Brief history of the development of psychological science. History of psychology briefly

11.10.2019

Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. In the philosophical teachings of antiquity, some psychological aspects were already touched upon, which were solved either in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. So, materialistic philosophers antiquities Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus they understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation formed from spherical, small and most mobile atoms. But idealist philosopher Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from the body. The soul, before entering the human body, exists separately in upper world where he learns ideas - eternal and unchanging essences. Once in the body, the soul begins to remember what it saw before birth. Plato's idealistic theory, which treats the body and mind as two independent and antagonistic principles, laid the foundation for all subsequent idealistic theories.

Great Philosopher Aristotle In the treatise "On the Soul" he singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of the inseparability of the soul and the living body. The soul, the psyche is manifested in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, moving, rational; higher abilities arise from lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive faculty of man is sensation; it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just as "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron and gold." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena.

Thus, stage I is psychology as the science of the soul. This definition of psychology was given more than two thousand years ago. The presence of the soul tried to explain all the incomprehensible phenomena in human life.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. Arises in the 17th century in connection with the development natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.

Stage III - psychology as a science of behavior. Arises in the 20th century: The task of psychology is to experiment and observe what can be directly seen, namely: behavior, actions, reactions of a person (motives that cause actions were not taken into account).

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

The history of psychology as an experimental science begins in 1879 in the world's first experimental psychological laboratory founded by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

2. The place of psychology in the system of sciences

So, by establishing the laws of cognitive processes (sensations, perceptions, thinking, imagination, memory), psychology contributes to the scientific construction of the learning process, creating the possibility of correctly determining the content educational material necessary for the assimilation of certain knowledge, skills and abilities. By revealing the patterns of personality formation, psychology assists pedagogy in the correct construction of the educational process.

A wide range of tasks that psychologists are occupied with, determines, on the one hand, the need for the relationship of psychology with other sciences involved in solving complex problems, and on the other hand, the allocation within the psychological science itself of special branches engaged in solving psychological problems in a particular area of society. .

Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third. This is explained by the fact that the focus of her attention is always a person, who is also studied by the sciences mentioned above, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its component- The theory of knowledge (epistemology) solves the question of the attitude of the psyche to the surrounding world and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary. Psychology, on the other hand, clarifies the role that the psyche plays in human activity and its development (Fig. 1).

According to the classification of sciences of academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.

Psychology integrates all the data of these sciences and, in turn, influences them, becoming a general model of human knowledge. Psychology should be viewed as the scientific study of human behavior and mental activity, as well as the practical application of acquired knowledge.

3. main psychological schools.

Psychological direction- an approach to the study of the psyche, mental phenomena, due to a certain theoretical base (concept, paradigm).

psychological school- a certain trend in science, founded by a major representative of it and continued by his followers.

So in psychodynamic ( psychoanalytic) in the direction there are classical schools of Z. Freud, the school of C. Jung, Lacan, psychosynthesis of R. Assagioli, etc.

Psychology of activity- a domestic trend in psychology that does not accept purely biological (reflex) foundations of the psyche. From the standpoint of this direction, a person develops through the internalization (transition of external to internal) socio-historical experience in the process of activity - a complex dynamic system of interaction between the subject and the world (society). The activity of a person (and the person itself) is understood here not as a special kind of mental activity, but as a real, objectively observed practical, creative, independent activity of a particular person. This direction is primarily associated with the activities of S.L. Rubinshtein, A.N. Leontiev, K.A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya and A.V. Brushlinsky.

Behaviorism- a behavioral direction that considers learning as the leading mechanism for the formation of the psyche, and the environment as the main source of development. Behaviorism itself is divided into two directions - reflex (J. Watson and B. Skinner, who reduced mental manifestations to skills and conditioned reflexes) and social (A. Bandura and J. Rotter, who studied the process of human socialization and took into account certain internal factors - self-regulation, expectations , significance, accessibility assessment, etc.).

cognitive psychology- considers the human psyche as a system of mechanisms that ensure the construction of a subjective picture of the world, its individual model. Each person builds (constructs) his own reality and builds his relationship with it on the basis of "constructs". This direction gives preference to the study of cognitive, intellectual processes and considers a person as a kind of computer. To one degree or another, J. Kelly, L. Festinger, F. Haider, R. Shenk and R. Abelson contributed to it.

Gestalt psychology- one of the holistic (holistic) directions, considering the body and psyche as an integral system that interacts with the environment. The interaction between a person and the environment is considered here through the concepts of balance (homeostasis), the interaction of a figure and a background, tension and relaxation (discharge). The whole is viewed by Gestaltists as a structure qualitatively different from the simple sum of its parts. People do not perceive things in isolation, but organize them through the processes of perception into meaningful wholes - gestalts (gestalt - form, image, configuration, integral structure). This trend has taken root both in general (W. Keller, K. Koffka, M. Wertheimer), social (K. Levin), and personality psychology and psychotherapy (F. Perls).

The psychodynamic direction laid the foundation for a number of psychological schools. His “father” is Z. Freud, who developed the principles of classical psychoanalysis, and his closest students and associates later founded their own schools. These are K. Jung - analytical psychology, K. Horney - neopsychoanalysis, R. Assagioli - psychosynthesis, E. Berne - transactional analysis, etc. This direction considers the "vertical structure" of the psyche - the interaction of consciousness with its unconscious part and "superconsciousness". This direction made the greatest contribution to the psychology of personality, to motivational theories, and its influence can be traced both in humanistic and existential psychology. Without this direction, it is now impossible to imagine modern psychotherapy and psychiatry.

Humanistic psychology- a personality-centered direction, which considers human life as a process of self-actualization, self-realization, maximum development of individuality, the inner potential of the individual. The task of a person is to find his own natural path in life, to understand and accept his individuality. On this basis, a person understands and accepts other people and achieves inner and outer harmony. The founders of this direction are K.Rogers and A.Maslow.

existential psychology- The psychology of "existence", the being of a person is one of the most modern trends, most connected with philosophy. This direction is sometimes called phenomenology, since it gives value to every moment of a person's life and considers the inner world of a person as a unique universe that cannot be measured by any instrument, but can only be known through identification, that is, becoming this person. The development of this direction is primarily associated with L. Biswanger, R. May, I. Yalom, but K. Rogers and A. Maslow also contributed to it.

Depth psychology- a direction that unites currents and schools that study the processes of the unconscious, the "inner psyche". The term is used to designate the specifics of the "vertical" study of the psyche, in contrast to the "horizontal".

Psychology of Spirituality- a holistic direction that combines "purely" scientific and religious approaches to man. This direction is the future of psychology and is to some extent connected with all others. The psychological interpretation of the concept of spirituality is still being developed. However, in any case, spirituality is connected with what unites people, makes a person whole and at the same time with the manifestation of human individuality.

