Definition of the concept of will in psychology, properties and structure. V. I. Selivanov. Volitional effort. volitional action. volitional processes. volitional states
Manifestation of volitional efforts in the form of physical tension If a person regularly displays conscious volitional efforts, then by this he greatly strengthens his field form of life. There are many options for the manifestation of volitional efforts, but in the end, most of them manifest themselves outwardly in the form of certain physical acts, such as muscle tension. This feature has long been noted in Ancient China, where a whole system of preparation and improvement of consciousness and body was developed on the basis of arbitrary muscle tension.
Some people in our country achieved significant results in this type of training. For example, Alexander Zass, thanks to the original method of training volitional muscle tension, achieved amazing strength results. However, he had an ordinary physique.
So, let's turn to the primary sources of strengthening the field form of life, to the ancient Taoist system "The secret foundations of muscle and bone transformation, the subtle art of life extension."
Foreword by Xiong. Yuyu was 17 when he was called a weakling. He was angry, but did not dare to utter a word in response. He was advised not to get angry, but to do muscle transformation. He worked out for 5 years, and then he was able to lift a load weighing 300 kg and wore 20 circles on a platform with a diameter of 3 meters. And I made sure that there is strength in the lower back. Then he lifted the load on three fingers, determining their strength. Now Yuyu is 75 years old, the skin and muscles are smooth like a child's, the bones do not protrude, people do not believe in his years.
When Yu was in charge of the fine martial arts sports society, there were those among the practitioners who could not be helped. They were with a constantly cold head, poor digestion, stomach and lung disease. In just two months, having reached the 4th exercise of the first stage, one after the other began to improve. In time, those who did not stop practicing cured all diseases. Such is the efficiency of muscle transformation work.
On the Composition of a Treatise on the Transformation of Muscles
The first stage includes 8 exercises, the 5th and 8th provide for some movement, in the rest there are no movements. The second stage includes 4 exercises, of which 1-3 are without movements, the movement of the 4th will be discussed separately. There are two exercises in the third step, the 1st without movements, the movement in the second will be said separately. What to look for in training. 1. Each exercise begins to be performed in 9 respiratory cycles (one cycle - inhalation and exhalation) and brought to 81. Breathing should be slow and long, sharp and fast breathing should not be allowed. Starting with 9 breaths, train to a clean execution without violence, then add 9 more breaths. Advance gradually without violence. Each time you finish an exercise, you need to rest a bit, only then move on to the next one. And while practicing stretched breathing, in no case is it unacceptable to attract effort. If you feel tired, then you need to adjust your breathing and only then continue. 2. Beginners should start with the first exercise of the first stage, with 9 breaths, and work up to 9x9=81 breaths. Only when you feel that there is no violence, you can move on to the second exercise. But if it seems too monotonous to you, you can sequentially go from 1st to 8th. In this case, perform each exercise for only 9 breaths. Increase the dosage gradually, bringing each exercise to 9x9=81 breaths. The increase should be gradual, all attempts at sharp and rapid breathing are stopped. 3. It is necessary to breathe with closed teeth, raise the tip of the tongue to the palate, the mouth is slightly ajar. Closed teeth prevent the loss of old teeth. An open mouth promotes natural breathing. Touching the palate with the tip of the tongue increases salivation. 4. Studying this technique, they practice in the morning, at noon, in the evening - at least 1 time per day. During training, the consciousness is made unified, the shoulders are lowered, the chest is not protruded. After completing the exercise, you should take a few steps, relax a bit. If you are too tired, you should not exercise. Training should go naturally, without violence. 5. Performing movements: clenching fists, pressing with the palm, propping up, pushing forward or resting the palms to the left and right, one tension must be added for each exhalation and inhalation. For example, after clenching the fists, inhale and exhale, further increase the squeezing force in the fists, inhale and exhale - further increase the squeezing force in the fists, up to 9x9 breaths, and only then do the fists relax. In other words, the tension force should gradually increase from one breath to the next, reaching a maximum on the last respiratory cycles. Push forward, support up, emphasis with palms to the left and right are performed in the same way. 6. Performing the exercises of the 1st stage does not require an increase in tension, only naturalness and duration are needed. Duration in training will spontaneously increase your strength and strengthen the field form of life. In the second step, exercises 1 to 4 are a way of "folding the bones". The whole body is shortened by 5 cun. With intensive training, a purposeful student can master this method. When breathing in exercises, it is necessary to mentally monitor that the inhaled energy (qi) descends, plunging into the area just above the navel. 7. The first exercise of the third stage - the method " swallowing yin". Only purposeful students, after several years of training, can succeed in this. The second exercise is designed to train the strength of the fingers and lower back. Performing these exercises for a long time leads to an extension of life, the transformation of weakness into power. 8. Here are collected 14 exercises, each has its own characteristics.During the practice of them, you will feel what they are aimed at and gradually comprehend their true essence.Treatise on Muscle Transformation Training Methodology. First stage. Ex. one. Place your feet steadily shoulder-width apart, eyes look horizontally, teeth in full bite, mouth slightly open, tip of tongue touching the palate. After completing each breath cycle, the fists clench a little, hold the force, and after the next breath cycle, they clench a little more, and so they do until 81 breaths are reached, after which the fists relax. At the first stage, you do not need to exert excessive stress. You do everything to the fullest. After a similar training for several months, the strength of the hands will naturally increase. Attention: the shoulders should be lowered, the chest should not protrude, mentally inhale to conduct energy to the navel. First, take 9 breaths, relax your hands. Then gradually increase the number of breaths, while not forcing yourself, achieve naturalness.
Ex. 2. Body position as in ex. 1. But the palms are set aside to the left and to the right. After each respiratory cycle, create a downward pressure force with the palms. In this case, there is not so much pressure on them as pulling on the fingers. As you press, the palms fall without relaxing. This exercise increases arm strength. Attention: lower the shoulders, absorb the chest, mentally immerse the energy in the navel area. During pressing down fingers bend outward.
Ex. 3. Palms push forward with exhalations and inhalations. Starting position, as in ex. 1. Palms push forward, thumbs and forefingers form a triangle. Each time you complete the inhalation and exhalation, the palms are "pushed forward" (it just gives the impression of pushing forward, in fact, the hands are in place, only the tension increases), while the fingers are pulled inward. As the “pushing” progresses, the palms move further forward, and only after performing 9x9=81 breaths do they relax. This exercise increases the strength of the hands and fingers. Attention: the arms and wrists are slightly bent, the energy is immersed in the navel center, the fingers are pulled inwards towards you.
Ex. four. The left and right palms are supported with exhalations and inhalations. The starting position is the same. Arms extended to the left and right horizontally, palms up. Imagine that there are heavy objects on the palms. After completing each cycle of breathing, they mentally prop it up with their palms up - only mentally, they increase tension, while the palms are motionless. And so 9x9 = 81 breaths. It strengthens the hands. Attention: immerse the shoulders, pick up the chest, lower the energy to the navel area, stretch the hands horizontally and hold motionless. 
