Stylist and lexic techniques. Stylistic means in artistic speech
The Russian language is one of the richest, most beautiful and complex. Last but not least, the presence of a large number of means of verbal expression makes it so.
In this article, we will analyze what a language tool is and what types it comes in. Consider examples of use from fiction and everyday speech.
Language means in Russian - what is it?
The description of the most ordinary object can be made beautiful and unusual by using language
Words and expressions that give expressiveness to the text are conditionally divided into three groups: phonetic, lexical (they are also tropes) and stylistic figures.
To answer the question of what a language tool is, let's get to know them better.
Lexical means of expression
Tropes are linguistic means in the Russian language, which are used by the author in a figurative, allegorical sense. Widely used in works of art.
Paths serve to create visual, auditory, olfactory images. They help to create a certain atmosphere, to produce the desired effect on the reader.
Lexical means of expression are based on implicit or explicit comparison. It may be based on resemblance, personal associations of the author or the desire to describe the object in a certain way.
Basic language tools: trails
We are confronted with trails from the school bench. Let's take a look at the most common ones:
- The epithet is the most famous and common trope. Often found in poetry. An epithet is a colorful, expressive definition that is based on a hidden comparison. Emphasizes the features of the described object, its most expressive features. Examples: "ruddy dawn", "light character", "golden hands", "silver voice".
- Comparison is a word or expression based on the comparison of one object with another. Most often, it takes the form comparative turnover. You can find out by using the unions characteristic of this technique: as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, what. Consider examples: “transparent as dew”, “white as snow”, “straight as a reed”.
- Metaphor is a means of expression based on hidden comparison. But, unlike it, it is not formalized by unions. A metaphor is built relying on the similarity of two objects of speech. For example: "onions of churches", "whisper of grass", "tears of heaven".
- Synonyms are words that are close in meaning but differ in spelling. In addition to classical synonyms, there are contextual ones. They take on a specific meaning within a particular text. Let's get acquainted with examples: "jump - jump", "look - see".
- Antonyms are words that have exactly the opposite meaning to each other. Like synonyms, they are contextual. Example: “white - black”, “shout - whisper”, “calm - excitement”.
- Personification is the transfer of signs, characteristics of an animate object to an inanimate object. For example: “the willow shook its branches”, “the sun smiled brightly”, “the rain pounded on the roofs”, “the radio chirped in the kitchen”.
Are there other paths?
There are a lot of means of lexical expressiveness in the Russian language. In addition to the group familiar to everyone, there are those that are unknown to many, but also widely used:
- Metonymy is the substitution of one word for another that has a similar or the same meaning. Let's get acquainted with examples: "hey, blue jacket (appeal to a person in a blue jacket)", "the whole class opposed (meaning all the students in the class)".
- Synecdoche is the transfer of comparison from part to whole, and vice versa. Example: “it was heard how the Frenchman rejoiced (the author speaks of the French army)”, “the insect flew in”, “there were a hundred heads in the herd”.
- Allegory is an expressive comparison of ideas or concepts using an artistic image. Most often found in fairy tales, fables and parables. For example, the fox symbolizes cunning, the hare - cowardice, the wolf - anger.
- Hyperbole is deliberate exaggeration. Serves to give the text more expressiveness. Emphasizes a certain quality of an object, person or phenomenon. Let's get acquainted with examples: "words destroy hope", "his deed is the highest evil", "he became more beautiful forty times."
- Litota is a special understatement real facts. For example: “it was thinner than a reed”, “it was no higher than a thimble”.
- Paraphrase is the replacement of a word or expression with a synonymous combination. Used to avoid lexical repetitions in one or adjacent sentences. Example: "the fox is a cunning cheat", "the text is the brainchild of the author."
Stylistic figures
Stylistic figures are linguistic means in the Russian language that give speech a certain imagery and expressiveness. Change the emotional coloring of its meanings.
Widely used in poetry and prose since the time of ancient poets. However, modern and obsolete interpretations of the term differ.
In ancient Greece, it was believed that stylistic figures are linguistic means of language, which in their form differ significantly from everyday speech. Now it is believed that figures of speech are an integral part of the spoken language.
What are stylistic figures?
Stylistics offers a lot of its own means:
- Lexical repetitions (anaphora, epiphora, compositional junction) are expressive language means that include the repetition of any part of a sentence at the beginning, end, or at the junction with the next. For example: “That was a great sound. This was best voice which I have heard over the past years."
- Antithesis - one or more sentences built on the basis of opposition. For example, consider the phrase: "I drag myself in the dust - and soar in the sky."
- Gradation is the use of synonyms in a sentence, arranged according to the degree of increase or decrease of a feature. Example: "The sparkles on the Christmas tree shone, burned, shone."
- Oxymoron - the inclusion in the phrase of words that contradict each other in meaning, cannot be used in one composition. The most striking and famous example of this stylistic figure is Dead Souls.
- Inversion is a change in the classical order of words in a sentence. For example, not "he ran", but "he ran".
- Parceling is the division of a single sentence into several parts. For example: “Nicholas is opposite. Looks without blinking.
- Polyunion - the use of unions to connect homogeneous members of the proposal. It is used for greater speech expressiveness. Example: "It was a strange and wonderful and beautiful and mysterious day."
- Unionlessness - the connection of homogeneous members in the proposal is carried out without unions. For example: "He rushed about, shouted, cried, moaned."
Phonetic means of expression
Phonetic expressive means are the smallest group. They involve the repetition of certain sounds in order to create pictorial artistic images.
Most often this technique is used in poetry. The authors use the repetition of sounds when they want to convey the sound of thunder, the rustle of leaves or other natural phenomena.
Also, phonetic means help to give poetry a certain character. By using some combinations of sounds, the text can be made more rigid, or vice versa - softer.
What are the phonetic means?
- Alliteration is the repetition of the same consonants in the text, creating the image necessary for the author. For example: "I dreamed of catching the departing shadows, the departing shadows of the fading day."
- Assonance is the repetition of certain vowel sounds in order to create a vivid artistic image. For example: "Do I wander along the noisy streets, do I enter a crowded temple."
