Short school course of the Russian language. Russian language. A short theoretical course for schoolchildren. Litnevskaya E.I

Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling

Foreword

Russian language today in the middle(grades 5-9) there are three official alternative educational complexes that are certified by the Ministry of Education, recommended by him and sent to school libraries.

Complex 1 is an educational complex (authors: M. T. Baranov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, L. T. Grigoryan and others for grades 5-7 and S. G. Barkhudarov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. Yu Maksimov, L. A. Cheshko for grades 8 and 9), reprinted more than 20 times by 2000; to date, this complex continues to be the most common.

Complex 2 is an educational complex edited by V. V. Babaitseva, which appeared in the early 90s.

Complex 3, edited by M. M. Razumovskaya and P. A. Lekant, began to appear in 1995.

These complexes have no conceptual differences: the material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax and is “diluted” with spelling, punctuation and speech development. However, some discrepancies in theory (the transcription system, the status of formative suffixes, the system of parts of speech, the description of the phrase and types of subordinate clauses), terminology and the order of the sections create tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from school to school) and for the formation programs for admission to a philological university.

It is also necessary to keep in mind the possibility of teaching in a number of schools according to alternative and experimental curricula, which represent a significantly modified course of the Russian language. Unfortunately, recently a large amount of educational literature of extremely dubious quality has appeared.

A feature of this stage of development of the secondary school is that after a long break, the Russian language in high school introduced as a compulsory subject.

Existing programs and manuals designed for learning the Russian language in grades 10-11 can be divided into several groups: programs in which the practical importance of the Russian language as a subject (spelling and punctuation or speech) is strengthened, and programs in which the main emphasis is made to strengthen the theoretical base, its systematization (for the humanitarian or -? already - philological profile).

There are programs and benefits for each of these types. Handbooks with a practical spelling and punctuation focus include, for example, “A Handbook for Russian Language Classes in Senior Secondary Schools” by V. F. Grekov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. A. Cheshko, which has already gone through about 40 reprints. The manuals of D. E. Rosenthal “Russian language. 10-11 grades. Manual for General Educational Institutions”, “Russian Language for High School Students and Applicants to Universities”, “Russian Language. A collection of exercises for high school students and those entering universities.

The second group includes programs and manuals with enhanced speech orientation. This is the program of A. I. Vlasenkov “Russian language. 10-11 grades”, provided with a manual for students “Russian language: Grammar. Text. Speech styles” by A. I. Vlasenkov and L. M. Rybchenkova (published since 1996).

The third group should include programs and manuals with a strong theoretical focus. The main user of these programs is the future philologist, who, due to the variety of programs and textbooks for secondary schools, often receives conflicting information about the language. A future philologist needs a systematizing course that can become an intermediate link in a single chain "school - university" and ensure the continuity and succession of the teaching of the Russian language. Especially for senior classes of gymnasiums, lyceums of a humanitarian profile at the philological faculty of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, a program was created for a systematizing course of the Russian language, repeating, generalizing and deepening students' knowledge of the theory of language, forming the skills and abilities of students to work with language material of different levels of complexity. The program is provided with a textbook "Russian language: A textbook for in-depth study in high school" in 2 volumes, authors V. A. Bagryantseva, E. M. Bolycheva, I. V. Galaktionova, L. A. Zhdanova, E. I. Litnevskaya (M., 2000).

In addition, in high school, the Russian language course is often replaced by a course in stylistics, rhetoric or literature.

Such a variety of textbooks and manuals on the Russian language sharply raises the question of the need for repetitive and generalizing materials on the Russian language. The proposed materials systematize and generalize information about the Russian language as a language system, presented in the three main educational complexes, if necessary, commenting on the differences between them. Spelling and punctuation in the proposed materials is included only in a theoretically generalized form, specific spelling and punctuation rules are not considered.

Linguistics as a science. The main sections of the science of language

Linguistic science is represented in school studies by the following sections that study the modern Russian literary language:

phonetics,

Lexicology (traditionally called vocabulary in the school course and includes material on lexicology and phraseology),

Morphemics and word formation (called in different complexes depending on their specificity or morphemics, or word formation),

morphology,

Syntax.