Ex. 5. Breeding and bringing the palms together with exhalations and inhalations. The position of the body is the same. The palms are tightly closed at chest level, the thumbs are "glued" (fixedly pressed) to the body. On inhalation, the palms diverge, on exhalation they close again; train up to 9x9 = 81 breaths. In this exercise, the lungs are either straightened or compressed, this helps in case of tuberculosis. Attention: immerse the shoulders, pick up the chest, take the energy to the navel; when the palms diverge and converge, bend the fingers, thumb"glued" (touched) to the body; do not lift your elbows up (see fig. 5-1, 5-2); move your palms at chest level. Hands in time with breathing are spread, brought together and finished the exercise in the position shown in Fig. 5-a.
Ex. 6. Emphasis with palms to the left and right with exhalations and inhalations. The position of the body is the same. The palms are spread to the left and to the right in a resting position, the centers of the palms are directed outward, the fingers are directed upwards, the fingertips are drawn to the head. With each breath, the palms seem to rest outward. The number of breaths is the same 9x9=81. The stronger the emphasis, the farther the palms diverge. Relaxation only after the end of the entire respiratory cycle. This exercise increases the strength of the forearm and shoulder. Attention: immerse the shoulders, pick up the chest, immerse the energy in the navel area, pull the fingertips to the head. Ex. 7. Emphasis with palms up with exhalations and inhalations. The position of the legs is the same, the hands, having twisted the palms, rest upwards, the centers of the palms are turned to the sky, the thumbs and forefingers are located opposite each other, forming a triangle facing the sky. On inhalation, tightly compress the teeth, on exhalation, open the mouth, the hands rest high up - the stronger the tension, the higher, until 81 breaths are completed. This exercise gets rid of bad breath. Attention: immerse the energy in the navel area, tilt the head back, eyes look at the back of the palms, do not protrude the chest and stomach, pull the fingers down. Ex. eight. Hanging hands with exhalations and inhalations. The position of the body is the same. The body is bent up to 900, the brushes gradually hang down. When the torso leans down - exhale, rises up - inhale. Brushes as the body tilts down lower and lower. If the breath is too fast, then rising to a vertical position, you can inhale and exhale, and then tilt the torso down again. If fatigue is not felt, you can repeat up to 81 respiratory cycles. Attention: immerse the shoulders, pick up the chest, immerse the energy in the navel area; when the hands hang down, the shoulders move slightly relaxed; the hands should be relaxed, no tension. This exercise is effective in case of excess fat in the abdomen. It contributes to its reduction, thinning of the waist. If there is too much fat, then for quick success, the exercise must be performed 3-5 times a day for 9x9 = 81 breaths. The effect will be felt within a month. Second step.
Ex. 9. Onion step, pulling the body to the right with exhalations and inhalations. Right leg set aside to the right for a step, forming a right onion step. (This step, i.e. the stance, is formed as follows. Putting the feet parallel at shoulder width, push the right foot forward a step parallel to itself, and turn the left foot to the left by 450). With the body stretch forward to the right, then the right palm is placed behind the back, and the left hand, bent in an arc, is placed in front of the chest with the center of the palm outward. Eyes look at the left heel. In this exercise, standing in a stance, tightly connect the teeth, only then perform from 1 to 81 breaths. Attention: this exercise is a "right addition of bones", but when performed not at a young age, success is difficult to achieve. During inhalation and exhalation, the body is completely still. Similarly, a bend to the left is performed with a left bow-shaped step. 
Ex. ten. Clench your fists and turn your face up as you exhale and inhale. Legs, as in the previous exercise, i.e. in the right bow-shaped step, keep the torso straight. Bend your right hand at the elbow and, clenching your fist, place it above your head. Tilt your head back, eyes look at the center of the right palm. Clench the left hand into a fist and hang down, the center of the palm facing back. (Fig. 10-a). The bite of the teeth is tight. Continue exhaling and inhaling 81 times, only then relax. Exercise is useful for a thick neck. Attention: during inhalation and exhalation, the whole body is motionless, right hand slightly bent at the wrist inward, head thrown back, neck tensely extended. Do the same on the left side. 
Ex. eleven. Rest with one palm up, hanging the other down with exhalations and inhalations. The position of the legs is as in the previous exercise: the right bow step. The body is straight. The right palm rests up, the center of the palm is turned to the sky, the fingers are bent down to the head. The left palm hangs down, fingers pointing to the ground, the center of the palm is directed to the thigh. The eyes are looking horizontally. The bite of the teeth is tight, perform 81 breaths, then relax. This exercise has an interconnected effect with ex. 9 first stage. Attention: when breathing, the whole body is motionless. After completing each exhalation-inhalation, you need to rest your right palm up, and pull your left hand down: the point is in the stretching effect on the bones. Do the same on the left side. 
Ex. 12. Raising and lowering in a squat with exhalations and inhalations. "Glue" the toes of the feet to the ground at a distance of 40 cm from each other, put the hands on the belt, slowly lower the torso in a crouch. When squatting, the heels come off the ground, the center of gravity is maintained only by the toes. The eyes look horizontally, the bite of the teeth is tight. Squat until your hips are horizontal. Climb and squat up to 81 breaths. Long training makes the step steady, the kidneys are strong, in old age there will be no weakness in the legs. Attention: in the whole complex of "muscle transformations", only ex. 5, 12 and 14 contain movements. In this exercise - squatting exhale, getting up inhale. When standing up, use the toes of the feet, while standing - the heels rest on the ground, when squatting again they come off the ground. Third step.
Ex. 13. Swallowing Yin with exhalation and inhalation. The feet are "glued" to the ground, the distance between them is somewhat more than 30 cm. The hands are placed behind the back, the right hand is clenched into a fist, the left one compresses the right wrist. The body is slightly crouched, the knees are slightly bent, the eyes are looking horizontally, the teeth are in a tight bite, the tip of the tongue touches the palate. Perform continuously 81 exhalations and inhalations. This exercise is effective for young people with a long workout. In adulthood, you will train for several months and the result will be unexpected. In this exercise, standing in a position "standing up" By drawing in energy with the breath and lowering it to the navel area, all chronic diseases can be cured. Attention: in the "standing column" position, the anus is slightly tense and raised (this contributes to a better retention of energy in the body and its concentration in the corresponding energy center - pill field in Chinese).
Ex. fourteen. Push-ups with exhalations and inhalations. The whole body is aligned in support, the toes of the feet and fingers are "glued" to the ground. Lower and raise the body with exhalations and inhalations 81 times. The weight of the body is mainly held on the hands. There are three ways to use brushes. In the first case, they move, "gluing" their palms to the ground. After pure mastery, in the second variant, the palms are replaced with fists. After a clean mastery of this, when performed without overstrain, they move on to the third option: fists are replaced with fingers. Fingers can also be positioned in different ways: at an angle and vertically. At an angle - the nails are facing upwards, in a vertical - the nails are perpendicular to the ground. In this exercise, it is most difficult to use your fingers. Start lifting and lowering the body with a small number of times, gradually increasing the quantitative (number of times) and qualitatively (standing on your fingers) loads. In this case, you will not have any difficulties. In the future, they reduce the number of fingers, bringing up to one thumb - this is the maximum task. Healthy people, performing this exercise, after a few months achieve amazing results in terms of the strength of the fingers, hands, lower back. When doing this exercise for more than a year, you can bend copper coins. Movements must be slow. Attention: these movements cannot be performed by those suffering from tuberculosis, heart and stomach diseases. The very concept of strength, according to F.Engels, arises in a person because he has the means necessary to perform the movement. "These means can, within certain limits, be put into action by our will ...". .