- Onomatopoeia is the use of phonetic combinations that convey a certain clatter of hooves, the sound of waves, the rustle of leaves.
The use of speech means of expression
Language means in the Russian language were widely used and continue to be used in literary works, whether prose or poetry.
Great possession stylistic figures demonstrated by the writers of the golden age. Due to the masterful use of expressive means, their works are colorful, figurative, and pleasing to the ear. No wonder they are considered a national treasure of Russia.
We encounter linguistic means not only in fiction, but also in everyday life. Almost every person uses comparisons, metaphors, epithets in his speech. Without realizing it, we make our language beautiful and rich.
Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation
Federal State Autonomous Educational
Institution of Higher Professional Education
"KAZAN (VOLGA) FEDERAL UNIVERSITY"
INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS, HISTORY AND ORIENTAL STUDIES
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSLATION AND WORLD CULTURAL HERITAGE
CHAIR OF THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TRANSLATION
Direction: 037500.62 - Linguistics
COURSE WORK
FEATURES OF THE TRANSFER OF THE STYLISTIC MEANS OF "ALICE IN WONDERLAND" INTO THE RUSSIAN LANGUAGE BY V. V. NABOKOV
Job completed:
3rd year student
Group 04.4-202
"___" _____________ 2014 N.T. Manyurova
The work is approved for protection:
supervisor
Senior Lecturer"___"______2014 ________ G.M. Nurtdinova
Department head
Doc. philol. Sciences, Associate Professor"___"______2014 ________ S.S. Takhtarova
Kazan - 2014
Chapter I. …………………………………………...... 6
1.1 …………………………………….. 6
1.2 ……………………………........ 12
findings
Chapter II. ……………………………....... eighteen
2.1 ……………………………………………………………… 18
2.2 ………21
findings
Conclusion……………………………………………………………..... 34
Literature……………………………………………….. 36
Introduction
July 4, 1862 is a significant day in the history of world literature. On this day, while on a boat trip on the Thames, Oxford teacher Charles Dodgson told his young companions, sisters Lorine, Alice and Edith Liddell, a fascinating story that later became one of the most widely read fairy tales in the world. The story of a little girl's journey into the world of her own fantasy was published in 1865 under the title Alice's Adventures in Wonderland, and its author became famous under a new name - Lewis Carroll. Lewis Carroll's fairy tale "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" (traditionally referred to as "Alice in Wonderland" in Russian translation) is undoubtedly a masterpiece of world literature. The story, composed literally “on the go”, sold an impressive circulation during the author’s lifetime, became the subject of hundreds of studies and essays, was illustrated by many artists (including Arthur Rackham and Salvador Dali) and became one of the most frequently translated works. Today there are more than a hundred translations of "Alice", about twenty Russian versions (the very first known is dated 1879). The creative resources of a fairy tale are inexhaustible.
Alice in Wonderland rules out the traditional approach to literary translation. The abundance of the paradoxical and inexplicable in the work makes the translator remember: the usual logic is valid only in a world where everything happens one way and nothing else. But what happens when the surrounding world with its laws and rules is turned “upside down”? Boris Zakhoder, whose retelling of “Alice” was published in 1971, admitted to readers in the preface that for a long time he considered the translation of Carroll’s book impossible: “perhaps it will be easier ... to transport England!
The first Russian translation, made by an anonymous translator, was printed in the printing house of A.I. Mamontov in Moscow in 1879 and was called "Sonya in the Kingdom of the Diva".
In 1923, in Berlin, the Russian translation of "Alice" was made by Vladimir Vladimirovich Nabokov (pseudonym V. Sirin). The translation was called "Anya in Wonderland" and was published by the Gamayun publishing house. In the USSR, the translation of V.V. Nabokov was first published in 1989 by the publishing house "Children's Literature" with illustrations by the artist A.B. Gennadiev. In 1967, a new translation of fairy tales made by H.M. Demurova. In recent decades, "Alisa" was published with the brand of the central and many peripheral publishing houses of the country in translations by B.V. Zakhoder, A.A. Shcherbakov and V.E. Orel. Of the "Alice" of the last decade, the translations of Yuri Nesterenko, Nikolai Starilov and Andrey Kononenko have received the widest distribution.
The book "Alice's Adventures in Wonderland" by L. Carroll has been one of the most beloved in the whole world for many years. In the countries of the English language, "Alice" occupies one of the first places in terms of the number of mentions, quotations and references, but at the same time, this tale continues to raise many questions.
Of course, there are quite a few translations of Alice in Wonderland into Russian, but we will consider the most famous ones, as well as those of particular interest in the analysis.
Relevance of the work: lies in the study of the author's stylistic means of Nabokov, who chose the strategy of domestication.
Object of study: Translation of the work "Alice in Wonderland" by Lewis Carroll in the version of Vladimir Nabokov.
Subject of study: Stylistic changes brought by Vladimir Nabokov to his translation of Alice in Wonderland.
Purpose of this work: The purpose This work is an analysis of the translation of "Alice in Wonderland" by Vladimir Nabokov and the identification of the features of the transfer of stylistic means of the work into Russian.
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
1) Describe the most commonly used stylistic means in works of art;
2) Compare V. Nabokov's translation with another classic translation of "Alice in Wonderland";
3) To identify the features of the transfer of stylistic means of "Alice in Wonderland" in the translation of V. Nabokov;
The theoretical basis of this course work was works of domestic and foreign literary critics in the field of translation.
NAMES OF SCIENTISTS
Research methods used in the work: comparative reading of the original and various translations of the work, analysis of various versions of the translation from English into Russian, as well as analysis of dictionary definitions.
This course work consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a list of references.
Approbation: ARTICLE, what's where.
Chapter 1 "Stylistic means and problems of their translation into Russian"
Write why works of art are created and why writers use stylistic figures, that is, tropes.
In a work of art, the word not only carries certain information, but also serves to aesthetically influence the reader with the help of artistic images. The brighter and more truthful the image, the stronger it affects the reader.