Sections such as graphics and spelling are usually not studied independently, but are combined with other sections. So, graphics are traditionally studied together with phonetics, spelling - throughout the study of phonetics, word formation and morphology.

Lexicography as an independent section is not studied; information about dictionaries is presented in the main sections.

Stylistics is studied during lessons on the development of speech.

Punctuation is taught in conjunction with the syntax section.

Sections of linguistics describe the language from different angles, that is, they have their own object of study:

phonetics - sounding speech,

morphemic - the composition of the word,

word formation - the production of a word,

lexicology - the vocabulary of the language,

morphology - words as parts of speech,

syntax - phrases and sentences.

Morphology and syntax make up grammar.

Modern Russian literary language

The object of study of all sections of the science of the Russian language at school is the modern Russian literary language.

Modern is the language that we understand without a dictionary and that we use in communication. These two aspects of language use are not the same.

It is generally accepted that without a “translator” (dictionary, reference book, commentator) we understand the language starting from the works of A. S. Pushkin, however, modern man will not use many expressions used by the great poet and other writers and thinkers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and some will not understand; in addition, we read the texts of the 19th century in modern orthography, and not in the one that was in force at the time of their writing. Nevertheless, most of the sentences from the work of Russian classical literature of that time correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language and can be used as illustrative material.

If we understand the term "modern language" as a language that we understand and use, then the language should be recognized as modern since the second half of the 20th century. But even during this historical period, the language, especially in its vocabulary, underwent significant changes: many neologisms appeared, many words moved into the passive vocabulary (see the section on lexicology).

Thus, the term "modern language" is understood in two meanings:

1) the language we understand without a dictionary is the language from Pushkin;

2) the language we use is the language from the middle of the 20th century.

Russian language is the language of the Russian people and the Russian nation. It belongs to the group of East Slavic languages ​​and stood out in the XIV-XV centuries, together with the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, from a common ancestor language - the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language.

Russian language - Short theoretical course for schoolchildren - Litnevskaya E.I. - 2006.

The manual contains a systematic presentation of all sections of the course "Russian language" with an overview of the material presented in three educational complexes, as well as diagrams and samples of the analysis of all language units and comments on these analyzes. The task of the manual is to generalize and systematize students' knowledge of language and speech.
The manual is compiled in accordance with the theoretical guidelines adopted in pre-university training at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University. M. V. Lomonosov.
For high school students, applicants and teachers.

Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
Foreword
Linguistics as a science. The main sections of the science of language
Modern Russian literary language
Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling
sound and letter
Phonetic transcription
Formation of vowels and consonants
Vowel sounds and vowels Stressed vowels
Unstressed vowels
Consonants and consonants
Voiceless and voiced consonants
Positional stun / voicing
Reflection of deafness / voiced consonants in writing
Hard and soft consonants
Positional softening of consonants
Designation of hardness and softness of consonants in writing
Functions and spelling of b and b
Positional assimilation of consonants on other grounds. Distinguishing consonants
Simplifying consonant clusters (silent consonant)
Qualitative and quantitative relationships between letters and sounds in Russian
Syllable
stress
Orthoepy
Graphic arts. Spelling
Writing morphemes (meaningful parts of a word)
Continuous, separate and hyphenated spelling
Use of uppercase and lowercase letters
Transfer Rules
Rules for graphic word abbreviations
Phonetic parsing

Part 2. Morphemics and word formation
morphemic subject. Morpheme. Alternation of vowels and consonants in morphemes
Classification of Russian morphemes
Root
Word-forming morphemes: prefix, suffix
Formative morphemes: ending, formative suffix
The ending
formative suffix. Modifications of the verb stem
The basis
Principles of morphemic analysis of a word
Algorithm for morpheme articulation of stem
Connecting elements in a word (interfixes)
Zero derivational suffix
Morphemic analysis (word analysis by composition)
Subject and basic concepts of word formation
Means and method of word formation
Methods for the formation of independent parts of speech
Noun
Adjective
numeral
Pronoun
Verb
Adverb
Formation of words by transition from one part of speech to another
Word-building analysis of the word
Reflection of the morphemic composition of the word and its word-formation relations in dictionaries