The emergence and development of psychology as a science. The main stages in the development of psychology as a science.

The formation of psychology as a science was closely connected with the development of philosophy and the natural sciences. The first ideas about the psyche were formed in primitive society. Even in ancient times, people paid attention to the fact that there are material phenomena, material (objects, nature, people) and non-material (images of people and objects, memories, experiences) - mysterious, but existing independently, regardless of the surrounding world.

The greatest philosopher of antiquity Democritus (V-IV centuries BC) states that the soul also consists of atoms, with the death of the body, the soul also dies. The soul is the driving principle, it is material. A different idea of the essence of the soul develops Plato (428-348 BC). Plato argues that the basis of everything is ideas that exist in themselves. Ideas form their own world, it is opposed by the world of matter. Between them as an intermediary - the world soul. According to Plato, a person does not so much learn as remember what the soul already knew. The soul is immortal, Plato believed. The first work on the soul was written Aristotle (384-322 BC). His treatise "On the Soul" is considered the first psychological work.

By the beginning of the XVII century, the formation of psychological views in this period is associated with the activities of a number of scientists: Rene Descartes (1595-1650), B. Spinoza (1632-1677), D. Locke (1632-1704) and others.

The evolutionary teachings of Ch. Darwin (1809-1882) played an important role in this regard. Row appears fundamental research devoted to the general patterns of development of sensitivity and specifically to the work of various sense organs (I. Müller, E. Weber, G. Helmholtz and others). Of particular importance for the development of experimental psychology were the works of Weber, devoted to the relationship between the increase in irritation and sensation. These studies were then continued, generalized and subjected to mathematical processing by G. Fechner. Thus the foundations of experimental psychophysical research were laid. The experiment begins very quickly to be introduced into the study of central psychological problems. In 1879, the first psychological experimental laboratory was opened in Germany (W. Wund), in Russia (V. Bekhterev).

1879 is the conditional date of the origin of psychology as a science (system).

W. Wolf - the founder of psychology.

First stage. The times of antiquity - the subject of psychology is the soul. During this period, there are two main directions in understanding the nature of the soul: idealistic and materialistic. The founders of the idealistic direction were Socrates and Plato (the soul is the beginning of the immortal). The materialistic direction in the understanding of the soul was developed by Democritus, Anaxagoras, Anaximenes. The founder of psychology is Aristotle, who in his work “On the Soul” summarized the knowledge of the soul available at that time, understanding by this the method of organizing the living body, he distinguished three types of soul: the plant soul, the animal soul and the rational soul.

The second stage of the XVII - XIX centuries. - the subject of psychology becomes consciousness. Consciousness was understood as the ability of a person to feel, remember, and think. In the 17th century, the works of R. Descartes played an important role in changing the subject of psychology. He first identified the psychophysical problem, i.e. relationship between soul and body. He introduced the concept of consciousness and reflex.

19th century - Wilhelm Wundt. Wundt is considered the founder of experimental psychology. Wundt and colleagues identified 3 main components of consciousness: sensations, images and feelings.

The third stage 1910-1920 - USA - behaviorism emerges. J. Watson is considered the founder of behaviorism. Behavior becomes the subject of psychology. Classical behaviorism denied the role of consciousness in behavior. It was believed that consciousness does not play any role in the formation of behavioral skills, and skills are formed by mechanical repetition of the same action. Classical behaviorism does not deny the existence of consciousness.

The fourth stage 1910 - 1920 - Europe. The subject of psychology is the psyche. There are various psychological trends and schools.

Basic concepts in foreign psychology: behaviorism, depth psychology, Gestalt psychology, humanistic psychology, cognitive psychology, genetic psychology.

Behaviorism(eng. behavior - behavior) - one of the directions in foreign psychology, the program of which was proclaimed in 1913 by the American researcher John Watson, who believed that the subject of study should not be consciousness, but behavior. By studying the direct connections between stimuli and reactions (reflexes), behaviorism drew the attention of psychologists to the study of skills, learning, and experience; opposed associationism, psychoanalysis. Behaviorists used two main directions for the study of behavior - conducting experiments in laboratory, artificially created and controlled conditions, and observing subjects in their natural habitat.

Depth psychology (Freudian)- this is a group of directions in modern foreign psychology, focused mainly on unconscious mechanisms psyche.

Gestalt psychology- direction in foreign psychology, proceeding from the integrity of the human psyche, not reducible to the simplest forms. Gestalt psychology explores the mental activity of the subject, based on the perception of the surrounding world in the form of gestalts. Gestalt (German Gestalt - form, image, structure) is a spatially visual form of perceived objects. One of bright examples, according to Keller, is a melody that is recognizable even if it is transposed to other elements. When we hear a melody for the second time, we recognize it through memory. But if the composition of its elements changes, we still recognize the melody as the same one.

cognitive psychology- a branch of psychology that studies cognitive, i.e., cognitive, processes of human consciousness. Research in this area is usually related to issues of memory, attention, feelings, presentation of information, logical thinking, imagination, decision making.

Humanistic psychology- a number of directions in modern psychology, which are focused primarily on the study of the semantic structures of man. In humanistic psychology, the main subjects of analysis are: highest values, self-actualization of personality, creativity, love, freedom, responsibility, autonomy, mental health, interpersonal communication. Humanistic psychology emerged as an independent trend in the early 60s of the XX century as a protest against the dominance of behaviorism and psychoanalysis in the United States, called the third force.

genetic psychology–. The subject of her research is the development and origin of the intellect, the formation of concepts: time, space, object, etc. Genetic psychology studies children's logic, features of a child's thinking, mechanisms cognitive activity, the transition of forms of thinking from simple to complex. The founder of genetic psychology, Swiss psychologist J. Piaget (1896-1980) is one of the most famous scientists whose works milestone in the development of psychology.

Domestic psychology. Cultural-historical concept of the development of the psyche of L.S. Vygotsky. Subject-activity approach of S.L. Rubinshtein. Development by A.N. Leontiev of the theory of activity. An Integrative Approach to Human Cognition BG Ananyeva.

Vygotsky and his concept . He showed that man has a special kind of mental functions that are completely absent in animals. Vygotsky argued that the higher mental functions of man, or consciousness, are of a social nature. At the same time, the higher mental functions are understood as: arbitrary memory, arbitrary attention, logical thinking, etc.

First part of the concept - "Human and nature". Its main content can be formulated in the form of two theses. The first is the thesis that during the transition from animals to humans, a fundamental change in the relationship of the subject with the environment took place. Throughout the existence of the animal world, the environment acted on the animal, modifying it and forcing it to adapt to itself. With the advent of man, the opposite process is observed: man acts on nature and modifies it. The second thesis explains the existence of mechanisms for changing nature on the part of man. This mechanism consists in the creation of tools of labor, in the development of material production.