The emotionality of the artistic style differs significantly from the emotionality of the colloquial and journalistic styles. It performs an aesthetic function. Artistic style involves a preliminary selection of language means; all language means are used to create images. A distinctive feature of the artistic style of speech is the use of special figures of speech, which give the narrative color, the power of depicting reality.
Facilities artistic expressiveness varied and numerous. These are tropes: comparisons, personifications, allegory, metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, etc. And stylistic figures: epithet, hyperbole, litote, anaphora, epiphora, gradation, parallelism, rhetorical question, silence, etc.
Figure of speech- a term of rhetoric and stylistics, denoting various turns of speech that give it stylistic significance, imagery and expressiveness, change its emotional coloring. Figures of speech serve to convey mood or enhance the effect of a phrase, which is commonly used for artistic purposes in both poetry and prose.
Figures of speech are divided into tropes and figures in the narrow sense of the word. If tropes are understood as the use of words or phrases in an improper, figurative meaning, allegory, then the figures are methods of combining words, syntactic (syntagmatic) organization of speech. At the same time, the distinction is not always unambiguous, with respect to some figures of speech (such as epithet, comparison, paraphrase, hyperbole, litotes) there are doubts: to attribute them to figures in the narrow sense of the word or to paths. M. L. Gasparov considers trails as a kind of figures - “figures of rethinking”.
Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness. Pathways include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes referred to as hyperbolas and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. art word- polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this makes up the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
stylistic means.
Various researchers have created a classification of Art. means, ... Scientist Galperin divides stylistic means as follows:
1. Phonetic expressive means.
2. Lexical expressive means
3. Syntactic expressive means
Phonetic means of expression include:
1. Onomatopoeia - Creating, with the help of sounds and words, a more specific idea of what is being said in this text;
(selection of sounds [w] and the convergence of two sliding aspirated [X] noise reproduced:
Slightly audible, silent rustling reeds...
(K.Balmont))
2. Phonetic anaphora - repetition of initial sounds;
(Glory! Shine, our sunny commune! (V. Mayakovsky));
3. Phonetic epiphora - repetition of final sounds;
(I am a free wind, I always blow,
I wave the waves, I caress the willows...
In the branches I sigh, sighing, dumb,
I cherish the grass, I cherish the fields (K. Balmont)).
4. Alliteration - repetition of consonants;
(Thunder rumbles, rumbles)
5. Assonance - repetition of vowels;
(We are bored listening to the autumn blizzard... (A. Nekrasov))
6. Intonation - a rhythmic-melodic structure of speech, depending on the rise and fall of tone during pronunciation. Intonation is: interrogative, exclamatory, narrative.
Lexical means of expression include:
1. Metaphor - the use of a word in a figurative sense based on the similarity in any respect of two objects or phenomena:
- in shape (onion head, garlic clove, ring of gardens);
- by quality (silk eyelashes, subtle hearing, black thoughts);
· - by location (Our car is at the tail of the train);
- by the similarity of the function performed - functional transfer (car wipers, a pen with a golden nib);
2. Antonomasia - a trope, expressed in the replacement of a name or name by indicating some essential feature of an object or its relation to something;
3. Personification - the assignment of a sign or action of a living being (person) to objects, natural phenomena, abstract concepts;
(The wind is angry; the sea laughed and cried)
4. Metonymy - the use of the name of one object instead of the name of another on the basis of an external or internal connection between them:
between the object and the material from which the object is made (Crystal is already on the table);
between content and containing (Well, eat another plate!);
· between the action and its result, place or object (She received "five" for the dictation; Morning mail has already been brought);
between the action and the instrument of this action (the Trumpet called for a campaign);
between a social event, an event and its participants (the Congress decided ...);
Between the place and the people in this place (the audience was noisy; The whole house poured out into the street);
Between the emotional state and its cause (My joy is still at school).
5. Figurative comparison - an open detailed comparison of one fact of reality with another (denoted and denoting) according to one or more named or unnamed features, carrying additional information and helping to most fully reveal the author's thoughts, create a new look at the old, known. Comparison parts are linked with:
· - comparative unions (like, exactly, as if, as if, than, etc.): Immorality, like radiation, constantly kills society (A. Tuleev);
- specialized words (similar, similar, reminiscent, etc.): A gypsy girl passed by, looking like a broom (Yu. Olesha);
· - forms of the instrumental case denoting the word: Smoke curled over him;
· - forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs: Who in the world is sweeter than all, all blush and whiter? (A. Pushkin).
6. Hyperbole - exaggeration of size, strength, value, strengthening of a sign, property to such sizes that are usually not characteristic of an object, phenomenon;
(I have already told you a hundred times; A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper (N. Gogol).)
7. Epithet - an artistic, figurative definition, created on the basis of the transfer of meaning by similarity, arising in combination with the word being defined;
(Mirror surface of water; Poisonous look)
8. Oxymoron - a combination of words denoting two contradictory, mutually exclusive concepts, but complementing each other, in order to reflect the complexity and inconsistency of a phenomenon that seems, at first glance, simple, unambiguous, to reveal its dialectical essence, resulting in semantic complication and updating the impression;
(... Painfully happy (A. Pushkin); She is happy to be sad (A. Akhmatova))
9. Zeugma - a figure of speech, which consists in the fact that a word that forms syntactic combinations of the same type with other words in a sentence is used only in one of these combinations, while others are omitted;
(The nobleman is honored behind the bars of his tower, the merchant is in his shop (Pushkin, “Scenes from Knightly Times”) - the word honored is used here only once, the second time it is implied).
10. Pun (play on words) - a figure built on the incompatibility of concepts denoted by identically sounding words, or on "an intentional combination in one context of two meanings of the same word." A pun is built on breaking the connection between words: on the clash of homonyms, paronyms, different values polysemantic word;
(And they will laugh all around. - True, - the people say. - Since the tram does not want to carry, / it’s already clear, it’s not lucky (B. Zakhoder))
11. Allusion - a reference to some mythological, cultural, historical, literary fact without a direct indication of the source, a kind of hidden citation, which is based on the cultural and historical experience of the speaker and the addressee;
(glory to Herostratus).