Part 3 Lexicology and lexicography
Lexicology and lexicography
The word as a unit of vocabulary. Meaning of the word
single and multiple words. Direct and figurative meaning of the word. Portable Value Types
Homonyms
Synonyms
Antonyms
Outdated vocabulary
Neologisms
Common vocabulary and vocabulary of limited use
Dialectisms
Special vocabulary
Jargon
Stylistic layers of vocabulary
Original Russian vocabulary
Borrowed vocabulary
Old Church Slavonicisms
Phraseologisms
Speech. Text
Speech styles. Genres of speech
scientific style
Formal business style
Journalistic style
Art style
Conversational style
Types of speech

Part 4 Morphology
Parts of speech in Russian
Noun
Noun ranks by value
Animate and inanimate nouns
Gender as a morphological feature of a noun
Number as a morphological feature of a noun
Case as a morphological feature of nouns
Noun declension
Morphological analysis of a noun
Adjective
Ranks of adjectives by meaning
Declension of adjectives
Degrees of comparison of adjectives
Completeness / brevity of adjectives
Transition of adjectives from category to category
Morphological analysis of the adjective
Numeral
Digits of numerals by value
Digits of numerals by structure
Grammatical signs of cardinal numbers
Grammatical signs of ordinal numbers
Morphological analysis of the numeral
Pronoun as a part of speech
Pronoun ranks by meaning
Ranks of pronouns by grammatical features
Grammatical features of pronouns-nouns
Grammatical features of pronouns-adjectives
Grammatical features of pronouns-numerals
Morphological analysis of the pronoun
Parsing Pronouns
Parsing pronouns-adjectives
Analysis of pronouns-numerals
Adverb
Classification of adverbs by function
Classification of adverbs by meaning
Grammatical signs of adverbs
Degrees of comparison of qualitative adverbs in -o / -e
comparative
State category
Morphological analysis of the adverb
Verb
Indefinite form of the verb (infinitive)
Transitivity / intransitivity of the verb
Return / non-return
View as a morphological feature of the verb
Mood as a morphological feature of the verb
Time as a morphological feature of the verb
Person as a morphological feature of the verb. Impersonal verbs
Conjugation
Genus. Number. The relationship of verb categories
Morphological analysis of conjugated forms of the verb and infinitive
Participle
Dependence of the number of participial forms on transitivity and the form of the verb
Valid participles
Passive participles
Participles and verbal adjectives
Morphological analysis of the sacrament
Parsing the participle as a form of the verb:
Parsing the participle as an independent part of speech:
gerund
Morphological analysis of the participle
Scheme of morphological analysis of the gerund as a form of the verb:
Scheme of morphological analysis of the participle as an independent part of speech:
Parsing the participle as a form of the verb:
Parsing the participle as an independent part of speech:
Service parts of speech
Pretext
Morphological analysis of the preposition
Union
Morphological analysis of the union
Particle
Morphological parsing of a particle
Interjection

