Language norms. Language norms: concept, types. Violation and change of language norms. Language norms of the Russian language

27.09.2019

Language norm(literary norm) - these are the rules for using speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, that is, the rules of pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other language tools accepted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. There are norms: orthoepic (pronunciation), spelling (writing), word-formation, lexical, morphological, syntactic, punctuation.

Signs of the norm literary language: relative stability, common use, general obligatory nature, compliance with the use, custom and capabilities of the language system.

Language norms - historical phenomenon, they change. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargons; other languages. The change in norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that actually exist in the language. certain stage of its development are actively used by its carriers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language. For example, in the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, accented variants of such words as normalize and normalize, thinking and thinking. Some variants of words are given with appropriate marks: cottage cheese and (col.) cottage cheese, contract and (simple) contract. If we turn to " Orthoepic Dictionary Russian language”, then we can trace the fate of these variants. Yes, the words normalize and thinking become preferred and normalize and thinking are labeled "additional." (permissible). In a relationship cottage cheese and cottage cheese the norm has not changed. And here is an option treaty from the colloquial form he moved into the category of colloquial, has the mark "additional" in the dictionary.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language, and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical writers and contemporary writers, media language analysis, common contemporary usage, live and questionnaire data, Scientific research linguists. Thus, the compilers of the dictionary of grammatical variants used sources stored at the Institute of the Russian Language of the Academy of Sciences: 1) a card file of grammatical fluctuations, which was compiled on the basis of fiction during 1961–1972; 2) materials of a statistical survey on newspapers of the 60–70s. (the total sample was one hundred thousand options); 3) records of the modern music library colloquial speech; 4) materials of answers to the "Questionnaire"; 5) data from all modern dictionaries, grammars and special studies by grammatical options. As a result of the analysis of all the listed material, the most common options used equally were identified; rare or completely disappeared. This allowed scientists to determine what is considered the norm, how it has changed. The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:

- norm of the I degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

– norm II degree – neutral, allows equivalent options;

– norm III degree – more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms. The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language, contribute to the preservation of the language tradition, cultural heritage of the past. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to remain holistic, generally understandable, to perform its main function - cultural.

According to the norms adopted and in force at any stage of the existence of the literary language, it is possible to determine what changes in relation to normalization have occurred and what are the trends further development literary norms.

literary norm- uniform, generally accepted rules for the use of language units, fixed in dictionaries and existing in a certain period of language development.

Norms exist at all linguistic levels and in the oral form of the literary language.

Codified norms- entered in the dictionary.

Sources of norms:

1. Classical (fiction) Russian literature.

2. The language of some media (Culture TV channel).

3. The speech of the intelligentsia is not in the 1st generation.

4. Studies of linguists (data from questionnaire surveys).

Sources for changing norms:

1. Colloquial speech (forms of plural nouns in - a: tractor, doctor, professor, etc.).

2. Local dialects (they were dialectal, but the words zaimka, kvashnya, arable land, plow, etc. became literary).

3. Professional jargons (conductor, cruiser, huntsman, etc.).

4. Common language (in modern dictionaries allowed to use the word coffee as a neuter noun).

5. Other languages.

According to the degree of normativity, it is customary to distinguish the following types of norms:

1. Strict(mandatory) norm (norm of the 1st degree) - in this type of norm there is a single correct option. Ex: document.

2. Neutral norm (norm of the 2nd degree) - there are two equal options. Pr: cottage cheese - cottage cheese.

3. Movable norm (norm of the 3rd degree) - has two options, these options are not equal: the 1st option is the main one, the 2nd option is not literary.

Question 5. The main orthoepic norms of the Russian language: pronunciation norms for vowels, consonants.

Orthoepic norms– norms correct pronunciation sounds and word stress.

Basic norms for pronunciation of consonants:

1. Pronunciation of consonants /d/, /t/, /z/, /s/ and /r/ before /e/v foreign words is difficult, since in some cases these consonants are pronounced only firmly, and in others only softly, in some words a variable pronunciation is possible.