12. Speaking names are a type of trope, to some extent equivalent to metaphor and comparison, and used for stylistic purposes to characterize a character;
(“Undergrowth” by Fonvizin - a satirical play could not do without speaking names and surnames. The name of the protagonist is Mitrofan, which in Greek means “mother’s manifestation.” The name can also be translated as “similar to his mother”).
Syntactic expressions include:
1. Antithesis - a figure of speech, consisting in a sharp opposition of compared concepts, thoughts, images, built on antonymy and syntactic parallelism, which serves to enhance the expressiveness of speech;
(Learning is light, and ignorance is darkness; A smart one will teach, a fool will get bored)
2. Parallelism - a figure of speech, consisting in the identity of the syntactic structure of two or more adjacent segments of the text;
(In what year - count, / In what land - guess. (A. Nekrasov))
3. Gradation - (increase) a figure consisting of two or more significant units, placed in increasing intensity;
(I beg you, I beg you, I beg you)
4. Repetition - (repetition, doubling) full or partial repetition of the root, stem or whole word, descriptive forms, phraseological units. A special stylistic device, for example, to emphasize any details in the description, creating expressive coloring;
(A beautiful, clean, courteous cab driver drove him past the beautiful, courteous, clean policemen along the beautiful, clean, washed pavement, past the beautiful, clean houses ... (L. Tolstoy))
5. Inversion - a rearrangement of words - components of a sentence, violating their usual order, allowing you to focus on this component, leading to semantic or emotional highlighting of words.
(But our open bivouac was quiet ... (M. Lermontov))
6. Irony - “a trope consisting in the use of a word or expression in the reverse sense of the literal, with the aim of ridicule.
(Back off, smart Are you delirious, head? (Krylov) (in reference to the donkey))
7. Rhetorical figures - syntactic constructions that enhance not only expressiveness, but also the logical meaning of speech. These include:
· The rhetorical appeal lies in the fact that the statement is addressed to an inanimate object, an abstract concept, an absent person: Wind, wind, you are powerful, you drive flocks of clouds ... (A. Pushkin); Dreams Dreams! Where is your sweetness? (A. Pushkin).
Rhetorical question - a figure of speech containing an affirmation or negation in an interrogative form of a statement to which a direct answer is not expected (not expected) (Whom does beauty not affect?).
Rhetorical exclamation - an expression of a passing emotional state the author with the help of intonation, actively influencing the addressee even without special lexical, syntactic means and giving liveliness, ease of expression, for example, when narrating: Today (Hurrah!) I'm going to go to the open air.
· Rhetorical response - a stylistic figure that consists in the fact that the author asks himself questions and answers them himself: So, what are we going to do now? Let's solve this simple problem, shall we? No, first we will eat, rest, and then - to work
8. Paraphrase - an expression that is a descriptive transfer of the meaning of another expression or word, the replacement of a one-word name of a person, object, phenomenon with a description of its essential features, an indication of characteristic features;
(King of beasts (instead of "lion"), creator of Macbeth (Shakespeare))
9. Silence - a deliberately incomplete statement, the omission of something significant and ambiguous (significant omission), with the help of which the unsaid acquires greater significance than if it were expressed openly;
(I'll pass my exams and...)
Galperin I.R. Stylistics. 1997
Galperin I.R. Essays on style, 1998
II.2.3. I. R. Galperin's classification of expressive means and stylistic devices
Russian language. Encyclopedia, 1979: 107):
(Rosenthal D.E., Telenkova M.A., 1976: 271);
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INTRODUCTION
Stylistics is a branch of linguistics devoted to the study of the expressive means of language, thus occupying a special place among other disciplines of linguistics. Unlike other disciplines that analyze the existing composition of units and categories of a particular language, the system of their relationships and relationships, that is, studying “what is” in a language, stylistics answers the question “how?”: How are the units and categories of a given language used to express thoughts . Stylistics explores the problems of "linguistic use". This is the subject of her attention. This is its meaning and essence as an independent science among other branches of linguistics.
It is known that many writers introduce certain constructions into the text, guided by their own methods, having understood which the reader is able to better understand the work of the great masters.
Stylistic figures like the most important ways increases in the expressiveness of speech have been known in linguistics since ancient times, and numerous researchers have addressed their analysis and classification over many centuries: Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Socrates, M.V. Lomonosov, D.E. Rosenthal, I.I. Kovtunova and others.
The object of this study is stylistic figures.
The subject is stylistic figures in the work of art by J. Fowles "The Collector".
The relevance of this topic is due to the need to study the functioning of stylistic figures in this work of art, since it is the clearest indicator of the individual style of the writer. This topic is also very relevant, because the novel is world famous.
The purpose of this work is to give a comprehensive description of the system of stylistic figures that are actively used by the writer, as well as to identify the specifics of their functioning in the novel by J. Fowles "The Collector".
To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
Consider the concept of expressive stylistic means of language.
View different types of classifications of stylistic means.
To study the functioning of stylistic figures in the work of art by J. Fowles "The Collector".
Identify and explore those key stylistic positions that make the writer's language original.
The research methods used in this work are general scientific methods, as well as private scientific ones: a comparative method, a method of analysis.
The practical value of this study lies in the fact that the content of this work can be used in the practice of teaching a number of disciplines: stylistics of the English language, theory and practice of translation, in foreign literature, in special courses on the study of the individual style of the writer.
The work consists of an introduction, two chapters of the main part, a conclusion and a list of references.
In the introduction, the relevance of the choice of topic is substantiated, the subject, object, goal and corresponding tasks are defined.
The first chapter deals with general theoretical questions on the topic "Stylistic means of expression". The basic concepts of stylistic figures are also defined.
In the second chapter, practical, the same concepts are considered, on a practical basis.
In conclusion, conclusions are drawn on this course work.