Part 5 phrase
Phrase. Relationship of words in a phrase

Part 6 Offer
The sentence as a unit of syntax. Classification of sentences according to the purpose of utterance and intonation
Offer members. grammatical basis. Classification of sentences by the number of grammatical bases
Simple sentence
The main members of the proposal
Subject, ways of expressing it
Predicate. Predicate types
Simple verbal predicate, ways of expressing it
Compound verb predicate
Compound nominal predicate
Features of agreement of the predicate with the subject.
Inconsistent predicate
One-part sentence, the expression of the main member in it
Definitely personal, indefinitely personal sentences, generalized personal sentences
impersonal proposals
Name sentences
Secondary members of the sentence
Types of secondary members of the proposal. Grammar and syntactic question
Definition, ways of expressing it
Addition, ways of expressing it
Circumstance, ways of its expression. Types of circumstances
Classification of simple sentences by prevalence and completeness
Complicated sentences
Homogeneous members of a sentence
Separate members of the sentence
Appeal
Introductory words, phrases and sentences.
Plug-in structures
Direct and indirect speech
Quotes
Parsing a simple sentence
Parsing Sequence
Ways to underline members of a sentence
Designation of words and phrases that are not members of the sentence
Description of the complicating members of the sentence
One-part sentences
Difficult sentence
Compound sentence
Complex sentence
Classification of types of subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate explanatory clauses
Adverbial clauses
Complex sentences with clauses of time
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Complex sentences with subordinate corollaries
Complex sentences with subordinate conditions
Complex sentences with subordinate goals
Complex sentences with subordinate concessions
Complex sentences with subordinate comparisons
Complex sentences with adverbial modalities
Complex sentences with subordinate measures and degrees
Complex sentences with subordinate clauses
Types of subordinate clauses in Russian
A complex sentence with two or more subordinate clauses
Associative compound sentence
Complex syntactic constructions (complex sentences of mixed type)
Syntactic analysis of a complex sentence
Parsing order
Building a proposal schema

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Part 1. Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and spelling

Foreword

Russian language today in the middle(grades 5-9) there are three official alternative educational complexes that are certified by the Ministry of Education, recommended by him and sent to school libraries.

Complex 1 is an educational complex (authors: M. T. Baranov, T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, L. T. Grigoryan and others for grades 5-7 and S. G. Barkhudarov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. Yu Maksimov, L. A. Cheshko for grades 8 and 9), reprinted more than 20 times by 2000; to date, this complex continues to be the most common.

Complex 2 is an educational complex edited by V. V. Babaitseva, which appeared in the early 90s.

Complex 3, edited by M. M. Razumovskaya and P. A. Lekant, began to appear in 1995.

These complexes have no conceptual differences: the material is structured by levels from phonetics to syntax and is “diluted” with spelling, punctuation and speech development. However, some discrepancies in theory (the transcription system, the status of formative suffixes, the system of parts of speech, the description of the phrase and types of subordinate clauses), terminology and the order of the sections create tangible difficulties both for the student (especially when moving from school to school) and for the formation programs for admission to a philological university.

It is also necessary to keep in mind the possibility of teaching in a number of schools according to alternative and experimental curricula, which represent a significantly modified course of the Russian language. Unfortunately, recently a large amount of educational literature of extremely dubious quality has appeared.

A feature of this stage of development of the secondary school is that after a long break, the Russian language in high school introduced as a compulsory subject.

Existing programs and manuals designed for learning the Russian language in grades 10-11 can be divided into several groups: programs in which the practical importance of the Russian language as a subject (spelling and punctuation or speech) is strengthened, and programs in which the main emphasis is made to strengthen the theoretical base, its systematization (for the humanitarian or -? already - philological profile).

There are programs and benefits for each of these types. Handbooks with a practical spelling and punctuation focus include, for example, “A Handbook for Russian Language Classes in Senior Secondary Schools” by V. F. Grekov, S. E. Kryuchkov, L. A. Cheshko, which has already gone through about 40 reprints. The manuals of D. E. Rosenthal “Russian language. 10-11 grades. Manual for General Educational Institutions”, “Russian Language for High School Students and Applicants to Universities”, “Russian Language. A collection of exercises for high school students and those entering universities.

The second group includes programs and manuals with enhanced speech orientation. This is the program of A. I. Vlasenkov “Russian language. 10-11 grades”, provided with a manual for students “Russian language: Grammar. Text. Speech styles” by A. I. Vlasenkov and L. M. Rybchenkova (published since 1996).

The third group should include programs and manuals with a strong theoretical focus. The main user of these programs is the future philologist, who, due to the variety of programs and textbooks for secondary schools, often receives conflicting information about the language. A future philologist needs a systematizing course that can become an intermediate link in a single chain "school - university" and ensure the continuity and succession of the teaching of the Russian language. Especially for senior classes of gymnasiums, lyceums of a humanitarian profile at the philological faculty of Moscow State University. M.V. Lomonosov, a program was created for a systematizing course of the Russian language, repeating, generalizing and deepening students' knowledge of the theory of language, forming the skills and abilities of students to work with language material of different levels of complexity. The program is provided with a textbook "Russian language: A textbook for in-depth study in high school" in 2 volumes, authors V. A. Bagryantseva, E. M. Bolycheva, I. V. Galaktionova, L. A. Zhdanova, E. I. Litnevskaya (M., 2000).