The second part of the concept- Man and his own psyche. It also contains two provisions. The mastery of nature did not pass without a trace for a person, he learned to master his own psyche, he acquired higher mental functions, expressed in the forms of voluntary activity. Under the higher mental functions of L.S. Vygotsky understood the ability of a person to force himself to remember some material, to pay attention to some object, to organize his mental activity. A person mastered his behavior, like nature, with the help of tools, but special tools - psychological ones. These psychological tools he called signs.

The third part of the concept- "Genetic aspects". This part of the concept answers the question "Where do the sign funds come from?" Vygotsky proceeded from the fact that labor created man. In the process of joint labor, communication took place between its participants with the help of special signs that determined what each of the participants in the labor process should do. Man has learned to control his behavior. Consequently, the ability to command oneself was born in the process of human cultural development.

The subject of psychology Rubinstein is "the psyche in activity." Psychology studies the mind through activity. Rubinstein introduces the principle of the unity of consciousness and activity, which essentially means the unity of the subjective and the objective. Consciousness is formed in activity and manifests itself in it.

The psyche, personality, consciousness are formed and manifested in activity.

The psyche is known in activity, but it is experienced directly.

The psyche already exists in the prenatal period and forms the basis for further activities, and activity is a condition for the development of the psyche.

. Development by A.N. Leontiev of the theory of activity . According to A.N. Leontiev, “the personality of a person is “produced” - created by social relations into which the individual enters in his objective activity”. Personality first appears in society. A person enters history as an individual, endowed with natural properties and abilities, and he becomes a person only as a subject of social relations. Thus, the category of the subject's activity comes to the fore, since “it is the activity of the subject that is the initial unit of the psychological analysis of the personality, and not actions, operations or blocks of these functions; the latter characterize activity, not personality.

An Integrative Approach to Human Cognition BG Ananyeva. Ananiev considers a person in the unity of four aspects: 1) as a biological species; 2) in ontogenesis, process life path man as an individual; 3) as a person; 4) as part of humanity.

Personality is a “conscious individual” (B.G. Ananiev), i.e. a person capable of conscious organization and self-regulation of his activities on the basis of the assimilation of social norms of morality and legal behavior. B.G. Ananiev suggested anthropological approach to the study of man , which was implemented through systemic and multi-year genetic research. In these studies, he shows that individual development is an internally contradictory process. Development, according to Ananiev, is an increasing integration, a synthesis of psychophysiological functions. B.G. Ananiev in practice began to study a person as a holistic phenomenon. He singled out important interrelated features in it, which we call macro-characteristics, such as the individual, the subject of activity, personality and individuality. The scientist studied these macrocharacteristics in a real environment - in the aggregate of interrelated natural, social and spiritual factors.

4.Modern psychology, its tasks and place in the system of sciences .

In recent years, there has been rapid development psychological science, due to the variety of theoretical and practical tasks facing it. In our country, interest in psychology is especially indicative - it is finally beginning to be given the attention it deserves, and in almost all industries. modern education and business.

The main task of psychology is to study the laws of mental activity in its development. Tasks: 1) learn to understand the essence of phenomena and their patterns; 2) learn to manage them; 3) use the acquired knowledge in the education system, in management, in production in order to increase efficiency various industries practices; 4) be theoretical basis activities of the psychological service.

Over the past decades, the range and directions of psychological research have significantly expanded, and new scientific disciplines have emerged. The conceptual apparatus of psychological science has changed, new hypotheses and concepts are put forward, psychology is continuously enriched with new empirical data. So, B. F. Lomov in the book "Methodological and theoretical problems of psychology", characterizing state of the art science, noted that at present "there is a sharp increase in the need for further (and deeper) development of the methodological problems of psychological science and its general theory."

The field of phenomena studied by psychology is enormous. It covers the processes, states and properties of a person, which have varying degrees of complexity - from the elementary distinction of individual features of an object that affects the senses, to the struggle of personality motives. Some of these phenomena have already been studied quite well, while the description of others is reduced to a simple recording of observations.

For many decades, psychology was predominantly a theoretical (ideological) discipline. Currently, her role in public life has changed significantly. It is increasingly becoming an area of special professional practice in the education system, in industry, public administration, medicine, culture, sports, etc. The inclusion of psychological science in the solution of practical problems significantly changes the conditions for the development of its theory. Tasks, the solution of which requires psychological competence, arise in one form or another in all spheres of society, determined by the growing role of the so-called human factor. The term "human factor" means wide range socio-psychological, psychological and psycho-physiological properties that people possess and which one way or another are manifested in their specific activities.

Understanding the possibilities of using psychological data in other sciences largely depends on the place given to psychology in the system of sciences. At present, the non-linear classification proposed by academician B. M. Kedrov is considered the most generally accepted. It reflects the diversity of connections between the sciences, due to their subject closeness. The proposed scheme has the shape of a triangle, the vertices of which represent the natural, social and philosophical sciences. This situation is due to the real proximity of the subject and method of each of these main groups of sciences with the subject and method of psychology, oriented depending on the task in hand. side of one of the vertices of the triangle.

Psychology as a science

Society science of philosophy. The science

Ways of obtaining psychological knowledge. Worldly psychological knowledge about oneself and other people. Sources of scientific psychological knowledge. The main differences between everyday and scientific psychological knowledge.

Ways to obtain psychological knowledge . As the Russian philosopher and psychologist Chelpanov Georgy Ivanovich (1862-1936) once said: “Not from observing only oneself, but from observations of all living beings in general, the psychologist seeks to build the laws of mental life". Psychology draws these observations from a number of other sciences. We can depict the material that a psychologist needs to build a system of psychology in the following form. A psychologist needs three groups of data: 1) Data comparative psychology:. this includes the so-called "psychology of peoples" (ethnography, anthropology), as well as history, works of art etc.; animal psychology; child psychology. 2) abnormal phenomena ( mental illness; hypnotic phenomena, sleep, dreams; mental life of the blind, deaf and dumb, etc.). 3) Experimental data.

So, we see that for a modern psychologist, first of all, it is necessary to have data from comparative psychology. This includes the "psychology of peoples", which includes the history and development of religious ideas, the history of myths, mores, customs, language, the history of arts, crafts, etc. among uncultured peoples. History, describing the past life of peoples, also describes such moments in their lives as popular movements, etc., this provides rich material for the so-called psychology of the masses. The study of the development of language also provides very important material for psychology. Language is the embodiment of human thought. If we follow the development of language, then we can also trace the development of human ideas. Works of art also provide very important material for psychology: for example, to study such a passion as "stinginess", we should turn to its depiction in Pushkin, Gogol and Moliere.

Animal psychology is important because in the psychic life of animals the same "faculties" which in man appear in an obscure form arise in a simple, elementary form, as a result of which they are accessible to easier study; for example, instinct in animals appears in a much clearer form than in man.