CHAPTER 1. STYLISTIC EXPRESSION MEANS
1.1 Expressive means of language
The lexical system of the language is complex and multifaceted. The possibility of constant updating in speech of principles, methods, signs of association within the whole text of words taken from various groups, hide in themselves the possibility of updating speech expressiveness, its types.
The expressive possibilities of the word are supported and enhanced by the associativity of the reader's figurative thinking, which largely depends on his previous life experience and the psychological characteristics of the work of thought and consciousness as a whole.
The expressiveness of speech refers to such features of its structure that maintain the attention and interest of the listener (reader). A complete typology of expressiveness has not been developed by linguistics, since it would have to reflect the entire diverse range of human feelings and their shades.
The main source of enhancing expressiveness is vocabulary, which gives a number of special means: epithets, metaphors, comparisons, metonymy, synecdoches, hyperbole, litotes, personifications, paraphrases, allegory, irony. Syntax, the so-called stylistic figures of speech, have great opportunities to enhance the expressiveness of speech: anaphora, antithesis, non-union, gradation, inversion (reverse word order), polyunion, oxymoron, parallelism, rhetorical question, rhetorical appeal, silence, ellipsis, epiphora.
The lexical means of a language that enhance its expressiveness are called tropes in linguistics (from the Greek tropos - a word or expression used in a figurative sense). Most often, the paths are used by the authors of works of art when describing nature, the appearance of heroes.
There are three main groups by which expressive means can be classified: phonetic, lexical and syntactic.
Phonetic means:
Alliteration is the repetition of consonants. It is a technique for highlighting and fastening words in a line. Increases the harmony of the verse.
Assonance is the repetition of vowel sounds.
Lexical means:
Antonyms - different words related to the same part of speech, but opposite in meaning. The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression, which establishes the emotionality of speech: he was weak in body, but strong in spirit.
Hyperbole is a figurative expression that exaggerates any action, object, phenomenon. It is used to enhance the artistic impression.
Litota is an artistic understatement. Used to enhance the artistic impression.
Individual-author's neologisms (occasionalisms) - due to their novelty, they allow creating certain artistic effects, expressing the author's view on a topic or problem. The use of literary images helps the author to better explain any position, phenomenon, or other image.
Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, expressing the same concept, but at the same time differing in shades of meaning.
Metaphor is a hidden comparison based on the similarity between distant phenomena and objects. At the heart of any metaphor is an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature. In artistic speech, the author uses metaphors to enhance the expressiveness of speech, to create and evaluate a picture of life, to convey the inner world of the characters and the point of view of the narrator and the author himself. In a metaphor, the author creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader understands exactly what similarity the semantic connection between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on. Epithet, personification, oxymoron, antithesis can be considered as a kind of metaphor.
A detailed metaphor is a detailed transfer of the properties of one object, phenomenon or aspect of being to another according to the principle of similarity or contrast. Metaphor is particularly expressive. Possessing unlimited possibilities in bringing together a wide variety of objects or phenomena, metaphor allows you to rethink an object, reveal, expose its inner nature. Sometimes it is an expression of the individual author's vision of the world.
Metonymy is the transfer of meanings (renaming) according to the contiguity of phenomena. The most common cases of transfer:
a) from a person to his any external signs;
b) from an institution to its inhabitants;
Synecdoche - a technique by which the whole is expressed through its part (something less included in something more) A kind of metonymy.
Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words that create a new concept or idea. This is a combination of logically incompatible concepts, sharply contradictory in meaning and mutually exclusive. This technique sets the reader to the perception of contradictory, complex phenomena, often - the struggle of opposites. Most often, an oxymoron conveys the author's attitude to an object or phenomenon.
Personification is one of the types of metaphor, when the transfer of a sign is carried out from a living object to an inanimate one. In personification, the described object is externally used by a person. Even more often, actions that are permissible only to people are attributed to an inanimate object.
Paraphrase(s) - use of description instead of own name or names; descriptive expression, turn of speech, replacement word. Used to decorate speech, replace repetition.
Comparison is one of the means of expressiveness of the language, helping the author to express his point of view, create whole artistic pictures, and give a description of objects. In comparison, one phenomenon is shown and evaluated by comparing it with another phenomenon. Comparison is usually joined by unions: as, as if, as if, exactly, etc., but serves to figuratively describe the most diverse features of objects, qualities, and actions.
Phraseologisms are almost always vivid expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, etc.
An epithet is a word that highlights in an object or phenomenon any of its properties, qualities or signs. An epithet is called artistic definition, i.e. colorful, which emphasizes some of its distinguishing feature. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition for another:
) noun;
) adjective;
) adverb and participle: eagerly peers; listens frozen; but most often epithets are expressed with the help of adjectives used in a figurative sense: sleepy, tender, loving eyes.
A metaphorical epithet is a figurative definition that transfers the properties of another object to one object.
Allusion is a stylistic figure, an allusion to a real literary, historical, political fact that is supposed to be known.
Reminiscence - features in a work of art, suggestive of a memory of another work.
Syntactic means:
Author's punctuation is the use of punctuation marks that is not provided for by punctuation rules. Author's signs convey the additional meaning invested in them by the author. Most often, a dash is used as copyright marks, which emphasizes or contrasts. Author's exclamation marks serve as a means of expressing a joyful or sad feeling, mood.
Anaphora, or monotony, is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of a sentence. It is used to strengthen the expressed thought, image, phenomenon.
Antithesis is a stylistic device that consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, characters, images, creating the effect of a sharp contrast. It helps to better convey, depict contradictions, contrast phenomena. It serves as a way of expressing the author's view of the described phenomena, images, etc.
Exclamatory particles are a way of expressing the emotional mood of the author, a technique for creating the emotional pathos of the text. Exclamatory sentences express emotional relationship the author to what is being described (anger, irony, regret, joy, admiration), also an incentive to action.
Gradation is a stylistic figure that consists in the consequent injection or, conversely, the weakening of comparisons, images, epithets, metaphors and other expressive means of artistic speech.
Inversion is the reverse order of words in a sentence. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the circumstance of the mode of action is before the verb. And with inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. This is a strong expressive means used in emotional, excited speech.