Presentation of volitional efforts as a sign of any volitional action, considering that "one should sharply distinguish the volitional process with its central factor, volitional effort, from more general concept mental activity, which enters into all mental processes without exception.
A number of authors (A.G. Kovalev, V.A. Krutetsky, S.V. Korzh, and others) associate the manifestation of volitional efforts with the conscious mobilization of human capabilities (updating the psychophysiological resources of the body). Volitional efforts are considered mainly only as a factor that determines the realization of human capabilities in physical aspects activities, while missing the analysis of their organizing, regulatory functions. Other psychologists (A.P. Kolisnyk, A.S. Zobov, N.E. Malkov) associate the manifestation of volitional efforts with the active self-regulation of the individual in terms of effective self-government, the choice of optimal motives. At the same time, analyzing mainly only the organizing function of volitional efforts, they underestimate their function of mobilizing and realizing human capabilities.
Thus, it can be assumed that volitional efforts are a reserve energy and higher regulatory factor in any field of human activity, and in sports in particular. .
The main volitional efforts are the conscious motives of the activity performed, which perform a meaningful, guiding, simulating function. Volitional efforts themselves perform an organizing, managing, realizing function. Conscious motives do not always determine the manifestation of volitional efforts. It depends on the level of development in a person of the corresponding volitional abilities and the awareness of the need to perform certain activities related to overcoming difficulties. At the same time, the availability of appropriate practical skills, the development of the ability to self-stimulation using various tricks self-hypnosis, self-persuasion, self-orders. Motivational determination of volitional efforts is favored by certain emotional states - confidence, readiness, mobilization, excitement, etc., arising on the basis of actualization of the corresponding achievement motives and claims of the individual.
In Soviet psychology, there are a number of works that reveal positive influence strong motivation for the effectiveness of performing various human actions (A.N. Povarnitsyn, Yu.Yu., Palaima, etc.). But the problem of the influence of different strengths of motivation on the effectiveness of volitional efforts, unfortunately, has not yet been developed. Given that the skills of overcoming difficulties in the usual activities of a person are usually well developed, we can only assume the following: a person overcoming difficulties corresponding to the main difficulties of his professional activity, there may be a direct relationship between the strength of motivation and the effectiveness of volitional efforts.
Thus, we can assume that the influence of motives on the effectiveness of volitional efforts depends on the strength of motivation and the significance of the action being performed. According to N.F. Dobrynin, "efforts are determined by the significance for the individual of the decision being made, manifesting in volitional actions. The degree of volitional effort therefore depends on the degree of difficulty of this action. The degree of volitional effort therefore depends on the degree of difficulty of this action, the degree of its significance for the individual in given time". Therefore, a person's ability to manifest volitional efforts should be judged on the basis of his ability to realize significant motives.
If we consider that the will is a property of the individual, then we can expect the dependence of volitional manifestations on the individual characteristics of a person, and primarily on self-consciousness (on the characteristics of self-esteem). Therefore, it can be assumed that the manifestation of volitional efforts depends on the individual characteristics of a person (temperament, age, professional orientation, level of professional skill, etc.), on the adequacy of his self-esteem.
The properties of this or that personality are manifested in its activity. Moreover, depending on the types of activities performed, the same properties can manifest themselves in different ways. In this regard, it can be expected that the manifestation of volitional efforts depends on the characteristics of the activity performed.
In psychology, today there is almost no concept developed that characterizes the mechanisms of the emergence of volitional efforts of athletes and their function in overall structure sports activities. Therefore, it can only be assumed that the emergence of volitional efforts among athletes is associated with the awareness of the need for successful performance of competitive activities, with increased activation of their consciousness, with the use of various methods of self-stimulation (self-orders, self-persuasion, self-hypnosis), which contribute to the organization and implementation of actions aimed at overcoming difficulties. .
Volitional efforts are a factor that ensures the management of mental processes in extreme conditions of competition. In addition, volitional efforts are gradually involved in the organization (formation) of various aspects of sports activities. At the first stage of organizing such activities, volitional efforts contribute to the activation of the motivational sphere of the individual. They, organizing an active analysis of various motives, contribute to the selection of the most significant of them and their approval in the mind. Volitional efforts additionally activate, strengthen significant motives and, on their basis, form a sustainable motivation for sports activities. In accordance with this motivation, they participate in the formation of a dynamic attitude, which further contributes to the correction of volitional actions.
An important function in the actualization of the content aspects of the volitional motivational attitude is performed by the athlete's self-assessment. Volitional efforts, contributing to the correlation of motivation, self-esteem, attitudes, claims, capabilities, feelings and activating mental processes (especially attention and thinking), ensure the setting or selection of goals (for volitional actions of a nature, setting realistically achievable goals).
Setting goals and their implementation are associated with the manifestation of appropriate emotions. Volitional efforts exercise control over them and their necessary regulation.
After setting specific goals, strong-willed efforts ensure the organization of the most complex planning processes for upcoming competitions, the selection of the most effective tactical means and methods, etc. Before proceeding with the implementation of the intended goals, strong-willed efforts contribute to preliminary mobilization, forming strong-willed readiness for the upcoming extreme activity. Then they organize the initiation and implementation of this activity, maintaining the necessary level of mobilization and carrying out appropriate self-control and correction. complex operations volitional actions. At the same time, when obstacles arise (to overcome them), volitional efforts perform the function of stimulating activity with the help of self-orders, self-persuasion, self-hypnosis, and setting intermediate goals.
Depending on the specifics of the difficulties that impede the realization of a particular goal in sports, volitional efforts acquire certain features. So, it can be assumed that in the process of performing complex intellectual tactical actions, volitional efforts are mainly aimed at optimizing the motivational sphere, at choosing from a hierarchical system of motives, goals, tasks, decisions, positions, the most optimal and significant, mainly due to the inclusion of additional regulatory processes. When performing physical volitional actions, volitional efforts are mainly aimed at the implementation of significant motives, goals, decisions due to the inclusion of additional mobilization processes. .
For the manifestation of volitional efforts, information is needed about the course of wrestling and the state of the athlete's body. On the basis of this information, volitional self-control is carried out, which is characterized by a constant comparison of complex aspects of volitional actions with the developed program and, on the basis of this comparison, the implementation of an appropriate correction.
Volitional efforts, activating intellectual processes for the analysis of incoming information in accordance with the goals of activity, contribute to the formation of optimal algorithms and programs of volitional actions. The planning of such actions is associated with the maximum actualization of mental processes, especially mental, creative, and often intuitive ones.
In general, the manifestation of volitional efforts is associated with a high level of attention. Adequate rapid switching of attention is an important condition for volitional regulation.