The psychology of the child is important because, thanks to it, we can see how higher abilities develop from elementary ones. For example, the development of the ability to speak could be traced in a child from its most rudimentary form.

The study of abnormal phenomena, which include mental illness, the so-called hypnotic phenomena, and likewise sleep and dreams, is also necessary for the psychologist. What is vaguely expressed in a normal person is expressed extremely clearly in a mentally ill person. For example, the phenomenon of memory loss is also noticed in a normal person, but it appears especially clearly in mentally ill people.

If, further, we take people with various physical defects who lack, for example, the organ of sight, hearing, etc., then observations on them can provide extremely important material for psychology. The blind person does not have an organ of vision, but has a conception of space, which, of course, differs from the conception of space in a sighted person. The study of the peculiarities of the idea of the space of a blind person gives us the opportunity to determine the nature of the idea of space in general.

Experimental data obtained empirically in the course of observing individual psychic facts give us the opportunity to classify the phenomena of psychic reality, to establish a regular connection between them that can be verified by experience. The most effective method for obtaining these data is a laboratory experiment.

Here is the numerous material on the basis of which the system of psychology is built.

Worldly psychological knowledge about oneself and other people. Everyday psychology is psychological knowledge that is accumulated and used by a person in Everyday life. They are usually specific and are formed in a person in the course of his individual life as a result of observations, self-observations and reflections. People differ in terms of psychological vigilance and worldly wisdom. Some are very perceptive, capable of easily capturing the mood, intentions or character traits of a person by the expression of their eyes, face, gestures, posture, movements, habits. Others do not have such abilities, are less sensitive to understanding behavior, internal state another person. The source of everyday psychology is not only a person's own experience, but also the people with whom he directly comes into contact.

The content of everyday psychology is embodied in folk rituals, traditions, beliefs, in proverbs and sayings, in aphorisms of folk wisdom, in fairy tales and songs. This knowledge is passed from mouth to mouth, recorded, reflecting centuries of everyday experience. Many proverbs and sayings have a direct or indirect psychological content: “There are devils in the still waters”, “Softly spreads, but hard to sleep”, “A frightened crow and a bush is afraid”, “Praise, honor and glory and a fool loves”, “Seven times measure - cut once", "Repetition is the mother of learning". Rich psychological experience is accumulated in fairy tales.

Main criterion the truth of the knowledge of everyday psychology - their plausibility and obvious usefulness in everyday life situations. The peculiarities of this knowledge are concreteness and practicality. They always characterize the behavior, thoughts and feelings of people in specific, albeit typical, situations. In knowledge of this type, the inaccuracy of the concepts used is manifested. Everyday terms are usually vague and ambiguous. Our language contains a large number of words denoting psychic facts and phenomena. By the way, many of these words are similar to similar terms. scientific psychology, but less accurate in use.

Data processing methods.

methods quantitative analysis, here we have in mind a very extensive group of methods of mathematical data processing and methods of statistics in application to the problems of psychological research.

methods qualitative analysis: differentiation of factual material by groups, description of typical and exceptional cases.

Interpretation methods.

It must be clearly understood that the actual data itself still means little. The researcher receives results in the process of interpreting the actual data, so a lot depends on this or that interpretation.

· The genetic (phylo - and ontogenetic) method allows interpreting all the factual material in terms of development, highlighting phases, stages of development, as well as critical moments in the formation of mental functions. As a result, "vertical" links are established between the levels of development.

· The structural method establishes "horizontal" links between various elements of the psyche, while using the usual methods of studying all kinds of structures, in particular, classification and typology.

Advantages:

The richness of the collected information (provides both the analysis of verbal information and actions, movements, deeds)

The naturalness of the working conditions is preserved

Allows the use of a variety of tools

it is not necessary to obtain the prior consent of the subject

Efficiency of obtaining information

Relative cheapness of the method

Provided high accuracy results

Repeated studies under similar conditions are possible

almost complete control over all variables

limitations:

Subjectivity (results largely depend on experience, scientific views, qualifications, preferences)

2. it is impossible to control the situation, to interfere in the course of events without distorting them

3. due to the passivity of the observer, they require a significant investment of time

the conditions of the activity of the subjects do not correspond to reality

2. The subjects are aware that they are the subjects of the study.

The structure of the psyche

Emotional-volitional processes

Emotional-volitional processes.

feelings - the highest manifestation of the human psyche, reflecting the inner world and the ability to perceive other people; the highest feelings are love, - - friendship, patriotism, etc.;

Emotions - the ability to experience and convey significant situations;

Motivation is the process of managing human activities, stimulating action;

Will is an element of consciousness, consisting in the ability to act in accordance with decision often against the odds.

Phylogeny is a historical development that covers millions of years of evolution (history of development various kinds organisms).

Stage I. A.N. Leontiev in his book "Problems of the Development of the Psyche" showed that the first stage in the development of the psyche is the stage of the elementary sensory psyche. Thus, animals with an elementary sensory psyche are characterized by instinctive behavior. Instinct is such actions of a living being that do not require training. The animal “seems to know” from birth what to do. As applied to a person, instinct is an action that a person performs as if automatically, without even thinking about it (removing his hand from the flame of a fire, waving his hands when he gets into the water).

II stage evolution of the psyche - the stage of the perceptive psyche (perceiving). Animals that are in this stage reflect the world no longer in the form of individual elementary sensations, but in the form of images of integral objects and their relationships with each other. This level of development of the psyche requires a new stage of development nervous system- the central nervous system .. Together with the instincts in the behavior of such animals, the skills acquired in the course of life by each individual creature begin to play the main role. Skill - the development in the process of life experience of their individual for each animal forms of behavior based on conditioned reflexes.

Stage III development of the psyche - the stage of intelligence ( highest level behaviour). Features of the "reasonable" behavior of the animal:

- the absence of lengthy trial and error, the correct action occurs immediately;

- the whole operation takes place as a holistic continuous act;

- the found correct solution will always be used by the animal in similar situations;

- the use by animals of other objects to achieve the goal.

Thus, in the psyche of animals we find many existing prerequisites, on the basis of which human consciousness arose under special conditions.

10. The concept of consciousness. The structure of consciousness. Conscious and unconscious as the main form of reflection outside world .

Consciousness is the highest form of a generalized reflection of the objective stable properties and patterns of the surrounding world, the formation of an internal model of the external world in a person, as a result of which knowledge and transformation of the surrounding reality is achieved.

The function of consciousness consists in the formation of the goals of activity, in the preliminary mental construction of actions and the prediction of their results, which ensures a reasonable regulation of human behavior and activity. Human consciousness has a certain attitude towards environment, to other people.