Usually, a hard consonant before /e/ is pronounced in words and expressions that have not been sufficiently mastered by the Russian language (in accordance with pronunciation in Western European languages), while in native Russian words, consonants before /e/ were soft ( veche, dough, river etc.).

The pronunciation of solid consonants before /e/ remains: a) in expressions that are often reproduced using the Latin alphabet ( de facto, de jure); b) in words denoting the realities of foreign life ( cocktail, cottage); c) in terms of ( grotesque, sepsis); d) in proper names (Voltaire, Goethe).

In long-loaned words, the consonant before /e/ tends to soften ( beret, museum, tenor).

2. There are no extra consonant sounds (and letters) in the words: dermatin, schemer, incident, compromise, compromise, competitive, ascertain, mock, slip, post office, precedent, escort, legal adviser, food.

3. We write thu, but we read /pcs/ in a word what and its derivatives ( to, nothing, no way). Exceptions: something, insignificant, destroy.

Basic norms for pronunciation of vowels:

1. Unstressed / o / is pronounced clearly in following words: radio, boa, modern, veto, rococo, baroque, oasis, beau monde, bonton and etc.

2. Without /th/ the words are read: project, design, designer, design, patient.

3. There are no extra vowels (and letters) in the following words: unmercenary, future, knowledgeable (but: next), porcupine, perturbation, cake, institution, excessive, extreme.

4. See page 57, number 5.

5. See page 56, number 1.

Correctness is the most important sign of a culture of speech.

The correctness of speech is determined by the observance of the norms inherent in the literary language.

What is a norm? What are the rules? What is their feature? How are norms born? Here are the questions that need to be answered.

Norm - the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language.

The norm is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. The rules differ:

Language norms - historical phenomenon. The change in literary norms is due to the constant development of the language. What was the norm in the last century and even 15-20 years ago may become a deviation from it today. For example, in the 1930s and 1940s, the words graduate student and student to express the same concept: "A student performing thesis". Word graduate student was a colloquial version of the word student. In the literary norm of the 50-60s, there was a distinction in the use of these words: the former colloquial graduate student now denotes a student, a student in the period of defending a thesis, receiving a diploma. Word student they began to name mainly the winners of competitions, prize-winners of reviews, competitions awarded with a diploma (for example, diploma winner of the All-Union Piano Competition, diploma winner of the International Vocal Competition).

The usage of the word has also changed. enrollee. In the 30s and 40s applicants also named those who graduated high school, and those who entered the university, since both of these concepts in most cases refer to the same person. AT post-war years the word was assigned to those graduating from high school graduate, a word enrollee has fallen into disuse in this sense. Applicants they began to name those who pass the entrance exams at the university and technical school.

The history of the word is interesting in this regard. dialectical. In the 19th century it was formed from a noun dialect and meant "belonging to one or another dialect". From a philosophical term dialectics also formed an adjective dialectical. Homonyms appeared in the language: dialectical (dialectical word) and dialectical (dialectical approach). Gradually word dialectical in the meaning of "belonging to a particular dialect" is outdated, has been replaced by the word dialectal, and the word dialectic was assigned the meaning “proper of dialectics; based on the laws of dialectics.

In one of the issues of the Literary Gazette, in an article on the correctness of speech, such a case was told. The lecturer got up on the podium and began to speak like this: “Some people spit on the norms literary speech. We are, they say, everything is allowed, we say so with our families, they will bury us like that. I shuddered when I heard this, but did not oppose ... "

At first the audience was perplexed, then there was a murmur of indignation, and finally there was laughter. The lecturer waited for the audience to calm down and said: “You are laughing in vain. I speak the best literary language. The language of the classics ... "And he began to quote, in which there were" incorrect "words from his lecture, comparing them with the testimony of dictionaries of that time. With this technique, the speaker demonstrated how the norm of the language has changed over more than 100 years.