To achieve a high level of will mobilization readiness stable intensive attention is needed, which contributes to the emergence of the necessary images and ideas, the mental implementation of upcoming actions and favors the formation of appropriate sthenic emotional states. It can be argued to a certain extent that volitional efforts are manifested through attention.
The development of volitional efforts is also associated with the formation of the ability to subordinate one's actions to necessity, with self-education of a high level of self-control. Highest Degree development of volitional efforts is manifested in the emergence of a need for volitional activity, in overcoming difficulties in sports.
This is accompanied by the motives of self-affirmation, self-expression, self-realization, knowledge of one's capabilities.
For the formation of strong-willed efforts, regular adherence to the requirements of necessity is equally important. But this submission should not always be rigid, because frequent violence against oneself can lead to a breakdown of the will. To prevent this from happening, the athlete needs to learn how to relax in a timely manner, relieve tension.
But it should be noted that in the ability to relax, relieve tension, a kind of regulatory side of the will is manifested. .
High level development of the ability to manifest volitional efforts is characterized by the optimal organization of the main aspects of volitional sports activity. Volitional actions in sports are characterized by high efficiency, economy of manifestation of mental and physical energy. In such actions, volitional efforts, as a rule, do not ensure the regulation of all its elements, but only those of them, the implementation of which requires conscious effort, overcoming difficulties.
For the manifestation of volitional efforts, it is important for the athlete to consciously foresee the reality of achieving the intended results. Volitional efforts only achieve high efficiency when they are subordinated to goals. different levels and values.
At the same time, long-term goals (become the champion of Russia, Europe, the world, etc.) determine the stability of the manifestation of volitional efforts, and the immediate goals (perform the next category, standard, etc.) stimulate their intensity. In addition to the presence of goals and strong conscious motives, it is also necessary to include the presence of a strong-willed attitude, readiness for the manifestation of strong-willed efforts.
Setting on the manifestation of volitional efforts contributes to the necessary correction of volitional actions, maintaining readiness to overcome difficulties, and contributes to the adoption of optimal intuitive decisions in extreme conditions of competition.
The volitional attitude is formed on the basis of an objective assessment of the athletes of their capabilities adequately to the requirements of the upcoming competitions and in accordance with its assessment. The formation of a volitional attitude is preceded by the cognitive and prognostic activity of an athlete with an analysis of emotional and value relations to sports.
An important factor in the formation of the attitude to the manifestation of volitional efforts is self-hypnosis.
With its help, an athlete is able to program his consciousness to manifest his will. To implement volitional self-hypnosis, it is necessary to achieve a state of self-confidence, consciously update and strengthen the achievement motivation, present the intended result, mentally perform the main actions, repeat with the help of inner speech several times the necessary installation.
Self-hypnosis is preceded by self-persuasion and self-orders. So, self-persuasion characterizes the act of substantiating the need to perform certain arbitrary (volitional) actions.
Self-persuasion is carried out on the basis of the actualization of certain intentions and aspirations. It contributes to the formation of the necessary level of readiness to achieve the intended goal.
The potential state of volitional readiness turns into volitional actions with the help of appropriate self-orders, i.e. direct verbal, hard self-stimulation of efforts, corresponding to the level of difficulties of intensity, based on the awareness of their necessity.
The manifestation of volitional efforts is the moment of the most active active state of consciousness, characterized by the dialectical unity of the motivating and executive sides of the action. The determining condition for the manifestation of volitional efforts is increased activity of consciousness.
Based on the experience of volitional activity and the formation of additional stimuli that arise in the process of this activity, certain positive changes occur in the structure of self-consciousness: the adequacy of the assessment of one's abilities increases, the stability of emotional-value relations increases, and the regulatory mechanisms of self-consciousness are potentially strengthened.
Volitional efforts provide the creative side of sports activity, contribute to the formation of such motives that are associated with the self-improvement of the athlete, his development, with the transformation of himself and the surrounding reality.
Volitional efforts of an athlete aimed at the implementation of moral and ethical motives, correlating with self-esteem, moral claims and attitudes, contribute to the formation and actualization of such personality traits as pride, self-respect, conscience, self-esteem, sense of duty, responsibility, etc.
Volitional efforts are manifested on the basis of self-knowledge, the study of one's capabilities, ways of implementing volitional activity.
They can act as a process of self-realization of an athlete, as a process of self-realization of an athlete, as a leading tool that contributes to the stability of his character and the development of his best qualities.
A stable manifestation of volitional efforts leads to the harmonious development of all aspects of self-consciousness: motivational-emotional, intellectual-prognostic, normative (moral) and regulatory. If this harmony is violated, one can observe some instability of the volitional regulation of behavior. .
Depending on the stable orientation and the characteristics of readiness for the manifestation of volitional efforts, one can judge the formation of various volitional qualities of athletes. The attitude towards the manifestation of volitional efforts that contribute to the formation, maintenance and implementation of meaningful long-term goals characterizes such a volitional quality as purposefulness, the leading side of which is volitional orientation.
Readiness for a steady manifestation of volitional efforts that contribute to the implementation of the decisions made in accordance with significant motives in the face of overcoming various obstacles characterizes such a volitional quality as perseverance.
The potential for sustainable manifestation of volitional efforts that contribute to overcoming difficulties that impede the implementation of immediate goals characterizes another volitional quality - perseverance.
The focus on the manifestation of strong-willed efforts that contribute to the adoption of objective responsible decisions, despite the risk and danger, is associated with such a strong-willed quality as determination.
Setting on the manifestation of volitional efforts, contributing to the adoption of responsible decisions and their implementation in actions associated with risk and danger, characterizes the volitional quality of courage.
The ability to manifest volitional efforts, contributing to the maintenance of mental and psychomotor processes at the required
level in extreme conditions in accordance with the goal, characterizes such a strong-willed quality as endurance.
Readiness for volitional efforts, contributing to the effective management of motives, emotions and actions in extreme conditions in accordance with the need, acts as a characteristic of volitional quality self-control.
The focus on volitional efforts, contributing to the development of original, optimal, timely solutions and methods for their implementation in difficult conditions, characterizes the volitional quality initiative.
Readiness for volitional efforts, which contribute to independent setting of goals, decision-making and their implementation in extreme conditions, is associated with such volitional quality as independence.
Thus, volitional qualities are not only manifested, but also formed through volitional efforts.
The manifestation of volitional efforts in accordance with the characteristics of the difficulties to be overcome in extreme activity contributes to the formation of appropriate skills of volitional activity, as well as the formation of volitional orientation. .
6.9. Characteristics and types of willpower
Willpower may have varying degrees of severity intensity, so by duration. This degree characterizes the willpower shown by this or that person.
Volitional effort is also characterized by such a property as lability b (mobility). This property is clearly manifested in voluntary attention and lies in the ability of a person to intensify attention when necessary, and when possible, to weaken its intensity. The inability to relax attention leads to rapid mental fatigue and, in the end, to inattention. The same can be said about voluntary contraction and relaxation of muscles.