The following properties of consciousness are distinguished: building relationships, cognition and experience. This directly implies the inclusion of thinking and emotions in the processes of consciousness. Indeed, the main function of thinking is to identify objective relationships between the phenomena of the external world, and the main function of emotion is the formation of a subjective attitude of a person to objects, phenomena, people. These forms and types of relations are synthesized in the structures of consciousness, and they determine both the organization of behavior and the deep processes of self-esteem and self-consciousness. Really existing in a single stream of consciousness, an image and a thought can, being colored by emotions, become an experience.

Consciousness develops in a person only in social contacts. In phylogeny, human consciousness has developed and becomes possible only under conditions of active influence on nature, under conditions labor activity. Consciousness is possible only under the conditions of the existence of language, speech, which arises simultaneously with consciousness in the process of labor.

And the primary act of consciousness is the act of identification with the symbols of culture, organizing human consciousness, making a person a person. The isolation of the meaning, symbol and identification with it is followed by the implementation, the active activity of the child in reproducing patterns of human behavior, speech, thinking, consciousness, the active activity of the child in reflecting the world around him and regulating his behavior.

The division of the psyche into conscious and unconscious is the basic premise of psychoanalysis, gives it the opportunity to understand and subject to scientific research important pathological processes in mental life.

Consciousness- it is primarily a body of knowledge about the world. It is no coincidence that it is closely related to knowledge. If cognition is consciousness in its active direction outward, toward an object, then consciousness itself is, in turn, the result of cognition. Dialectics is revealed here: the more we know, the higher our cognitive potentials and vice versa - the more we know the world, the richer our consciousness. The next important element of consciousness is attention, the ability of consciousness to concentrate on certain types cognitive and any other activity, keep them in focus. Next, apparently, we should name memory, the ability of consciousness to accumulate information, store, and, if necessary, reproduce it, as well as use previously acquired knowledge in activities. But we not only know something and remember something. Consciousness is inseparable from the expression of a certain attitude to the objects of cognition, activity and communication in the form of emotions. To emotional sphere consciousness includes feelings proper - joy, pleasure, grief, as well as moods and affects, or, as they were called in the old days, passions - anger, rage, horror, despair, etc. To those mentioned earlier, one should add such an essential component of consciousness as the will, which is a meaningful aspiration of a person to a specific goal and directs his behavior or action.

1. A person with consciousness distinguishes himself from the surrounding world, separates himself, his “I” from external things, and the properties of things from themselves.

2. Is able to see himself in a certain system of relations with other people.

3. Able to see himself as being in a certain place in space and at a certain point in the time axis connecting the present, past and future.

4. Able to establish adequate causal relationships between the phenomena of the external world and between them and their own actions.

5. Gives an account of his feelings, thoughts, experiences, intentions and desires.

6. Knows the features of his individuality and personality.

7. Able to plan his actions, anticipate their results and evaluate their consequences, i.e. capable of performing intentional voluntary actions.

All these signs are opposed to the opposite features of unconscious and unconscious mental processes and impulsive, automatic or reflex actions.

The totality of mental phenomena, states and actions that are not represented in the mind of a person, lying outside the sphere of his mind, unaccountable and not amenable, at least at the moment, to control, is covered by the concept unconscious . The unconscious appears sometimes as an attitude, instinct, attraction, sometimes as sensation, perception, representation and thinking, sometimes as intuition, sometimes as a hypnotic state or dream, a state of passion or insanity. The unconscious phenomena include both imitation and creative inspiration, accompanied by a sudden “enlightenment” with a new idea, born, as it were, from some kind of push from within, cases of instantaneous solution of problems that have not succumbed to conscious efforts for a long time, involuntary memories of what seemed to be firmly forgotten, and other

The game is special kind activities that do not result in the production of any material or ideal product. The game does not create a socially significant product. The formation of a person as a subject of activity begins in the game, and this is its great, enduring significance.

Topic "History of psychology as a science"

Method systems

Exploring the history of psychology

Modern conditions

The relationship of psychology with other sciences

Structure of modern psychology

Question 2. The main factors and principles that determine the development of psychology

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction: An Overview of the History of Psychology

In order to acquire the ability for psychological knowledge, it is far from enough to be interested in it, which is also very important. It is necessary, having plunged into the inexhaustible ocean of psychological thought, to feel its originality, features, direction, conditionality and character of development. This "world of psychology" has been formed over thousands of years, and therefore the process of its formation is far from random, but natural, based on factors in all spheres of human life: from the improvement of socio-economic relations to the development of psychological knowledge proper. This world has a language that is quite difficult for initial perception, its own system of laws, principles, categories and concepts, includes a huge set of ideas put forward by thinkers of various times and peoples.

Not everyone is able to navigate in this vast world. A tool is needed - a "compass" that would help to get acquainted with psychological theories, concepts, ideas of the past and present, to highlight in them the most valuable for theoretical and practical activities. Such a theoretical and methodological tool is the history of psychology - the science of the laws of development of psychological knowledge at various stages of the evolution of mankind.

The history of psychology is one of the few complex disciplines that synthesize knowledge in individual areas and problems of psychology. On the one hand, its content is based on the knowledge obtained from other courses - general, age,

social psychology, etc. On the other hand, the history of psychology makes it possible to bring this knowledge into a system, to understand the logic of the formation of psychology, the reasons for changing its subject, the leading problems.

Today, psychology is a huge world of knowledge, including more than a hundred branches. It is "both very old and very young science ... has a thousand-year past behind it, and yet it is all still in the future" (S.L. Rubinshtein).

Like the history of philosophy, the history of psychology teaches not only facts, but also thinking, the ability to understand and adequately evaluate individual psychological phenomena and concepts. Analysis different approaches to the psyche will help develop a non-idealized, non-dogmatic view of different theories, teach you to think objectively and impartially, to find real advantages and disadvantages of both absolutized theories and new, fashionable ones at the present time.

The history of psychology plays a special role in this system of psychological knowledge: it answers the question, how did this system develop? This circumstance allows us to determine the place of the history of psychology. Firstly, this is an introduction to psychology - psychological propaedeutics; secondly, it is the theoretical and methodological basis of the activity of a psychologist of any level. For, without having decided on the worldview attitudes and the system of cognitive and regulatory means characteristic of it, it is impossible to build psychological knowledge and practice within a scientific framework.

The purpose of the history of psychology is the accumulation and study of the content psychological ideas at all known stages of human evolution. Proceeding from the designated goal, the history of psychology is not only a cognitive science - it has practical value: not just "gathers knowledge", but makes them "work" in various spheres of human life. This side of the history of psychology is reflected in its tasks.

These should include:

collection, processing, systematization, generalization of psychological ideas of the past and present, the establishment of their sources;

identification of patterns and dependencies in the development of psychological knowledge, forecasting based on them possible ways his evolution. The answer to the question: why did psychological concepts develop in a certain direction?;

scientific research, formation information base theoretical and methodological support modern solution and development of problems of psychology, closing its "blank spots";

creating a picture of the progressive development of psychological thought, and not just "the battlefield of psychological ideas." Identification of criteria for the theoretical and practical significance of psychological concepts, providing the possibility of orientation and consideration of lessons in the evolution of psychological knowledge.