Not only lexical, accentological, but also morphological norms change. Take for example the ending of the nominative case plural masculine nouns:

garden - gardens, garden - gardens, table - tables, fence - fences, horn - horns, side - sides, coast - coast, eye - eyes.

As you can see, in the nominative plural nouns have the ending -s or -a. The presence of two endings is connected with the history of declension. The point is that in Old Russian, in addition to the singular and plural, there was also a dual number, which was used when it was about two objects: table(one), table(two), tables(some). Since the XIII century, this form begins to collapse and is gradually eliminated. However, traces of it are found, firstly, in the ending of the nominative case of the plural of nouns denoting paired objects: horns, eyes, sleeves, shores, sides; second, the genitive form singular nouns with numerals two (two tables, two houses, two fences) historically goes back to the nominative form of the dual number. This is confirmed by the difference in emphasis: two hours and an hour has not passed, in two rows and left the row.

After the disappearance of the dual, along with the old ending -s masculine nouns in the nominative plural have a new ending -a, which, as a younger one, began to spread and displace the ending -s.

So, in modern Russian a train in the nominative plural it has the ending -a, while in the 19th century the norm was -s.“Trains on the railway stop due to heavy snowfall for four days,” wrote N.G. Chernyshevsky in a letter to his father on February 8, 1855. But not always the end -a wins the old ending -s. For example, the word tractor was borrowed in the 20th century from English, in which tractor- suffixal derivative of Latin traho, trahere"pull, pull" In the 3rd volume of the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, published in 1940, only tractors, and ending in -a (tractor) considered to be spacious. Twenty-three years later, the 15th volume of the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language is published. It contains both forms. (tractors and tractor) are given as equals, and twenty years later, the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language (1983) puts the ending -a in first place as more common. In other cases, the nominative plural form on -a and remains outside the literary language, qualifies as an incorrect (engineer) or slang (driver).

If the old, original norm is denoted by the letter A, and the competing version by the letter B, then the competition between them for a place in the literary language takes place in four stages and graphically looks like this:

At the first stage, the only form A dominates, its variant B is outside the literary language and is considered incorrect. At the second stage, option B already penetrates the literary language, is considered acceptable (mark add.) and, depending on the degree of its distribution, qualifies as colloquial (litter colloquial) in relation to norm A or equal to it (litter AND). At the third stage, the older norm A loses its dominant role, finally gives way to the younger norm B and passes into the category of obsolete norms. At the fourth stage, B becomes the only norm of the literary language.

The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: live, colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargons; other languages.

The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that really exist in the language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language.

For example, in the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, accented variants of such words as normalize and standardize, label and label, thinking and thinking. Some variants of words are given with appropriate marks: cottage cheese and (col.) cottage cheese, contract and (simple) contract. If we turn to the "Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language" (M., 1997), then we can follow the fate of these options. Yes, the words normalize and thinking become preferred and normalize and thinking are labeled "additional." (permissible). Of the options mark and mark becomes the only right mark. In a relationship cottage cheese and cottage cheese the norm has not changed. And here is an option treaty from the colloquial form he moved into the category of colloquial, has the mark "additional" in the dictionary.

Shifts in normalization are clearly seen in the example of the pronunciation of the combination - h.

Let's put it in a table.

As you can see, out of 10 words, only two (on purpose, scrambled eggs) the pronunciation [shn] is preserved; in one case (bakery) preference is given to the pronunciation [shn], but [ch] is also allowed, in two - both pronunciations are considered equal (see. decent, decent) in the remaining five, the pronunciation [ch] wins, while in a nutshell (snack bar, toy) it is considered the only correct one, and in three (everyday, creamy, apple) pronunciation [shn] is also allowed.

The indicators of various normative dictionaries give grounds to speak of three degrees of normativity:

■ norm 1 degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

■ norm 2 degree - neutral, allows equivalent options;

■ norm 3 degree - more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social way of life, the emergence of new traditions, the improvement of relationships between people, the functioning of literature and art lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

According to scientists, the process of changing language norms has become especially active in recent decades.