Volitional effort is also characterized direction, in this connection, its functions such as activation and braking are distinguished (starting and stopping in the presence of an external and internal resistance, increase and decrease, acceleration and deceleration). In different situations, a person uses different characteristics of volitional effort to varying degrees: in one case, he makes a maximum of volitional effort once, in the other, he maintains volitional effort of a certain intensity. long time, in the third - inhibits the reaction.
Types of willpower. Volitional effort can be not only physical, but also intellectual. I will give a description of the intellectual volitional effort made by the famous parapsychologist V. Messing: “I need to gather all my strength, intensify all my abilities, concentrate all my will, like an athlete before a jump, like a hammer before hitting with a heavy sledgehammer. My work is no easier than that of a hammerer and sportsman. And those who have been to my psychological experiments, sometimes saw drops of sweat appearing on my forehead” [Great Prophets, 1998, p. 198].
Intellectual volitional efforts are made by a person, for example, when he reads a complex written text, trying to understand what the author wanted to say. The tension of the athlete's attention at the start, when he is waiting for a signal to start running, can also be attributed to this type of volitional effort.
P. A. Rudik distinguished the following types of volitional efforts:
1. Volitional efforts with muscle tension.
2. Volitional efforts associated with overcoming fatigue and feelings of fatigue.
3. Volitional efforts with the tension of attention.
4. Volitional efforts associated with overcoming the feeling of fear.
5. Volitional efforts associated with the observance of the regime. Adhering to this principle of classification of volitional efforts, it would be necessary to say about the volitional effort associated with overcoming indecision, fear of possible failure, etc.
B. N. Smirnov singled out mobilizing and organizing volitional efforts. Mobilizing volitional efforts contribute to overcoming obstacles in the event of physical and psychological difficulties and are implemented using methods of mental self-regulation such as verbal influences: self-encouragement, self-persuasion, self-order, self-prohibition, etc. All of them, as the mentioned author wrote, are methods of self-mobilization of volitional efforts.
Organizers volitional efforts are manifested in technical, tactical and psychological difficulties in overcoming obstacles and are realized through the use of another group of methods of mental self-regulation. Namely, they are used different kinds arbitrary focus of attention to control the situation and their own actions; counteraction to distracting factors (suppression of involuntary attention); ideomotor training; control of muscle relaxation; regulation of breathing; observation of the opponent; solving tactical problems, etc. The main purpose of organizing volitional efforts is the optimization of the mental state, the coordination of movements and actions, and the economical use of forces.
With such a wide range of functions performed by the organizing volitional effort (this includes everything that is not related to mobilization), there is a doubt: is the performance of all these control actions really connected with volitional voltage, and not with a strong-willed impulse and simply drawing attention to the problem being solved; Isn't a simple command to start this or that action taken as an effort of will?
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From the author's bookTension and effort The symmetry of many associative links has become a major topic in the discussion of associative connectivity. As mentioned earlier, people who "smile" or "frown" with a pencil in their mouth or holding a ball between their eyebrows tend to experience emotions,
From the author's book From the author's bookPut in the effort For the success of the practice of disillusionment, we advise the following: Consciously work with your partner. If you're in a relationship, tell him, "I'm going to work on this and I need your support." Meditate. Work with the body
From the author's book64. Analysis of a complex volitional action The will of a person is manifested in actions, deeds performed with a predetermined goal. However, such actions as walking, mental counting within the multiplication table, verbal communication with loved ones, relatives, etc., are not
Will and its role in the regulation of activity. The structure of the act of will.
General concept of will.
It happens that when we wake up, we do not immediately jump out of bed, but we luxuriate for several minutes, that is, we are not in a hurry to perform actions.
Will is a person's conscious regulation of his behavior and activities, expressed in the ability to overcome external and internal difficulties in the performance of purposeful actions, deeds.
The main function of the will is the conscious regulation of activity in difficult conditions of life. This regulation is based on the interaction of the processes of excitation and inhibition nervous system. In accordance with this, two main actions are distinguished: activation and braking.
Volitional or voluntary actions do not arise in a person immediately. They develop on the basis of involuntary movements and actions.
The simplest of the involuntary actions are reflex actions: constriction and expansion of the pupil, blinking, swallowing, pulling the hand away from the hot, etc.
Conscious actions are aimed at achieving the goal.
Features of volitional actions
It is consciousness that characterizes volitional behavior. But not every goal can be achieved immediately. It goes through several stages. Phenomenology of will:
Will is needed when choosing a goal, making decisions, overcoming obstacles.
Signs of volitional behavior:
1. Overcoming obstacles (internal or external). Internal - this is the motivation of a person, aimed at performing actions opposite to him. For example, a student wants to go for a walk, but he needs to do his homework.
2. Awareness.
3. Communication with mental activity and feelings.
Will functions:
1. Choice of motives and goals
2. organization of mental processes performed by a person.
3. mobilization of opportunities while overcoming obstacles.
The structure of volitional action.
Volitional actions vary in their complexity. In the case when a person clearly sees his goal, he immediately proceeds to actions, then they talk about a simple volitional act. For example, you wake up and immediately get out of bed. Even if you don't feel like getting up, it doesn't take much effort or effort to reach your goal.
A complex volitional action presupposes that there are additional links between motivation and direct action. For example, in order to get a diploma, it is necessary to go to a university every day for 5 years, prepare for classes, write essays ... the main points (phases) of a complex volitional action are:
- Emergence of impulse. This impulse leads to a person's understanding of what he wants, to the realization of his goal. But not every impulse is conscious, for example, "Go there without knowing where." Depending on how aware this or that need is, the cause of motivation may be attraction or desire. If we are aware only of dissatisfaction with the current situation and the need is not clearly recognized, then the reason for the motivation can be. attraction. It is usually vague, unclear: a person understands that he is missing something, but what exactly he does not know. "He doesn't know what he needs." attraction- primitive biological form personality activation. Because of its uncertainty, attraction cannot develop into activity. A person does not understand what he needs. Attraction is a transient phenomenon and the need can either fade away or turn into desire. A wish It is knowing what motivates you to take action. Before a desire turns into a motive, and then into a goal, it is evaluated by a person. Desire is characterized by awareness of the purpose, causes. At the same time, possible means and ways to achieve the goal are realized.
- Fight of motives. This is a mental discussion by a person of all the pros and cons of actions, how to act. The struggle of motives is accompanied by internal tension and represents the experience of an internal conflict between the arguments of reason and feelings, personal motives and public interests, “I want” and “should” ... Imagine your two most beloved desires that cannot be fulfilled at the same time. Which one would you like to get first? Thinking? This is the struggle of motives. In psychology, the struggle of motives and the subsequent decision that a person makes were considered as the core of an act of will. Allocate internal and external struggle of motives. Internal includes deliberation of actions, discussion of the forthcoming act, a person can fight with himself. External the struggle of motives can manifest itself in labor, scientific teams, when different points of view collide. During the struggle of motives, a person can choose different ways to solve his problems: to act or not to act, to lie or not ... That is, mental processes are included in the volitional process.
- Mentally e modeling situations. Making a decision is the final moment of the struggle of motives: a person decides to act in a certain direction.