Consonant in this regard is the position of the outstanding Russian psychologist B.M. Teplova: "One of the most relevant for modern science The task of the history of psychology is to leave as few problems as possible in psychology in which it is easier to discover America than to know that it has already been discovered.

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGY DETERMINISM

the psyche is determined by the way of life and changes with changes in external conditions;

UNITY OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND ACTIVITY

consciousness and activity are inextricably linked. Consciousness forms the inner plan of human activity;

DEVELOPMENT

the psyche can be correctly understood if it is considered in continuous development as a process and result of activity;

PERSONAL APPROACH focuses on the identification of all individual psychological characteristics of a person and allows you to evaluate the content of his mental world.

Question 1. Subject and methods of the history of psychology

The history of psychology has all the signs of science accepted today (although, as you know, the options for constructing scientific systems enough). Thus, the object of the history of psychology is psychological knowledge. The subject of the history of psychology is the regularities and tendencies of the process of evolution of psychological knowledge. The history of psychology has its own language, different from other sciences, expressed in a system of categories and concepts, for example: the genesis of psychological ideas; formation, development, evolution and registration of psychological knowledge; periodization of psychology; criteria for the value and scientific character of psychological ideas; heuristic psychological concept; psychological schools, currents and directions; etc. In many ways, the categorical-conceptual apparatuses of psychology and the history belonging to it mutually "overlap", "intersect" and are impossible one without the other, which indicates their close connection, because the study of the science of the psyche and consciousness (as well as any other field of knowledge) is impossible without it. retrospective context.

Patterns of development of the history of psychology

As scientific signs of science in the history of psychology, one can single out general, special and particular patterns. The general patterns inherent in the entire process of development of psychological knowledge include: differentiation of psychological knowledge and its progressive development; opposition to materialistic and idealistic trends within the framework of psychological teachings; the dependence of the evolution of psychological knowledge on economic factors, socio-political conditions, the level and way of life of peoples and nations, the state of their culture, natural scientific discoveries, the development of rational and empirical means of understanding mental phenomena and consciousness, the personal factor, etc. The special laws of the history of psychology should include those inherent in individual eras and regions (for example, the era of the Middle Ages or the evolution of psychological thought on the European continent). Particular patterns characterize the development of psychological science in specific countries and periods (for example, the formation of psychology in Russia, the development of German or French psychology in the 19th century).

The evolution of psychological knowledge

She, like everyone else famous sciences, there was a change of paradigms - generally accepted models of scientific practice, a set of the only possible ideas in a specific historical period (T. Kuhn). In the history of psychology, paradigms are known that appeared in various forms determinism (spontaneous, atomistic, mechanistic, biological, etc.), empiricism, associationism, evolutionism, functionalism, humanism, etc. These and other paradigms were born from the solution, by scientists, thinkers, researchers, of truly eternal dyads - oppositions: "consciousness - matter", "body - soul", "brain - soul", "external - internal", "biological - social", "conscious - subconscious", "conscious - unconscious", "activity - consciousness", "action - word", "meaning - meaning", etc. Attempts to solve these dyads gave rise to the leading problems in the history of psychology - truly "eternal problems" solved by all generations of thinkers and scientists: psychophysical, psychobiological, psychophysiological, psychosocial, psychosomatic, psychogenetic, psychochemical, etc.

Due to the variety of forms of representation of psychology in the system of scientific knowledge in different eras (from rock paintings to multi-volume works and developments on a computer), the set of methods of historical and psychological research is characterized by an interdisciplinary character. The methods of the history of psychology are expressed by subjective, comparative and critical analysis, theoretical reconstruction, comparison, complication and growth of psychological knowledge, drawing up structural-logical and dynamic schemes and models, linking the process of evolution of psychological knowledge to chronology, personalities and specific events, retrospective reproduction of scientific concepts and ideas of different times and peoples.

Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental make-up of people. In the philosophical teachings of antiquity, some psychological aspects were already touched upon, which were solved either in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. Thus, the materialistic philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a bodily formation formed from spherical, small and most mobile atoms. But the idealist philosopher Plato understood the human soul as something divine, different from the body. The soul, before entering the human body, exists separately in the higher world, where it cognizes ideas - eternal and unchanging essences. Once in the body, the soul begins to remember what it saw before birth. Plato's idealistic theory, which treats the body and mind as two independent and antagonistic principles, laid the foundation for all subsequent idealistic theories.

The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of the inseparability of the soul and the living body. The soul, the psyche is manifested in various abilities for activity: nourishing, feeling, moving, rational; higher abilities arise from lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive faculty of man is sensation; it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just as "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron and gold." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena.

Stage II - psychology as a science of consciousness. It arises in the 17th century in connection with the development of the natural sciences. The ability to think, feel, desire is called consciousness. The main method of study was the observation of a person for himself and the description of the facts.

Stage IV - psychology as a science that studies the objective patterns, manifestations and mechanisms of the psyche.

The history of psychology as an experimental science begins in 1879 in the world's first experimental psychological laboratory founded by the German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Soon, in 1885, V.M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.

2. Branches of psychology

Modern psychology is a widely developed field of knowledge, including a number of individual disciplines and scientific areas. So, the features of the psyche of animals are studied by zoopsychology. The human psyche is studied by other branches of psychology: child psychology studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activities, the entire personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development. Social psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationships with people, with a group, the psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the effect of radio, the press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people). Pedagogical psychology studies the patterns of personality development in the process of education and upbringing. There are a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity: labor psychology considers psychological features labor activity of a person, patterns of development of labor skills. Engineering psychology studies the regularities of the processes of interaction between a person and modern technology in order to use them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems, new types of technology. Aviation, space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activity of a pilot, astronaut. medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the doctor's activity and the behavior of the patient, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy. Pathopsychology studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the disintegration of the psyche in various forms of brain pathology. Legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in a criminal process (psychology of testimonies, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of a criminal's personality. Military psychology studies human behavior in combat conditions.

Thus, modern psychology is characterized by a process of differentiation that gives rise to a significant branching into separate branches, which often diverge very far and differ significantly from each other, although they retain common subject research- facts, patterns, mechanisms of the psyche. The differentiation of psychology is complemented by a counter process of integration, which results in the docking of psychology with all sciences (through engineering psychology - with technical sciences, through pedagogical psychology - with pedagogy, through social psychology- with social and social sciences, etc.).

3. Tasks and place of psychology in the system of sciences

The tasks of psychology are mainly reduced to the following:

learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;
learn to manage them;
use the acquired knowledge in order to increase the efficiency of those branches of practice at the intersection with which the already established sciences and branches lie;
be the theoretical basis for the practice of psychological service.