These are the rules for the use of existing language means in a specific historical period in the evolution of the literary language (a set of rules for spelling, grammar, pronunciation, word usage).

The concept of a language norm is usually interpreted as an example of the generally accepted uniform use of such elements of the language as phrases, words, sentences.

The considered norms are not the result of fiction of philologists. They reflect a certain stage in the evolution of the literary language of an entire people. Language norms cannot simply be introduced or abolished, they cannot be reformed even administratively. The activities of linguists who study these norms are their identification, description and codification, as well as clarification and promotion.

Literary language and language norm

According to the interpretation of B. N. Golovin, the norm is the choice of the only one among the various functional variations of a linguistic sign, historically accepted within a certain linguistic community. In his opinion, she is the regulator of the speech behavior of many people.

The literary and linguistic norm is a contradictory and complex phenomenon. Exist various interpretations this concept in linguistic literature modern era. The main difficulty in determining is the presence of mutually exclusive features.

Distinctive features of the concept under consideration

It is customary to allocate the following signs language norms in literature:

1.Stability (stability), thanks to which the literary language unites generations due to the fact that the norms of the language ensure the continuity of linguistic and cultural traditions. However, this feature is considered relative, because the literary language is constantly evolving, while allowing changes in existing norms.

2. The degree of occurrence of the phenomenon under consideration. Nevertheless, it should be borne in mind that a significant level of use of the corresponding language variant (as a fundamental feature in determining the literary and linguistic norm), as a rule, also characterizes certain speech errors. For example, in colloquial speech, the definition of a language norm boils down to the fact that it is “frequently occurring”.

3.Compliance with an authoritative source(works widely famous writers). But do not forget that in works of art both the literary language and dialects, vernacular are reflected, therefore, when delineating the norms, based on the observation of the texts of predominantly fiction, it is necessary to distinguish between the author's speech and the language of the characters in the work.

The concept of a language norm (literary) is associated with the internal laws of the evolution of a language, and on the other hand, it is determined purely cultural traditions society (what is approved by it and protected, and what it fights and condemns).

Variety of language norms

The literary and linguistic norm is codified (acquires official recognition and is subsequently described in reference books, dictionaries that have authority in society).

There are the following types of language norms:

The types of language norms presented above are considered to be the main ones.

Typology of language norms

It is customary to distinguish the following norms:

oral and written forms of speech;
only oral;
only written.

The types of language norms related to both oral and written speech are as follows:

lexical;
stylistic;
grammatical.

Special norms of exclusively written speech are:

spelling standards;
punctuation.

The following types of language norms are also distinguished:

pronunciation;
intonation;
accents.

They apply only to the oral form of speech.

The language norms that are common to both forms of speech relate mainly to the construction of texts and linguistic content. Lexical ones (a set of norms of word usage), on the contrary, are decisive in the issue of the correct choice of a suitable word among linguistic units that are close enough to it in form or meaning and its use in a literary sense.

Lexical language norms are displayed in dictionaries (explanatory, foreign words, terminological), reference books. It is the observance of this kind of norms that is the key to the accuracy and correctness of speech.

Violation of language norms leads to numerous lexical errors. Their number is constantly growing. The following examples of language norms that have been violated can be cited:

Variants of language norms

They involve four steps:

1. The dominant form is the only form, and the alternative is considered to be incorrect, since it is beyond the boundaries of the literary language (for example, in XVIII-XIX centuries the word "turner" is the only correct option).

2. An alternative variant sneaks into the literary language as an admissible one (marked "additional") and acts either colloquially (marked "colloquial") or equal in rights with respect to the original norm (marked "and"). Hesitations about the word "turner" began to appear in late XIX century and continued until the beginning of the 20th century.

3. The original norm is rapidly fading away and gives way to an alternative (competing) one, it acquires the status of obsolete (marked “obsolete.”). Thus, the aforementioned word “turner”, according to Ushakov’s dictionary, is considered obsolete.