- In the struggle of motives the purpose of the activity is formulated, its main specificity is comprehended. After a decision is made, a person experiences a certain relief. This is due to the fact that our thinking switches to something else - we think about how to fulfill our plans and the internal tension caused by the struggle of motives begins to decrease.
- Then choose funds for its implementation. There are easy ways to achieve the goal (write off, get sick, to achieve an "excellent student", but there are difficult ways - read a lot of books, go to the library ...
- Execution of a will. If the execution of the decision is postponed for a long time, then they speak of intention - this is the internal preparation of the future action, this is the desire to achieve the goal. For example, a student makes a decision (intention) to study at 5 next semester. However, only intention is not enough to fulfill an act of will. This also requires the preparation of tasks, etc.
In order for a decision to turn into action, it is necessary to force yourself to do it, that is, to take an effort of will. Willpower experienced as a conscious tension that finds relaxation in volitional action, it is a form of emotional stress that helps a person overcome difficulties.
Determinants of volitional effort. (Rogov. S. 362)
Volitional effort is different from muscular effort. In volitional effort, movements are often minimal, and internal tension can be enormous and even destructive to the body. Factors affecting the intensity of volitional effort:
- worldview of the individual
- moral stability of the individual
- the degree of social significance of the goals set
- attitude towards activity
- the level of self-management and self-organization of the individual
The psychological structure of a volitional act (Rogov, p. 365)
Characteristics of volitional action (volitional qualities)
The volitional action of each person is a reflection of his individuality and relatively stable personality structure. It is the will that allows a person to control his feelings, actions, cognitive processes.
1. One of the x-k is strength of will. This is the inner strength of the personality, although it may have external manifestations. Shows through obstacles.
2. Purposefulness is a conscious and active orientation of a person to a certain result of activity. Since a person sets different goals (remote or close), they distinguish between purposefulness strategic(the ability of a person to be guided in life by certain principles and ideals) and purposefulness operational(the ability to set clear goals for individual actions).
3. Initiative. Based on new ideas, plans, rich imagination. For many people, the most difficult thing is to overcome their own inertia, change the usual course of affairs, they cannot do something on their own. It is initiative people who often become leaders.
4. Initiative is closely related to independence. It manifests itself in the ability not to be influenced various factors, critically evaluate the advice and suggestions of other people, act on the basis of their views and convictions.
5. Exposure. Allows you to slow down actions, feelings, thoughts that are not suitable in this situation, not needed at the moment. A restrained person will be able to choose the level of activity appropriate to the conditions and justified by the circumstances. In the future, this will ensure success in achieving the goal. Exposure is a manifestation of the inhibitory function of the will.
6. Decisiveness. It is the ability to make quick decisions. Decisiveness is manifested in the choice of the goal, in the choice of the right actions and means to achieve.
7. Self-esteem, self-control. Self-esteem should correspond to self-control, be neither overstated nor underestimated. The golden mean of self-esteem provides 100% self-control. For example, negative self-esteem leads to the fact that a person will exaggerate his negative qualities, lose faith in himself and refuse to work. positive attitude will lead to self-love.
The origin of will in ontogeny.(Ilyin E.P. Psychology of will. S. 167)
There are two opposing points of view on the question of the origin of the will. THEM. Sechenov believed that volitional acts are not given ready-made from birth, but go through complex stages of development, starting from birth. Random movements turn into learned, but not yet arbitrary, and only when, on the basis of the sensations that arise in a person representations are formed and voluntary movements appear.
Wundt (1912) considered voluntary movements primary, and involuntary secondary, arising on the basis of the former as a result of automation.
Pavlov I.P. emphasized that neither innate nor acquired voluntary movements have been proven, but he believed that voluntary movements are acquired.
Stages of formation of arbitrary movement:
- Early childhood. The development of voluntary movement is associated with the implementation of cognitive actions and with the imitation of adults. Manipulating things leads to certain actions. Until the age of two, children cannot reproduce a familiar action without a real object (for example, without a spoon, show how to use it). Therefore, an essential step in the development of voluntary movement is the formation presentation ability missing objects, due to which the child's behavior is represented. At 3 years old, 94% of children can do an action without a real object. In the period of 2-3 years, the foundations of the regulatory function of speech are laid. Therefore, the child should have a strong working out for two verbal signals of an adult: the word “must” and “no”. These words teach the ability to self-control, independence.
- preddo school age. Play is the foundation of preschoolers. Children are able to restrain their impulsive behavior from 4 to 6 years three times longer. From the age of 4, control over one's actions develops, obedience is revealed, due to a sense of duty and, in case of failure to fulfill any duty, a sense of guilt towards an adult. At the end of the pre-preschool age, the child takes a big step forward in volitional development: he completes the task. The words “necessary”, “possible”, “impossible” become the basis for self-regulation when mentally pronounced by the child himself. This is the first manifestation of willpower.
- Junior school age. Under the influence of the demands placed on him, the development of restraint (restraint) and patience as the basis of disciplined behavior begins. Arbitrary mental actions begin to form: intentional memorization educational material, arbitrary attention, perseverance in solving mental problems. Independence develops, but most often stems from impulsiveness due to the emotions and desires that arise in him, and not as a result of the meaningfulness of the situation. The growth of independence and the development of self-awareness are pushing schoolchildren to deliberate disobedience general rules. They consider such behavior a manifestation of their adulthood and independence. Often defending their decisions, judgments, actions, schoolchildren show stubbornness. The manifestation of stubbornness is regarded as perseverance, perseverance. In younger students, endurance (restraint), the ability to restrain their feelings, increases. The development of the will is facilitated by a number of circumstances: - the connection of tasks with the needs and interests of the student; - visibility of the target; - the optimal complexity of the task. Too easy tasks discourage, and too difficult can lead to a decrease in the level of willpower; - availability of instructions for completing the task.
- Adolescence. There is a radical restructuring of the structure of volitional activity. They often regulate their behavior based on internal stimulation. At the same time, the volitional sphere is too contradictory. This is due to the fact that with the increased activity of a teenager, volitional mechanisms are still not sufficiently formed. External stimulants (educational influences, etc.) are perceived differently by a teenager than in childhood. Discipline decreases, the manifestation of stubbornness increases, as a result of the assertion of one's Self, the right to one's own opinion. Puberty increases the mobility of nervous processes, shifts the balance towards excitation, this also leads to a change in the volitional sphere: it makes it difficult to apply prohibitive sanctions, endurance and self-control decrease.
- Senior school age. They show high perseverance in achieving their goals, the ability to be patient increases sharply. The moral component of the will is strengthened.
Will pathology.
One of the first to talk about volitional effort as a specific mechanism of will was at the beginning of the 20th century. G. Munsterberg, G. I. Chelpanov, A. F. Lazursky. G. Münsterberg, for example, wrote: “If I try to remember the name of some bird that I see, and it eventually comes to my mind, I feel its appearance as a result of my own volitional effort” . A.F. Lazursky considered volitional effort as a special psychophysiological process associated with a person’s reaction to an obstacle encountered. He posed the question: “Is there one volitional effort that can be directed in different directions at the will of a person, or, on the contrary, are there several varieties of it, related to each other, but still not identical with each other?” . Unfortunately, the answer to this question has not yet been found, although it is known that in Everyday life a person is faced with the manifestation of volitional efforts in two directions. On the one hand, these are efforts whose task is to suppress the impulses that impede the achievement of the goal. These impulses are associated with unfavorable conditions (fear, fatigue, frustration) that arise in the course of activity, which push a person to stop this activity. On the other hand, these are volitional efforts that stimulate activity aimed at achieving the goal. These efforts are of great importance for the manifestation of such strong-willed qualities as patience, perseverance, attentiveness, perseverance.