By studying the patterns of mental phenomena, psychologists reveal the essence of the process of reflecting the objective world in the human brain, find out how human actions are regulated, how mental activity develops and the mental properties of a person are formed. Since the psyche, human consciousness is a reflection of objective reality, the study of psychological laws means, first of all, the establishment of the dependence of mental phenomena on the objective conditions of human life and activity. But since any activity of people is always naturally conditioned not only by the objective conditions of life and human activity, but also sometimes subjective (relationships, attitudes of a person, his personal experience, expressed in the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for this activity), then psychology is faced with the task of identifying the features of the implementation of the activity and its effectiveness, depending on the ratio of objective conditions and subjective moments.

So, by establishing the laws of cognitive processes (sensations, perceptions, thinking, imagination, memory), psychology contributes to the scientific construction of the learning process, creating the possibility of correctly determining the content of educational material necessary for the assimilation of certain knowledge, skills and abilities. By revealing the patterns of personality formation, psychology assists pedagogy in the correct construction of the educational process.

What is the place of psychology in the system of sciences?

Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, the natural sciences, on the other, and the social sciences, on the third. This is explained by the fact that the focus of her attention is always a person, who is also studied by the sciences mentioned above, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its integral part - the theory of knowledge (epistemology) solves the question of the attitude of the psyche to the world around and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary. Psychology, on the other hand, clarifies the role that the psyche plays in human activity and its development (Fig. 1).

Rice. one. Classification by A. Kedrov

4. Main historical stages in the development of psychological science

The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism ( lat. anima - spirit, soul) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body, controlling all living and inanimate objects.

According to the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), the human soul exists before it enters into union with the body. It is the image and outflow of the world soul. Mental phenomena are divided by Plato into reason, courage (in the modern sense - will) and desires (motivation). Intelligence is located in the head, courage is in the chest, lust is in the abdomen. The harmonious unity of the rational principle, noble aspirations and desires gives integrity to the spiritual life of a person.

Psychology as a science originated in ancient Greece and is still a relevant industry. On the basis of treatises and works of scientists, mechanisms, models and systems have been developed to study the behavior, perception, awareness and adaptability of a person in society. Let's find out a brief history psychology, as well as get acquainted with famous figures who have made a huge contribution to the development of this humanitarian science.

A Brief History of Psychology

How did it all start? How did psychology as a science originate? In fact, this branch is closely connected with philosophy, history, and sociology. Today, psychology actively interacts with biology and neuropsychology, despite the fact that initially scientists in this field tried to find evidence for the existence of the soul in the human body. The name itself comes from two derivatives: logos ("teaching") and psycho ("soul"). It wasn't until after the 18th century that scientists made the subtlest connection between the very definition of science and human character. And so a new concept of psychology appeared - researchers began to build psychoanalysis, study the behavior of each person, identify categories and pathologies that affect interests, adaptability, mood and life choices.

Many great psychologists, such as S. Rubinstein and R. Goklenius, noted that this science is important in the knowledge of man. From time immemorial, researchers have been studying the connection of reason with religion, faith with spirituality, consciousness with behavior.

What it is

Psychology as independent science studies mental processes, human interaction with the outside world and behavior in it. The main object in the teachings is the psyche, which in ancient Greek means "mental". In other words, the psyche is the realized actions of a person, which are based on primary knowledge about reality.

Brief theses defining psychology:

This is a way of knowing yourself, your inner and, of course, the world around you.
This is a "spiritual" science, because it forces us to constantly develop, asking eternal questions: who am I, why am I in this world. That is why the subtlest connection between psychology and sciences, such as philosophy and sociology, can be traced.
This is a science that studies the interaction of the external world with the psyche and its influence on others. Thanks to numerous studies, a new branch was created - psychiatry, where scientists began to identify pathologies and psychological disorders, as well as stop them, treat them or completely destroy them.
This is the beginning spiritual path, where the great psychologists, together with philosophers, sought to study the connection between the spiritual and material world. Despite the fact that today the awareness of spiritual unity is just a myth that came from the depths of time, psychology reflects a certain meaning of being - ordered, cultivated, organized after thousands of years.

What does psychology study

Let's answer the main question - what does the science of psychology study? First of all, all mental processes and their components. The researchers found that these processes can be divided into three types: will, feelings, cognition. These include human thinking, memory, emotions, purpose, and decision making. From here comes the second phenomenon that science studies - mental states. What does psychology study?

Processes. Attention, speech, sensitivity, affects and stress, feelings and motives, imagination and curiosity.
states. Fatigue and emotional outbursts, contentment and apathy, depression and happiness.
Properties. Abilities, unique character traits, types of temperament.
Education. Habits, skills, areas of knowledge, skills, adaptability, personal traits.

Let's now begin to formulate the answer to the main question - how did psychology as a science arise? Initially, researchers paid attention to simple phenomena of the psyche, which they began to observe. It was noticed that any mental process can last just a few seconds or more, sometimes reaching 30-60 minutes. This caused and subsequently all the mental activity of people was attributed to complex brain processes.

Today, science studies each individual separately, revealing ever new mental phenomena, although earlier everything was divided into several types. The feeling of depression, the causes of irritation, absent-mindedness, mood swings, the formation of character and temperament, self-development and evolution are only a small part of what influenced the development of psychology as a science.

The main tasks of science

How did psychology as a science originate? It all started with the fact that thinkers and philosophers began to pay attention to mental processes. This became the main task of the teaching. The researchers analyzed the features of all processes directly related to the psyche. They believed that this direction reflects reality, that is, all events affect the psycho-emotional state of a person, which prompts him to take one action or another.

The analysis of all phenomena connected with the psyche and their development is the second task of science. Then came the third, important step in psychology - the study of all the physiological mechanisms that are controlled by mental phenomena.

If we talk about the tasks briefly, we can divide them into several points:

Psychology should teach to understand all psychological processes.
After that, we learn to control them, and then completely manage them.
All knowledge is directed to the development of psychology, which is closely connected with many humanities and natural sciences.

Thanks to the main tasks fundamental psychology(that is, science for the sake of science) was divided into several branches, which include the study of children's characters, behavior in the work environment, temperament and traits of creative, technical and sports personalities.

Methods used by science

All stages of the development of psychology as a science are associated with great minds, thinkers and philosophers, who developed an absolutely unique field that studies the behavior, character and skills of people. History confirms that the founders of the doctrine were Hippocrates, Plato and Aristotle - the authors and researchers of antiquity. It was they who suggested (of course, at different times) that there are several types of temperament that are reflected in behavior and goals.