In addition, in high school, the Russian language course is often replaced by a course in stylistics, rhetoric or literature.

Such a variety of textbooks and manuals on the Russian language sharply raises the question of the need for repetitive and generalizing materials on the Russian language. The proposed materials systematize and generalize information about the Russian language as a language system, presented in the three main educational complexes, if necessary, commenting on the differences between them. Spelling and punctuation in the proposed materials is included only in a theoretically generalized form, specific spelling and punctuation rules are not considered.

Linguistics as a science. The main sections of the science of language

Linguistic science is represented in school studies by the following sections that study the modern Russian literary language:

phonetics,

Lexicology (traditionally called vocabulary in the school course and includes material on lexicology and phraseology),

Morphemics and word formation (called in different complexes depending on their specificity or morphemics, or word formation),

morphology,

Syntax.

Sections such as graphics and spelling are usually not studied independently, but are combined with other sections. So, graphics are traditionally studied together with phonetics, spelling - throughout the study of phonetics, word formation and morphology.

Lexicography as an independent section is not studied; information about dictionaries is presented in the main sections.

Stylistics is studied during lessons on the development of speech.

Punctuation is taught in conjunction with the syntax section.

Sections of linguistics describe the language from different angles, that is, they have their own object of study:

phonetics - sounding speech,

morphemic - the composition of the word,

word formation - the production of a word,

lexicology - the vocabulary of the language,

morphology - words as parts of speech,

syntax - phrases and sentences.

Morphology and syntax make up grammar.

Modern Russian literary language

The object of study of all sections of the science of the Russian language at school is the modern Russian literary language.

Modern is the language that we understand without a dictionary and that we use in communication. These two aspects of language use are not the same.

It is generally accepted that without a “translator” (dictionary, reference book, commentator) we understand the language starting from the works of A. S. Pushkin, however, modern man will not use many expressions used by the great poet and other writers and thinkers of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and some will not understand; in addition, we read the texts of the 19th century in modern orthography, and not in the one that was in force at the time of their writing. Nevertheless, most of the sentences from the work of Russian classical literature of that time correspond to the norms of the modern Russian language and can be used as illustrative material.

If we understand the term "modern language" as a language that we understand and use, then the language should be recognized as modern since the second half of the 20th century. But even during this historical period, the language, especially in its vocabulary, underwent significant changes: many neologisms appeared, many words moved into the passive vocabulary (see the section on lexicology).

Thus, the term "modern language" is understood in two meanings:

1) the language we understand without a dictionary is the language from Pushkin;

2) the language we use is the language from the middle of the 20th century.

Russian language is the language of the Russian people and the Russian nation. It belongs to the group of East Slavic languages ​​and stood out in the XIV-XV centuries, together with the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, from a common ancestor language - the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language.

Literary language - the language of culture and the language of communication of cultured people. The signs of a literary language are its normalization (the presence of a language norm) and codification.

Literary norm - a set of rules for the choice and use of language means in a given society in a given era. It serves for uniformity in the use of linguistic means (the same and therefore understandable to all pronunciation, spelling and word usage), filters the flow of borrowings, jargon, dialectisms; hinders the excessively rapid development of the literary language to ensure the continuity of speech culture.

Codification - fixing the language norm in written and oral sources (dictionaries, reference books, textbooks, speech of cultured people).

The literary language is part of the national language, which also includes dialects, professional vocabulary, jargon, and urban vernacular.

Phonetics. Orthoepy. Graphics and

MORPHOLOGY

Morphology - a branch of linguistics that studies parts of speech and their grammatical features.

Morphology and syntax make up grammar.

Noun

Adjective

Numeral

Pronoun as a part of speech

Adverb

Verb

gerund

Service parts of speech

Pretext

Union

Particle

Interjection

Parts of speech in Russian

Parts of speech- these are groups of words united on the basis of the commonality of their features.