What is this volitional effort? There are two kinds of views on this subject in psychology.
According to one view, volitional effort is a set of motor (mainly muscular) sensations. When performing any kind of muscle movements, one has to experience a feeling of tension, which is nothing more than a combination of muscle sensations. It is this muscular tension that we perceive as a feeling of effort.
But there are such volitional acts in which there is no muscle contraction, but there is either a delay in this contraction, or other more complex psychophysiological findings. To explain these phenomena, the theory of the so-called innervation feeling was put forward. It was assumed that any kind of nerve impulse, even though it did not lead to muscle contraction, but would remain a purely central brain process, is nevertheless accompanied by a certain subjective experience, reminiscent of an effort of will. As evidence, cases were cited when a motor effort is tested by us, despite the fact that the muscles themselves, on the reduction of which this motor effort is directed, are completely absent. This happens after amputation, when a person tries to move, for example, the toes of a severed leg, then, despite the absence of muscles that he should have contracted, he still experiences a certain volitional tension. However, more careful studies by James showed that in these cases a person usually contracts along the way some other muscles that have been preserved in him, just as, for example, with a very strong tension of the hands, we involuntarily also strain some other muscles of the body. And so the muscular sensations that arose due to the contraction of side muscles were mistaken for an innervation feeling.
... Until now, it was mainly about those volitional efforts that are aimed at committing certain motor acts or at delaying them. However, along with this, there are a number of volitional acts aimed at the flow of ideas, feelings, etc. Here, there are often almost no movements or motor delays, and nevertheless, volitional tension can reach large sizes. It is precisely such processes that force us to pay attention to another theory, to some extent the opposite of the one just stated. According to this second theory, volitional effort is not reduced to any kind of motor acts, but, on the contrary, is an independent, completely unique psychophysiological process. While the first explanation refers mainly to the data of physiology and biology, the second explanation is based mainly on the data of self-observation - however, not in the least excluding the possibility that some particular brain process or set is at the basis of the directly perceived feeling of volitional effort. such processes.
Turning to the data of self-observation, we must first of all note that volitional effort is an extremely characteristic element of any generally conscious volitional act. Moreover, it is something always homogeneous, no matter what this effort is directed to, it is always experienced by us more or less in the same way. Finally, for our consciousness it is something elementary, indecomposable into further, simpler elements.
It seems to me that both the one and the other theory cannot be accepted in their entirety. On the one hand, we have seen that it would be too one-sided to reduce all volitional processes only to movements or their delay, since there is a whole series of volitional and, moreover, very intense acts in which psychomotor elements are extremely insignificant. On the other hand, it would be wrong, in my opinion, to overestimate the volitional effort, extending it to all our mental experiences. In my opinion, one should sharply distinguish the volitional process with its central factor, volitional effort, from the more general concept of mental activity. Volitional effort is one of the main mental functions that occupies its place in our mental life. certain place along with feelings and intellectual processes.
Lazursky A. F. 2001. S. 235-237, M. Ya. Basov considered volitional effort as a subjective expression of the regulative function of the will, which he identified with attention. He believed that attention and volitional effort are one and the same, only denoted by different terms. Thus, M. Ya. Basov indirectly joined the first of the assumptions of A. F. Lazursky: the mechanism of volitional effort is the same for all cases.
K. N. Kornilov considered volitional effort to be the main sign of will, therefore he gave the following definition will: it is "a mental process, which is characterized by a kind of effort and is expressed in the conscious actions and deeds of a person aimed at achieving the goals" . Recognition of the central position of the question of volitional effort in the problem of will is found in the works of V.I. Selivanov, V.K. Kalin and others. However, there is another point of view.
Sh. N. Chkhartishvili did not consider volitional effort a sign of volitional behavior. On this occasion, he wrote: “Many researchers understand that the definition of will through the signs of intellect is a misunderstanding and find a way out in introducing the other side of behavior into the definition of will, namely, the moment of effort. The flow of volitional acts often encounters some obstacle, the overcoming of which requires internal effort, a kind of internal tension. This moment of effort, or the ability to overcome obstacles, is declared the second mark of the will.
However, internal tension, - continued Sh. N. Chkhartishvili, - and the ability to overcome obstacles are not alien to the animal either. Birds require an exceptional effort to overcome the storm that rages on the high seas and reach the final goal of their flight. An animal caught in a trap makes a colossal effort to break free. In a word, the ability to make the effort necessary to overcome the obstacles that arise on the path of life is inherent in all living beings, and there is nothing surprising in the fact that a person, having acquired the ability of consciousness, retained this property as well. However, the animal, despite the fact that it has no less ability to make an effort and fight with obstacles, no one considers a being with a will. Regarding the last statement, I can notice - and in vain. Animals certainly have the beginnings of volitional behavior, and one of them is the manifestation of their volitional effort, as P. V. Simonov wrote about. Sh. N. Chkhartishvili's mistake, it seems to me, is that instead of denying volitional effort as a sign of will, he should have recognized the presence of the rudiments of will in animals as well.
The elimination of volitional effort from will leads Sh. N. Chkhartishvili to strange conclusions regarding human behavior as well. Thus, he wrote: “The alcoholic or drug addict, who is in captivity of an ingrained need for alcohol or morphine, is aware of this need, is aware of the ways and means necessary to acquire a strong drink or morphine, and often resorts to maximum effort to overcome the obstacles that have arisen on his way to meet your needs. However, it would be a mistake to consider the awareness of needs and strenuous efforts manifested in such acts of behavior as derivatives of the will and to believe that the stronger and more persistent the desire to satisfy such indomitable needs, the stronger the will. The need can activate the work of consciousness in a certain direction and mobilize all the forces necessary to overcome the obstacle. But this may not be an act of will. Therefore, it cannot be considered that these signs of behavior manifest specific feature will" [ibid., p. 73-74].
It is impossible not to see in this statement the echoes of an ideological approach to the assessment of volitional behavior. Alcoholism and drug addiction are considered negative inclinations in society, so whoever cannot overcome these inclinations is weak-willed. But, firstly, you need to ask the alcoholic or drug addict himself, but does he want to overcome them, and secondly, what is the difference in the manifestation of effort in solving a problem by a schoolchild and getting alcohol by an alcoholic? In both cases, behavior is motivated, and in both cases we observe voluntary control of effort (after all, one cannot assume that this effort is manifested by an alcoholic involuntarily).
Therefore, from the point of view of behavior control mechanisms, there is no difference in these cases. Consequently, both of them show willpower in achieving the intended goal.