A compositional joint is a repetition at the beginning of a new sentence of a word or words from a previous sentence, usually ending it.
Polyunion is a rhetorical figure, consisting in the deliberate repetition of coordinating unions for the logical and emotional highlighting of the enumerated concepts.
Repetition - the conscious use of the same word or combination of words in order to enhance the meaning of this image, concept, etc.
Connecting constructions - the construction of the text, in which each subsequent part, continuing the first, main one, is separated from it by a long pause, which is indicated by a dot, sometimes an ellipsis or a dash. This is a means of creating emotional pathos of the text.
Rhetorical questions and rhetorical exclamations are a special means of creating the emotionality of speech, expressing the author's position.
Syntactic parallelism - the same construction of several adjacent sentences. With its help, the author seeks to highlight, emphasize the expressed idea.
Epiphora - the same ending of several sentences, reinforcing the meaning of this image, concept, etc.
These figurative and expressive means are of the author's nature and determine the originality of the writer or poet, help him to acquire the individuality of style.
1.2 Different views of scientists on the classification of stylistic means of expression
Stylistic devices belonging to different levels of stylistics are interconnected and cannot function separately from each other. The same stylistic devices can be attributed by different authors to different levels of stylistics. Therefore, there are many classifications of stylistic devices by various authors.
So, for example, I.R. Galperin classifies stylistic devices as lexico-phraseological, syntactic and phonetic. Lexico-phraseological stylistic devices include metaphor, metonymy, irony, antonomasia, epithet, oxymoron, use of interjection, pun, zeugma, paraphrases, euphemisms, comparison, hyperbole, use of proverbs and sayings, allusions, quotations. Syntactic stylistic devices include inversion, isolation, ellipse, default, improperly direct speech, indirectly direct speech, questions in a narrative text, rhetorical question, litote, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetitions, growth, retardation, antithesis, addition (cumulation) , multi-union and non-union. The stylistic means of the sound organization of an utterance include intonation, alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhyme, and rhythm.
V.A. Kukharenko distinguishes the following main groups of stylistic devices: 1) lexical stylistic devices: metaphor, personification, metonymy, irony, hyperbole, epithet, zeugma, pun; 2) syntactic stylistic devices: inversion, rhetorical question, ellipse, suspense, repetitions, parallel constructions, chiasmus, polyunion, non-union, aposiopesis; 3) lexical and syntactic stylistic devices: antithesis, litote, comparison, paraphrase, gradation; 4) graphic and phonetic stylistic devices: italics, underlining, spelling errors, syllable division, capital letters, quotation marks, alliteration, assonance, onomatopoeia, rhyme, rhythm.
According to Z.I. Khovanskaya, there are stylistic devices of a tropic nature, that is, created on the basis of tropes, and stylistic devices of a non-tropical nature, heterogeneous in structural and semantic terms. Stylistic devices of a tropeic nature are represented by metaphor, metonymy, personification and allegory (symbol, allegory, reticence, subtext, etc.). Non-tropeic stylistic devices include comparison, epithet, irony, hyperbole, contrast (antithesis), repetitions, and parallel constructions.
I.V. Arnold classifies stylistic devices based on the division of stylistic means into tropes (lexical figurative and expressive means) and figures of speech (syntactic stylistics), and also distinguishes phonetic and graphic stylistics. The most important tropes are metaphor, metonymy, synecdoche, irony, hyperbole, epithet, oxymoron, litote and personification. Allegory and paraphrase, which are built as an extended metaphor or metonymy, stand apart. Figures of speech (syntactic style) include inversion, rhetorical question, repetition, litote, ellipse, non-union, polyunion, silence, aposiopesis, zeugma. Phonetic stylistics includes such techniques as onomatopoeia (onomatopoeia), alliteration, assonance, rhyme, rhythm. To graphic style - punctuation, lack of punctuation marks, capital letters, font feature, graphic figurativeness.
Also I.V. Arnold considers stylistics at the level of morphology, that is, the stylistic effect of the use of words different parts speech in unusual lexico-grammatical and grammatical meanings and with unusual referential reference. This divergence between the traditionally denoting and the situationally denoting at the level of morphology is called transposition. The author also considers the expressiveness of word-building means.
V.B. Sosnovskaya also classifies stylistic devices based on the division of stylistic means into tropes and figures of speech. Tropes include comparison, metaphor, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, antonomasia, epithet, paraphrase, allusion. Figures of speech are represented by parallel constructions, repetitions, multi-union, non-union, gradation, retardation, zeugma, alliteration, antithesis, oxymoron, pun, litote, hyperbole, ellipse.
M.D. Kuznets and Yu.M. Skrebnev believe that depending on which side of the language and, consequently, which speech means are chosen as the subject of stylistic analysis, stylistic devices can belong to different levels of stylistics: stylistic semasiology, stylistic lexicology. stylistic grammar and stylistic phonetics.
Techniques related to stylistic semasiology are represented by comparison, metaphor, epithet, personification, metonymy, synecdoche, allegory, antonomasia, paired synonyms, euphemisms, paraphrases, antithesis, oxymoron, irony, growth, detente, hyperbole, litotes.
Stylistic lexicology includes: 1) words of high stylistic tone (archaisms, literary words, foreign words); 2) words of a reduced stylistic tone (familiar-colloquial words, argotisms); 3) neutral words (professionalisms, dialectisms).
The devices belonging to stylistic grammar are: ellipse, silence or innuendo, nominative sentences, non-conjunction, apokoinu construction, zeugma, repetition, emphatic underlining, the use of parenthesis, inversion, parallel constructions, chiasmus, anaphora, epiphora, isolation, the use of a coordinating connection instead of a subordinating one, a rhetorical question, an improperly direct speech.
I.R. Galperin writes that some stylistic means of the language have become isolated as methods of only artistic speech; in other styles of speech they are not used, for example, improperly direct speech. However, the linguistic features of other styles of speech - newspaper, scientific, business, etc. - also influence the formation of individual stylistic means and determine their polyfunctionality. Language means used in the same functions gradually develop a kind of new qualities, become conditional means of expression and, gradually forming into separate groups, form certain stylistic devices.