Psychology, before becoming a full-fledged science, has come a long way and has affected almost everyone. famous philosopher, doctor and biologist. One of these representatives are Thomas Aquinas and Avicenna. Later, at the end of the 16th century, Rene Descartes participated in the development of psychology. According to him, the soul is a substance within a substance. It was Descartes who first introduced the word "dualism", which means the presence of spiritual energy inside the physical body, which very closely cooperate with each other. The mind, as the philosopher established, is the manifestation of our soul. Despite the fact that many of the scientist's theories were ridiculed and refuted several centuries later, he became the main founder of psychology as a science.

Immediately after the works of Rene Descartes, new treatises and teachings began to appear, written by Otto Kasman, Rudolf Goklenius, Sergei Rubinshein, William James. They went further and began to publish new theories. So, for example, W. James in late XIX century has proven the existence of a stream of consciousness through clinical studies. The main task of the philosopher and psychologist was to discover not only the soul, but also its structure. James suggested that we are a dual being in which both subject and object "dwell". Let's look at the contributions of other equally important scientists such as Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt and Carl Gustav Jung and others.

S. Rubinstein

Sergei Leonidovich Rubinshtein is one of the founders of a new school in psychology. He worked at the beginning of the 20th century in the Moscow state university, was a teacher and in parallel conducted research. The main contribution of Sergei Leonidovich Rubinstein was made to educational psychology, logic and history. He studied in detail the types of personalities, their temperament and emotions. It was Rubinstein who created the well-known principle of determinism, which meant that all actions and deeds of a person are directly related to the external (surrounding) world. Thanks to his research, he was awarded numerous medals, orders and prizes.

Sergei Leonidovich described his theories in detail in books that subsequently went into circulation. These include the "Principle of creative amateur activity", and "Problems of psychology in the writings of Karl Marx". In the second work, Rubinstein considered society as a single entity that follows a single path. To do this, the scientist had to conduct a deep analysis of the Soviet people and compare with foreign psychology.

Sergey Leonidovich also became the founder of the study of personalities, but, to everyone's regret, he could not finish the work. However, his contribution markedly advanced the development of domestic psychology and strengthened its status as a science.

O. Kasman

Otto Kasmann played a significant role in psychology, despite the fact that for a long period he was the main pastor and theologian in the German city of Stade. It was this public religious figure who called all mental phenomena scientific objects. There is practically no information about this founder, since quite a lot of events have happened over four centuries. However, Otto Kasman left us valuable works called Psychologia anthropologica and Angelographia.

The theologian and activist made adjustments to the term "anthropology" and explained that the biological nature of man is directly related to the abstract world. Despite the fact that Kasman made an invaluable contribution to psychology, the pastor himself carefully studied anthropology and tried to draw a parallel between this teaching and philosophy.

R. Goklenius

Rudolf Goklenius is an important link in psychology, despite the fact that he was a doctor of physical, mathematical and medical sciences. The scientist lived in the 16-17 centuries and during his long life he created many important works. Like Otto Kasman, Goclenius began to use the word "psychology" in everyday life.

An interesting fact, but Goklenius was Kasman's personal teacher. After receiving his doctorate, Rudolph began to study philosophy and psychology in detail. That is why today we are familiar with the name of Goklenius, because he was a representative of neo-scholasticism, which combined both religion and philosophical teachings. Well, since the scientist lived and worked in Europe, he spoke from catholic church, which created a new direction of scholasticism - neoscholasticism.

W. Wundt

The name of Wundt is as well known in psychology as that of Jung and Rubinstein. Wilhelm Maximilian lived in the 19th century and actively practiced experimental psychology. This trend included non-standard and unique practices that made it possible to study all psychological phenomena.

Like Rubinstein, Wundt studied determinism, objectivity, and the fine line between human activity and consciousness. The main feature of the scientist is that he was an experienced physiologist who understood all the physical processes of living organisms. To some extent, it was much easier for Wilhelm Maximilian to devote his life to such a science as psychology. Throughout his life, he trained dozens of figures, including Bekhterev and Serebrennikov.

Wundt sought to understand how our mind works, so he often conducted experiments that allowed him to find out chemical reactions in the body. It was the work of this scientist that laid the foundation for the creation and promotion of such a science as neuropsychology. Wilhelm Maximilian liked to observe the behavior of people in different situations, therefore, he developed a unique technique - introspection. Since Wundt himself was also an inventor, many experiments were worked out by the scientist himself. However, introspection did not include the use of devices or tools, but only observation, as a rule, of one's own mental phenomena and processes.

K. Jung

Jung is perhaps one of the most popular and ambitious scientists who has devoted his life to psychology and psychiatry. Moreover, the figure did not just try to understand psychological phenomena, he also opened a new direction - analytical psychology.

Jung carefully worked out the archetypes or structures (patterns of behavior) that come into being with a person. The scientist carefully studied each character and temperament, connected them with one link and supplemented new information while looking after your patients. Jung also proved that several people, being in a single team, can unconsciously perform similar actions. And it was thanks to these works that the scientist began to analyze the individuality of each person, to study whether it exists at all.

It was this figure who suggested that all archetypes are innate, but their main feature is that they develop over hundreds of years and are passed down from generation to generation. Subsequently, all types directly affect our choices, actions, feelings and emotions.

Who is a psychologist today

Today, a psychologist, unlike a philosopher, must earn at least a bachelor's degree from a university in order to practice and research. He is a representative of his science and is called upon not only to provide psychological help but also to contribute to the development of their activities. What does a professional psychologist do?

Reveals archetypes and establishes the character, temperament of the individual.
Analyzes the behavior of his patient, identifies the root cause and eradicates it if necessary. This allows you to change your lifestyle, get rid of negative thoughts and help you find motivation and purpose in yourself.
It helps to get out of a depressive state, get rid of apathy, to know the meaning of life and start looking for it.
Struggling with psychological trauma that happened either in childhood or throughout life.
Analyzes the patient's behavior in society and also finds the root cause. As a rule, in many cases an important role is played by the situation in the family, relationships with peers, relatives and just strangers.

Do not confuse a psychologist with a psychiatrist. The second is a scientist who has received a medical degree and has the right to engage in diagnosis, treatment. It identifies, analyzes and examines mental disorders from the most insignificant and inconspicuous to the most aggressive. The task of a psychiatrist is to find out whether a person is ill or not. If a deviation is detected, the doctor develops a unique technique that allows you to help the patient, stop his symptoms or completely cure him. Despite the general disagreement, it was concluded that the psychiatrist is not a medical specialist, although he works directly with patients and various drugs.

Psychology is relevant and important in the life of each of us. This science is a vivid example of human evolution, when, asking ourselves countless questions, we developed and stepped each time to a new step. She studies the type of people, phenomena when in different situations they unite in teams, disperse and lead a lonely lifestyle, show aggression or, conversely, experience emotional overexcitation and happiness. Motivation, goals, depression and apathy, values and experiences - this is just a small fraction that is studied by such a unique science as psychology.