V. A. Ivannikov writes: “The recognition of strengthening motivation as the main function of the will was noted in the works of the last century and today is contained in the works of various authors. Various solutions have been proposed to explain this phenomenon of will, but the hypothesis of volitional effort emanating from the individual has received the most widespread. And then V. A. Ivannikov raises the question: “Is not the concept of volitional effort a remnant of the gradual onset of experimental research to elucidate the nature and mechanisms of inducing personal activity, a remnant that has not yet found its explanation and experimental methods of research? ... Attempts to justify the introduction of the concept volitional effort emanating from the individual, the need to recognize the individual’s own activity, which does not follow from the current situation, are hardly consistent ... personality activity".
Developing his doubts, V. A. Ivannikov writes that “along with the sphere of motivation, the personality becomes the second source of motivation for activity, and, unlike motives, the personality not only encourages, but also inhibits activity. The theoretical awkwardness that arises in this case, apparently, confuses few people, and in the end it turns out that both the motivational sphere of the personality and the personality itself stimulate it, arbitrarily creating an effort of will” [ibid.].
It seems to me that in reality there is no awkwardness that VA Ivannikov speaks about, and there cannot be. After all, the awkwardness that arose in him is based on the incorrect opposition of personality to motive. This opposition appeared in the author, obviously, because he took as a motive, following A. N. Leontiev, the object of satisfying a need, which is, as it were, outside the personality. In reality, the motive is a personal formation and one of the components of arbitrary control, that is, will in the broadest sense, and therefore to oppose the motive of a person is the same as opposing a part to the whole. A person controls his behavior both with the help of a motive and with the help of volitional effort, between which, as noted by V. I. Selivanov, there really is qualitative difference. If the motive is that for which the action is performed, then the volitional effort is that by means of which the action is carried out in difficult conditions. No one acts, wrote V. I. Selivanov (1974), for the sake of volitional tension. Willpower is just one of necessary funds realization of the motive.
Therefore, V.K. Kalin rightly emphasizes that if it is wrong to separate the motive from the will or replace the will with a motive, then it is just as wrong to replace the motive with the concept of “will”.
Let us recall how Lyudmila behaved in the garden near Chernomor in Pushkin's poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila":
In heavy and deep despondency, She comes up - and in tears She looked at the noisy waters, Hit, sobbing, in the chest, In the waves she decided to drown - However, she did not jump into the waters And continued on her way far.
... But secretly she thinks: “Far from the beloved, in captivity, Why should I live in the world anymore? O you, whose fatal passion torments and cherishes me, I am not afraid of the villain's power: Lyudmila knows how to die! I don't need your tents, No boring songs, no feasts - I won't eat, I won't listen, I'll die among your gardens! Thought - and began to eat.
And here's another, already real case. W. Speer, Minister of Armaments of Nazi Germany, wrote in his Memoirs about the days spent under arrest after the defeat of his state in World War II: “Sometimes the thought came to me to voluntarily die ... that if you crush a cigar, then dissolve it in water and drink this mixture, then it is quite possible death; I for a long time carried a crushed cigar in his pocket, but, as you know, there is a huge distance between intention and action.
These are the cases when "good impulses are destined for us, but nothing is given to accomplish." It takes a strong will to make it happen.
The phylogenetic prerequisite for the emergence of volitional effort is the ability of animals to mobilize efforts in order to overcome obstacles encountered on the way to a biological goal. This is the so-called "barrier" behavior of animals (P. V. Simonov). If they did not have this mechanism, animals simply would not survive. It should be noted that animals also have a mechanism for regulating such efforts, their dosing (recall a cat jumping onto objects of different heights). But if in animals such use of efforts is carried out involuntarily, then a person acquires the ability to use these efforts consciously.
Locke in his experiments showed that increasing the difficulty of the chosen goal led to higher achievements; they were higher when the difficulty level of the goal was indeterminate or when the test subject was simply required to "do his best". The author rightly believes that after accepting a difficult goal, the subjects were forced to mobilize all their forces to achieve this goal. However, as noted by Kukla and Mayer, who developed the "calculation of forces" model, maximum magnification effort occurs at a level of difficulty that, in the opinion of the subject, is still surmountable. This is the limit beyond which the level of effort drops sharply.
V. I. Selivanov wrote that volitional effort is one of the main means by which a person exercises power over his motives, selectively putting into action one motivational system and inhibiting another. The regulation of behavior and activity is carried out not only indirectly - through motives - but also directly, through mobilization, that is, through volitional efforts.
V. I. Selivanov, emphasizing the connection of strong-willed effort with the need to overcome obstacles and difficulties, believed that it manifests itself in any normal work, and not only in extreme situations, for example, during fatigue, as some psychologists believe. He argued that “with such a view of the role of volitional effort, it looks like an instrument of only an unpleasant and harmful for the body despotic coercion, when there is no longer any urine to work, but it is necessary. Undoubtedly, such situations can take place in human life, especially in extreme conditions. But this is just an exception to the rule.” Indeed, volitional effort is used by a person not only when exhausted, but also at the initial stage of development of fatigue (with the so-called compensated fatigue), when a person maintains his performance at a given level without despotism and damage to health. Yes, and a simple click on the dynamometer is also a manifestation of willpower. Another question is whether any activity requires the use of willpower. Unlike V. I. Selivanov, I believe that not any.
As V. I. Selivanov notes, central location in the diagnosis of will (understood by him as the mobilization of mental and physical capabilities) takes the measurement of volitional effort, which is present to a greater or lesser extent in various volitional actions (what is actually measured - volitional effort or something else, will be discussed in the chapter 13).
Volitional effort is qualitatively different from the muscular effort that we observe, for example, when lifting weights, when running fast, and to a lesser extent when moving eyebrows, clenching jaws, etc. In volitional effort, movements are often minimal, and internal tension can be colossal. . An example of this is the effort that a soldier has to make when he remains at his post under enemy fire, a paratrooper jumping from an airplane, etc.
With volitional effort, there is always muscle tension. Remembering a word or carefully examining something, we strain the muscles of the forehead, eyes, etc. Nevertheless, to identify volitional effort with muscle tension it would be completely wrong. This would mean depriving the volitional effort of its special content.
Kornilov KN 1948. S. 326-There are several definitions of volitional effort. K. K. Platonov defined it as an experience of effort, which is an obligatory subjective component of volitional action, B. N. Smirnov - as a conscious tension of mental and physical capabilities that mobilize and organize the state and activity of a person in order to overcome obstacles. Most often, volitional effort is understood consciously and for the most part a consciously made internal effort on oneself, which is an impetus (impulse) to the choice of a goal, to focusing attention on an object, to starting and stopping movement, etc.
VK Kalin considers volitional effort to be the main operational mechanism of volitional regulation. He defines volitional effort as "a unidirectional regulatory manifestation of consciousness, leading to the establishment or retention of the necessary state of the functional organization of the psyche" .
S. I. Ozhegov defines effort as the tension of forces. It is in this sense that I understand volitional effort: it is a conscious and deliberate exertion of physical and intellectual forces by a person.
Based on this understanding, I distinguish it from a volitional impulse that launches (initiates) arbitrary actions.