Therefore, an analysis of the linguistic nature of stylistic devices (many of which were described in ancient rhetoric, and later in courses on the theory of literature) is an indispensable condition for a correct understanding of the features of their functioning. Thus, the classification of some lexical stylistic means of the language is based on the principle of interaction of various types of lexical meanings.
figure stylistic expressive language
CHAPTER 2. STYLISTIC EXPRESSION MEANS IN J. FOWLES "COLLECTOR"
2.1 The main stylistic figures of the novel
Almost any text includes certain tropes, figures of speech or other means of giving expressiveness to the statement, which make up a special function of language units - stylistic. Unlike the visual means of language (tropes), expressive means, stylistic figures, do not create images, but increase the expressiveness of speech and enhance its emotionality and expressiveness with the help of such syntactic constructions as inversion, rhetorical question, parallel and introductory constructions, gradation, antithesis , allusion, etc. Nevertheless, it is not entirely possible to clearly distinguish between tropes and stylistic figures, since “meaning increments” are also inherent in intonational-syntactic variations of verbal linkages, that is, figures.
Replays play an important role in The Collector. Repetitions convey significant additional information of emotionality, expressiveness and stylization, and, in addition, often serve as an important means of communication between sentences. Clegg's synonymous repetitions throughout the story, such as: and so on , and all , etcetra , all that do not have a semantic load, refer to the so-called "weedy" words. In this case, the repetition carries a semantic load and indicates that the narrator is a poorly educated person who does not know how to use the word. This is also evidenced by the combination of repetition with the incorrect use of the form of the word: and all the etceteras . Repeating an onomatopoeic sarcastic neologism la-di-da in relation to people rich and educated defines a hostile, contemptuous perception of the "upper class", which is inaccessible to Clegg himself: If you ask me London"s all arranged for the people who canact like public schoolboys, and don"t get anywhere if you don"t have the manner born and the right la-di-da voice- I mean rich people"s London , the west end, of course . It is important to note that in contrasting Miranda with everyone else, Clegg uses the same neologism: She is not la-di-da, like many... , Her voice was very educated, but it wasn't la-di-da...and you didn't have any class feeling , which sounds like praise in his mouth, the highest compliment to Miranda. As we have already said, Clegg's vocabulary is emphatically impersonal, as, indeed, his portrait: Absolutely sexless (he looks)... Fish-eyes they watch. That's all. No expression . The collector divides the world into "bad" and "good", "right" and "wrong". Good , bad , nasty , funny , wrong , rihgt - closely repetitive speech elements. Clegg's world is limited by the scope of his passion, he is not able to think in other, brighter categories. In the collector's story, we also find purely lexical repetitions: All that right after she said I could collect pictures I thought about it; I dreamed myself collecting pictures, having a big house with famous pictures hanging on the walls... But I knew all the time it was silly; I"d never collect anything but butterflies. Pictures don"t mean anything to me ... . Lexical repetitions: collect , pictures , anithing combine expressiveness and functional-stylistic features, from which it can be understood that these words belong to a person who is illiterate, has poor command of speech, is closed in his little world of butterflies and is afraid to go beyond the boundaries of this world. Clegg's speech is replete with words of broad semantics: thing , staff , all that etc., which is typical for colloquial style and vernacular. Commonly used amplifier by Clegg course devoid of emotionality and depends on the contact-establishing function: ...of course, I thought it was only pretending ; I have gone red, of course ; ...with all the precautions, of course , Miranda there, too, of course .
In Miranda's narrative, we find a large number of repetitions that perform mainly an expressive and emotional function: I get more and more frightened , ...and breathing in wonderful, even though it was damp and misty, wonderful air , wickedly wickedly cunning , Endless endless time , And there's escape, escape, escape , I must, must, must escape , I knitted, knitted, knitted... , ...he stared bitterly bitterly , Affluence, affluence and not a soul to see , Useless, useless... . As can be seen from the examples, repetition creates emphasis by doubling and even tripling the word. The expressiveness in all these examples is intensifying. From the very beginning of Miranda's tale, we are faced with the symbolism of light - a whole group of lexemes whose meaning is somehow connected with light: light , day light , nightlights , sun , shine , God , sunlight , white , starlight , key hole of light , artificial light , flash light . These words are opposed to: madness , aufulness , derkness , devil , hell , ugliness .
For Miranda, light is a symbol of life. Addressing her sister Minnie, Miranda will write the thing I miss most of all is fresh light: I can "t live without light. Artificial light, all the lines lie, it almost makes you long for darkness . Miranda misses everything new, fresh. Telling her sister about this, she uses the ambiguity of the word fresh (fresh, new, clean) combined with a twist: I have been here over a week now, and I miss you very much, and I miss the fresh air and the fresh faces of all those people I so hated on the Tube and the fresh things that happened every hour of every day if only I could have seen them - their freshness, I mean. The thing I miss most of all is fresh light... . The use of polysemy of a word in combination with repetition in its stylistic function approaches here a play on words, because adjective fresh used in different ways and with different connotations. Based on the foregoing, we can assume that both the reader and the author himself associate Miranda with beauty, light, freshness, purity. Miranda is a beautiful world. The world of Miranda is opposed to the world of Caliban - darkness, ugliness, artificiality, limitation, cruelty, violence, evil. In Miranda's speech, there are also cases of sound repetition in the form of alliteration in combination with partial repetition (i.e., the use of single-root words): I love life so I nurr know how much I wanted to live wanted to live ,before... . Synonymous repeat ugly-nasty , beautiful-nice summarizes the main idea of the work: I just think of things as beautiful or not. Can "t you understand? I don"t think of good or bad. Just of beautiful or ugly. I think a lot of nice things are ugly and a lot of nasty things are beautiful . Series of lexical repetitions alternate in the text, and each row corresponds to some one ideological plot or emotional motive. So, for example, the motive of contempt for ignorance and, arising from it, the motive of the desire to learn as much as possible entail a number of lexical turns: Now I hate ignorance! Caliban's ignorance, my ignorence, the world's ignorance! Oh, I could cry, and learn and learn and learn. I could cry, I want to learn so much .