The features on the basis of which words are divided into parts of speech are not uniform for different groups of words.

So, all the words of the Russian language can be divided into interjections and non-interjective words. Interjections are unchangeable words denoting emotions ( oh, alas, damn it), will ( stop, that's it) or being formulas of verbal communication ( thanks Hi). The peculiarity of interjections lies in the fact that they do not enter into any syntactic relations with other words in the sentence, they are always separated intonation and punctuation.

Non-interjective words can be divided into independent and official. The difference between them lies in the fact that independent words can appear in speech without auxiliary ones, and auxiliary words cannot form a sentence without independent ones. Functional words are immutable and serve to convey formal semantic relations between independent words. Functional parts of speech include prepositions ( to, after, during), unions ( and, as if, despite the fact that), particles ( exactly, only, not at all).

Independent words can be divided into significant and pronominal. Significant words name objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, and pronominal words indicate objects, signs, actions, relations, quantity, without naming them and being substitutes for significant words in a sentence (cf .: table - he, convenient - such, easy - so, five - how many). Pronominal words form a separate part of speech - the pronoun.

Significant words are divided into parts of speech, taking into account the following features:

1) generalized value,

2) morphological features,

3) syntactic behavior (syntactic functions and syntactic links).

There are at least five significant parts of speech: a noun, an adjective, a numeral (a group of names), an adverb and a verb.

Thus, parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words, i.e., classes of words distinguished taking into account their generalized meaning, morphological features and syntactic behavior.

This can be represented in the form of the following table:

In complex 3, 10 parts of speech are distinguished, combined into three groups:

1. Independent parts of speech:

Noun,

Adjective,

numeral,

Pronoun,

Adverb.

2. Service parts of speech:

Pretext,

Particle.

3. Interjection.

Moreover, each independent part of speech is determined on three grounds (generalized meaning, morphology, syntax), for example: a noun is a part of speech that denotes an object, has a gender and changes in numbers and cases, performs the syntactic function of a subject or object in a sentence.

However, the significance of the bases in determining the composition of a particular part of speech is different: if a noun, an adjective, a verb are determined for the most part by their morphological features (it is said that the noun denotes an object, but it is specifically stipulated that this is such a “generalized” object), that is two parts of speech, distinguished on the basis of meaning, are the pronoun and the numeral.

The pronoun as a part of speech combines morphologically and syntactically heterogeneous words that "do not name an object or feature, but point to it." Grammatically, pronouns are heterogeneous and correlate with nouns ( who am I), adjectives ( this one which), numerals ( how many, several).

The numeral as a part of speech combines words that are related to the number: they indicate the number of objects or their order in counting. At the same time, the grammatical (morphological and syntactic) properties of words of the type three and the third different.

Complex 1 (its latest editions) and complex 2 propose to single out a larger number of parts of speech. So, participle and gerund in them are considered not as forms of the verb, but as independent parts of speech. In these complexes, the words of the state are distinguished ( can't, must); in complex 1 they are described as an independent part of speech - a category of state. In complex 3, the status of these words is not clearly defined. On the one hand, their description completes the section "Adverb". On the other hand, it is said about the words of state that they “are similar in form to adverbs”, from which, apparently, it should follow that they are not adverbs. In addition, in complex 2, the pronoun is expanded by including non-significant words in it, grammatically correlated with adverbs ( there, why, never and etc.).

The question of parts of speech in linguistics is debatable. Parts of speech are the result of a certain classification, depending on what is taken as the basis for the classification. So, in linguistics there are classifications of parts of speech, which are based on only one feature (generalized meaning, morphological features or syntactic role). There are classifications using several bases. School classification is of this kind. The number of parts of speech in different linguistic works is different and ranges from 4 to 15 parts of speech.

In the Russian language there are words that do not fall into any of the parts of speech allocated by the school grammar. These are sentence words. Yes and No, introductory words not used in other syntactic functions ( so total) and some other words.

