the literature of our time. One has only to read such authors as Sokolov (an example is presented above), Strochkov, Levin, Sorokin, and others.

Fairy tales and their characteristic epithets

A special place is occupied by epithets in fairy tales. Folklore works of different times and different peoples of the world contain a lot of examples of the use of epithets. So, for example, Russian folk tales are characterized by the frequent use of distance epithets, as well as definitions describing the surrounding nature. Examples: "clear field, dark forest, high mountains"; "for distant lands, in distant state"(" Finist - a clear falcon ", Russian folk tale).

But Iranian fairy tales, for example, are characterized by oriental imagery, rich in various epithets ornate speech. Examples: "... a pious and wise sultan, delving into state affairs with extraordinary care ..." ("The History of Sultan Sanjar").

So, on the example of epithets used in folk art, one can trace the cultural characteristics inherent in a particular people.

Epithets in epics and myths of different peoples of the world

At the same time for folklore works different countries peace are characteristic common features use of epithets that serve a specific purpose. This is easy to follow on the example of ancient Greek myths, Celtic legends and Russian epics. All these works are united by the metaphorical and fantastic nature of events; epithets with a negative connotation are used to describe frightening places, events or phenomena.

Examples: "boundless dark Chaos" (ancient Greek myths), "wild cries, monstrous laughter" (Celtic legends), "filthy idol" (Russian epics). Such epithets serve not only for vivid description places and phenomena, but also for the formation of a special perception, the reader's attitude to what he read.

How rich is the Russian language? Epithets and their role in colloquial and artistic speech

Let's start with a simple example. Short two-sentence dialogue: "Hi son. I'm on my way home. How are you? What are you doing?" - "Hi, mom. Good. I ate the soup." This conversation is a dry exchange of information: mother is going home, the child has eaten soup. Such communication does not carry any emotions, does not create a mood, and, one might say, does not give us any information about the feelings and the real state of affairs of the interlocutors.

Another thing is if epithets "intervene" in the process of communication. What does it change? Example: "Hi, my sweet son. I'm going home tired and exhausted like a dog. How are you? What are you doing?" - "Hello, dear mother. I had a hot day today, in good sense! I ate the soup, it was great." This example answers very well the question of why epithets in modern speech so important, even if it's a normal everyday conversation. Agree, from such a conversation it is much easier to understand what mood each of the interlocutors is in: the mother will be glad that her son is doing well, and pleased that he liked the soup; the son, in turn, will understand that mom is tired, and will warm up dinner for her arrival, or do something else useful. And all this thanks to epithets!

Epithet in Russian: the role and examples of use in artistic speech

Let's move on from the simple to the complex. AT artistic speech epithets are no less, and perhaps even more important. Not a single literary work will be interesting and will not be able to captivate the reader if it contains few epithets (with rare exceptions, of course). In addition to the fact that they allow you to make the image of the depicted phenomena, objects brighter and more expressive, epithets also play other roles in:

1. emphasize some characteristics and properties of the described object. Examples: "yellow beam", "wild cave", "smooth skull" (Lermontov).
2. Explain, clarify the features that distinguish the object (for example, color, size, etc.). Example: "Forest ... purple, gold, crimson ..." (Bunin).
3. They are used as a basis for creating an oxymoron by combining words that are contrasting in meaning. Examples: "brilliant shadow", "wretched luxury".
4. They allow the author to express his attitude to the described phenomenon, give his assessment and convey this perception to readers. Example: "We value the prophetic word, and we honor the Russian word" (Sergeev-Tsensky).
5. Helps create a vivid representation of the subject. Example: "... spring, the first ringing ... rumbles in the blue sky" (Tyutchev).
6. Create a certain atmosphere, cause the right emotional condition. Example: "... lonely and alien to everything, walking alone through an abandoned high road"(Tolstoy).
7. They form in readers a certain attitude towards a phenomenon, object or character. Examples: "A rustic peasant is riding, and a peasant is sitting on a good horse" (Russian epic); "Onegin was in the opinion of many ... / A small scientist, but a pedant" (Pushkin).

Thus, the role of epithets in fiction is priceless. It is these expressive words that make works, whether it be a poem, a poem, a story or a novel, lively, fascinating, capable of evoking certain emotions, moods, and assessments. We can safely say that there would be no epithets, the very possibility of the existence of literature as an art would be called into question.

Conclusion

In this article, we tried to most fully answer the question of whether, and considered various ways classification of these expressive means, and also talked about the role of epithets in life and work. We hope this helped you expand your understanding of such an important term in literary theory as epithet.

The main task of oral and writing is communication between people, the ability to convey to each other their thoughts, judgments, assessments and emotions.

At the same time, the emotional side is no less, and sometimes even more important than the actual component. To express their feelings and impressions, mankind has come up with many ways, one of which is the use of various epithets in speech. What it is? Let's figure it out.

Word "epithet" is of ancient Greek origin and means "applied". In fact, this is an addition to the main word or concept, designed to make it more expressive and vivid.

Most often, adjectives become epithets, but other parts of speech can also play this role - adverbs, numerals, and even nouns. The epithet usually comes before the main word, but this is not necessary. It may not be one word, but a whole expression that gives a stable concept a new semantic or emotional connotation.

In literary work, epithets are used extremely widely. Poetic works are most saturated with them, however, this powerful speech tool is also actively used in prose and even in everyday speech.


Like any other visual means, epithets have evolved and improved over time, which can be seen by analyzing literary works past and present.

In folk art and in the earliest literary works, epithets, as a rule, describe the properties of objects and phenomena, highlighting them key features, but practically without touching the emotional, personal component: red maiden, pure gold, untold riches .

With the development of literature, the role and structure of epithets became more complicated, acquiring new properties and functional content. This was most clearly expressed in the work of the poets of the Silver Age and the subsequent period: silly plate clattered, edge of limit, lazy-passionate rosehip etc.

Modern literature, especially postmodern works, have further complicated both the structure and the semantic content of epithets, sometimes allowing for very unusual expressive devices: diathesis bloomed, diapers were golden .

Epithets are an important element of speech, giving it expressiveness, convexity and emotionality. With their help, the narrator gets the opportunity to express his attitude to the described objects or present them to listeners / readers in a new, unusual light.


Often, with the help of epithets, the atmosphere of a historical era, a social group or ethnic color is recreated. This is powerful tool to convey in words visual images, their emotional and artistic content.

Both epithets and metaphors are widely used by poets and prose writers to create vivid works of art. Sometimes it is difficult to distinguish, and where is an epithet. However, if you approach the issue thoughtfully, the difference becomes obvious.

An epithet is a figurative definition that describes a stable feature of the depicted object, creature or concept: fragrant apple, instant reaction, silently testify . Most often it is expressed in one word that complements the main word and describes its inherent property. An epithet cannot exist on its own and is always a complement.

At the same time, a metaphor is almost always a speech construct of several words that carry an independent semantic function - they transfer the properties or image of one object or concept to another.

Metaphor evokes in the mind an associative link between seemingly completely different concepts, actions or things. This association only works for this specific case: a scattering of dewy pearls on the grass, a winter cold reigned in the heart etc.

It is easy to see that an epithet can be part of a metaphor. Metaphor will never be part of an epithet.

Descriptive epithets: lead cloud, fragrant flower, fun to bounce, gentle waves .

Permanent epithets, or folklore-poetic: good fellow, open field, clear falcon, sharp sword .


Metaphorical epithets: winter silver, sad friendship, mourning border, piercing gaze .

Metonymic epithets: scratching whisper, birch cheerful tongue .

Any classification is rather arbitrary, since the same epithet can successfully be included in several different classification groups.