The motive of hatred for Caliban causes Miranda to utter the following words: If only I had the strength to kill you. I "d kill you. Like a scorpion. I will when I" m better. Prison's too good for you. I'd come and kill you . A large style-forming role is also played by two opposite tendencies associated with specific conditions of communication (i.e., primarily with its oral form), namely, compression, which leads to different kind incompleteness of expression, and redundancy. At the level of vocabulary, compression is manifested in the predominant use of monomorphemic words, verbs with postpositives. We find such words both in the collector's tale and in Miranda's narration: to be up , to get out , to give in , to find out , fix up , to clear up , to nail in , to get on , etc. The tendency to redundancy is associated primarily with unpreparedness, spontaneity colloquial speech. Elements that are redundant for subject-logical information can be expressive or emotional. In common parlance, this is a double negative, which can often be found in the collector's narrative: ...I would narr not get a doctor if she the was really ill and others. It is necessary to note the exaggeratedly frequent use of the first person pronoun in Clegg's narrative; which reveals the self-satisfaction and selfishness of the speaker: I sent him away. then the vicar from the village came to me and I had to be rude with him. I said I wanted to be left alone, I was Nomonformist, I wanted nothing to do with the village, and he went off la-di-da a huff. Then there were several people with van-shops and I had to put them off. I said I bought all my goods in Lewes .
2.2 Figures of speech used to create characters in The Collector The universal ways of embodying the semantics of an artistic image are tropeic, lexical and syntactic expressive means, as well as stylistic devices. They participate in the creation of color-forming meanings that create psychological picture character, embody the positive and negative qualities of the character, contributing to the creation of the image of a positive or negative character, and also participate in the formation of associative links with the images of other works. Consider which of the above figures of speech Fowles used when creating a portrait of the main characters of the novel "The Collector". Some types of inversion are widely used in the protagonist's story, such as: very attractive she was all in black... , where the predicative expressed by the adjective precedes the subject and the connective verb. This type of inversion is especially characteristic of colloquial speech. A literary quotation, I think it was - another example where, for the purpose of emphasis, the direct object is put in the first place. The specificity of Clegg's speech is conveyed by the use of unusual syntactic constructions, where a wide variety of deviations from accepted norms take place: It was a teacher I had ; I was feeling light-hearted; need I add ; I poured us one out each ; I "m just a nobody still, aren't I? ; You had to think very carefully about what you said ; I'm no beauty ; That next lunch she said not a word when I spoke to her ; But I wasn't to know she was really ill ; ... Her eyes were stareing white like she'd tried to see out off of the window one last time ; How was I to know she was ill than she looked? and others. All of the above examples can be attributed to vernacular, which makes it possible to judge the level of literacy of the narrator. Claiming to be intelligent, in a conversation with Miranda Clegg uses solemnly pompous speech turns: I called in the regard to those records they "ve placed on order - instead of saying: I asked about those records you ordered . Or: I showed every respect I could under the circumstances ; I accept your apologies ; Please, don't oblige me to use force again ; I shall respect your every privacy providing you keep your word ; Would you consider selling this? ; I'm safe and not in danger etc. Experiencing an inferiority complex, the Collector unconsciously strives to do everything and think in the way, in his opinion, accepted in "high society". Using a lot of outdated clichéd turns, archaisms, Clegg believes that being old-fashioned is one of his main virtues. With some sadness and even boastfulness, op says that he is "old-fashioned": I "m different, old fashioned... ; Cliché after cliche after cliche, and all so old-fashioned, as if he's spent all his life with people over fifty... ; He's hopelissly out of date Miranda will say about Frederick Clegg. He calls the hotel the lounge , player - gramophone etc. Using phraseological units in a distorted form, the author emphasizes the incompetence of the narrator. So, for example, phraseology laugh in one"s sleeve (laughing furtively, surreptitiously, secretly) in the mouth of Clegg sounds like this: She was laughing up her sleeve at me . Set expression spoil the ship for a ha" potrth (or halfpennyworth), o "tar (to spoil or lose something valuable due to petty savings) in the speech of the collector takes a more simplified and infantile version: I didn't want to spoil the ship for the little bit of tar . It is difficult for an uneducated Frederick to remember obsolete ha"porth and he, without hesitation, changes it to the little bit .
The use of phraseology the soft calling the kettle black , with his inherent expressiveness, imagery, emotionality, characterizes Clegg as a rude, uncouth and ignorant person. As a result of incorrect interpretation of the phraseological turnover to at sixes and sevens (to be in disarray, to be in a neglected state), in Clegg's narration there is a distortion of the meaning of the statement. The use of transposition (i.e. the use of syntactic structures in denotative meanings unusual for them and with additional connotations) gives the narrative a special modal, emotional meaning, as well as stylistic coloring. Let us give the most striking example of transposition, exposing Clegg's cunning. Having bought the ring and knowing in advance that Miranda will refuse to marry him, Clegg seems to be waiting for a refusal - an excuse to keep Miranda at home. So when Miranda refuses Clegg's offer, he is quick to conclude: that changes everything then, doesn't it . The dissected question itself, where there is an excellent use of the affirmative and negative form, invites the interlocutor to express agreement with what was said. Clegg does this categorically, as evidenced by the absence of a question mark at the end of the sentence. Quite often, in the collector's narrative, polyunion is striking, which makes the statement more expressive: What thought I would do was drive home and see if she was worse and if she was I "d drive her into the hospital and then I" d have to run away and leave the country or something... .
An important role for the characterization of characters is played by such a stylistic device as repetition. In the novel, we encounter different types of repetition function. Let's take an example of some of them. I must have some fresh air and light. I must have a bath sometimes I must have some drawing materials. I must have a radio or a record-player... I must have fresh fruit and salads. I must have some sort of exercise - anaphoric repetition (speech construction I must have