Noun

A noun is an independent significant part of speech that combines words that

1) have a generalized meaning of objectivity and answer questions who? or what?;

2) are proper or common nouns, animate or inanimate, have a permanent gender and non-permanent (for most nouns) signs of number and case;

3) in the proposal most often act as subjects or additions, but can be any other members of the proposal.

A noun is a part of speech, in the selection of which the grammatical features of words come to the fore. As for the meaning of nouns, this is, which can mean anything: an object ( table), face ( boy), animal ( cow), sign ( depth), an abstract concept ( conscience), action ( singing), relation ( equality). These words are united in terms of meaning by the fact that you can ask a question to them. who? or what?; this, in fact, is their objectivity.

Noun ranks by value

Within the words of different parts of speech, it is customary to distinguish digits by value- groups of words united by their lexical meaning, which affects their morphological features. The belonging of a word to a certain category by meaning (lexico-grammatical category) is determined on the basis of its lexical meaning, expressed by the basis of this word.

Nouns have two groups of digits according to their meaning:

1) property / common noun;

2) concreteness / abstractness / materiality / collectiveness.

common nouns nouns designate objects without distinguishing them from the class of the same type ( city, river, girl, newspaper).

Own nouns denote objects, distinguishing them from the class of homogeneous objects, individualizing them ( Moscow, Volga, Masha,« News"). Proper names must be distinguished from proper names - ambiguous names of individualized objects (" Evening Moscow"). Proper names do not necessarily include a proper name ( Moscow State University).

Specific nouns name sensually perceived objects - things ( table), faces ( Marina), which can be perceived by sight and touch.

abstract nouns denote abstract concepts ( joy), features ( white), actions ( Painting).

Real nouns denote substances ( milk, cream, sand).

Collective nouns denote collections of homogeneous objects ( foliage) or persons ( kids).

The meaning of the morphological selection of precisely these groups of nouns by meaning lies in the fact that the belonging of a noun to these categories affects the morphological sign of the number of this noun. So, common nouns have the form of both numbers ( home - at home). The words of other groups often have the form of only one of the numbers (mostly only the only one), for example:

Animate and inanimate nouns

Nouns have a constant morphological sign of animation.

The sign of animateness of nouns is closely connected with the concept of living / inanimate. Nevertheless, animation is not a rank by value, but a proper morphological feature.

All morphological features are characterized by the fact that they have a typified formal expression - they are expressed by formative morphemes (endings or formative suffixes - see morphemic). Morphological features of words can be expressed

1) intra-word - formative morphemes of the word itself ( table- - tables),

2) extra-verbal - formative morphemes of agreed words ( new coat -new coats),

Both of these means of expression can be presented together. In this case, one grammatical meaning is expressed several times in a sentence - both intra-verbally and extra-verbally ( new table- - new tables).

Animation as a morphological feature also has formal means of expression. First, animateness / inanimateness is expressed by the endings of the noun itself:

1) animated nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and R. p., and for nouns husband. genus, this also applies to units. number;

2) inanimate nouns have the same plural endings. numbers V. p. and I. p., and for nouns husband. genus, this also applies to units. number.

Nouns are presented in Russian with hesitation in animation: their V. p. can coincide with both I. p. and R. p., for example, (I see) micro-s / micro-s, describe character-i / character-s, creatures-o / creatures-;

Feminine and neuter nouns that have only singular forms do not formally express animation ( youth, students), they are not formally characterized by animation.

Animation has and extraverbal expression: the ending of an adjective or participle agreed with the noun in V. p. differs depending on the animateness or inanimateness of the noun, cf .: (I see) new students, but new tables.

The out-of-word expression of the animation of nouns is more universal than the intra-verbal one: it expresses animation even if the noun is immutable: (I see) beautiful madam, but nice coat.

The animacy of most nouns reflects a certain state of affairs in extralinguistic reality: animate nouns are mainly called living beings, and inanimate - inanimate objects, however, there are cases of violation of this pattern:

Animation, as already mentioned, is a constant feature of a noun. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that different meanings of one word can be differently designed according to animation, for example: I see genius(person) - appreciate genius- (mind).

Gender as a morphological feature of a noun

Nouns have a constant morphological gender and are masculine, feminine, or neuter.

The main expression of the morphological gender is extra-verbal - the endings of adjectives consistent with the noun, participles in the position of the attribute and words with a non-permanent sign of the gender in the position of the predicate, primarily the verb in the past tense or conditional mood, as well as a short adjective or participle.

The masculine, feminine and neuter gender includes words with the following compatibility:

Some nouns ending in - a, denoting signs, properties of persons, in I. p. have a double characterization by gender, depending on the sex of the designated person:

your-the ignoramus came-,

your-I'm ignorant came-a.

Such nouns are general kind.

There are nouns in Russian that designate the name of a person by profession, which, when designating a male person, act as masculine words, that is, they attach agreed words with masculine endings; when they denote a female person, the definition is used in the masculine gender, and the predicate is used in the feminine gender (mainly in colloquial speech):

the new doctor has arrived- (man)

new doctor came(female).

These words are “candidates” for a common gender, their gender is sometimes called transitional to a common one, but in dictionaries they are characterized as masculine words.

In Russian, there are about 150 words with a hesitation in gender, for example: coffee- masculine / neuter gender, shampoo- masculine / feminine.

Plural only nouns ( cream, scissors) do not belong to any of the genders, since in the plural formal differences between nouns of different genders are not expressed (cf .: desks - tables).

Thus, the main expression of the gender is extra-verbal. Intra-word gender is consistently expressed only for nouns - substantiated adjectives and participles: watch, ice cream, canteen: in the singular forms, these words have endings that unambiguously indicate their generic affiliation. For nouns of the II declension of the masculine gender and the III declension of the feminine gender, the whole system of their endings is specific, but as for the endings of individual case forms, they may not be indicative, cf. table- -night-.

For all inanimate nouns (and there are about 80% of such nouns in the language), the gender is conditional, in no way connected with extralinguistic reality.

Among animate nouns - the names of persons or animals, the gender is often associated with the gender of the designated creature, cf .: mom - dad, son - daughter, cow - bull. However, it is necessary to understand the difference between the grammatical attribute of gender and the non-grammatical attribute of gender. So, in Russian there are animate nouns of the middle gender ( child, animal), in nouns - the names of animals, male and female individuals are often called the same ( dragonfly, crocodile), among the words - names of persons, there is also not always a correspondence between gender and gender. Yes, the word individual feminine, although it can denote both a woman and a man (see, for example, A. S. Pushkin: Someone wrote to him from Moscow, which is knownand I the person is due soona enter into a legal marriage with a young and beautiful girl).

A certain difficulty is the definition of the gender of compound words (abbreviations) and indeclinable nouns. They have the following rules.

Generic characteristic abbreviations depends on what type the given compound word belongs to.

The genus of abbreviations formed by adding the initial parts ( supply manager), the initial part of the first word with the uncontracted second ( savings bank) and the beginning of the first word with the beginning and/or end of the second ( trade mission  trade mission), is determined by the generic affiliation of the main word in the original phrase: good organizational work, Russian trade mission, new savings bank.

A genus of abbreviations consisting of initial sounds ( GUM) or letters ( Moscow State University), as well as abbreviations of a mixed type, in which the initial part of the first word is connected with the first letters or sounds of other words ( head office), is ambiguous. Initially, they also acquire the gender of the main word in the original phrase, for example, Bratsk HPP. However, in the process of use, the original generic characteristic is consistently preserved only by abbreviations from the first letters of the original phrase. Abbreviations, consisting of the first sounds, behave differently. Some of them acquire a generic characteristic in accordance with the appearance of the word. Yes, the words BAM, university, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NEP, registry office and some others became masculine words and acquired the ability to decline according to the second declension, like nouns of the type house. Other abbreviations ending in a consonant with a core word of the middle and feminine gender may have fluctuations: they can have a generic characteristic in accordance with the gender of the main word and at the same time not be inclined ( in our ZhEK) or, leaning, used as masculine words ( in our Housing Office). Abbreviations ending in a vowel are not inflected and are predominantly neuter ( our RONO - district department of public education).