4. Competing norm as the only one within the literary language. In accordance with the dictionary of difficulties of the Russian language, the previously presented word "turner" is considered the only option (literary norm).

It is worth noting the fact that the only possible strict language norms are present in the announcer's, teaching, stage, oratorical speech. In everyday speech, the literary norm is freer.

The relationship between the culture of speech and language norms

Firstly, the culture of speech is the possession of the literary norms of the language in written and oral form, as well as the ability to correctly choose, organize certain language means in such a way that in a particular situation of communication or in the process of observing its ethics, the greatest effect is ensured in achieving the intended objectives of communication. .

And secondly, this is the area of linguistics, which deals with the problems of speech normalization and develops recommendations regarding the skillful use of the language.

The culture of speech is divided into three components:

Language norms are hallmark literary language.

Language norms in business style

They are the same as in the literary language, namely:

the word must be used according to the lexical meaning;
taking into account the stylistic coloring;
according to lexical compatibility.

These are the lexical language norms of the Russian language within the business style.

For this style, it is extremely important to match the qualities that determine the parameter of the effectiveness of business communication (literacy). This quality also implies knowledge existing rules word usage, sentence patterns, grammatical compatibility, and the ability to delimit the scope of the language.

At present, the Russian language has many variant forms, some of which are used in the framework of book and written styles of speech, and some - in colloquial and everyday. AT business style the forms of special codified written speech are used in view of the fact that only their observance ensures the accuracy and correctness of the transmission of information.

This may include:

wrong choice of word form;
a number of violations regarding the structure of the phrase, sentence;
The most common mistake is the use of incompatible colloquial forms of plural nouns in written speech that end in -а / -я, instead of normative ones in -и / -ы. Examples are presented in the table below.

literary norm	Colloquial speech
Treaties	Agreements
Correctors	Corrector
Inspectors	Inspector

It is worth remembering that the form zero ending have the following nouns:

paired items (boots, stockings, boots, but socks);
names of nationalities and territorial affiliation (Bashkirs, Bulgarians, Kyivans, Armenians, British, southerners);
military groups (cadets, partisans, soldiers);
units of measurement (volt, arshin, roentgen, ampere, watt, micron, but grams, kilograms).

These are the grammatical language norms of Russian speech.

Sources of the language norm

There are at least five of them:

The role of the norms under consideration

They help to preserve the literary language its integrity, general intelligibility. Norms protect him from dialect speech, professional and social slang, and vernacular. This is what makes it possible for the literary language to fulfill its main function - cultural.

The norm depends on the conditions under which speech is realized. Language means that are appropriate in everyday communication may be unacceptable in official business. The norm does not distinguish between linguistic means according to the criteria "good - bad", but clarifies their expediency (communicative).

The norms under consideration are the so-called historical phenomenon. Their change is due to the continuous development of the language. The norms of the last century may now be deviations. For example, in the 30s and 40s. such words as diploma student and graduate student (a student who performs a thesis) were considered identical. At that time, the word "graduate student" was a colloquial version of the word "diploma student". Within the framework of the literary norm of the 50-60s. there was a division of the meaning of the presented words: a diploma student is a student during the defense of a diploma, and a diploma student is a winner of competitions, competitions, reviews marked with a diploma (for example, a student of the International Review of Vocalists).

Also in the 30's and 40's. the word "applicant" was used to refer to persons who graduated from high school or entered a university. At present, those who graduate from high school have become known as graduates, and an applicant in given value more on used. They are called persons who take entrance exams to technical schools and universities.

Norms such as pronunciation are characteristic exclusively oral speech. But not everything that is characteristic of oral speech can be attributed to pronunciation. intonation is enough important tool expressiveness, giving an emotional coloring to speech, and diction are not pronunciation.

As for stress, it refers to oral speech, however, despite the fact that this is a sign of a word or grammatical form, it still belongs to grammar and vocabulary, and does not act as a characteristic of pronunciation in its essence.

So, orthoepy indicates the proper pronunciation of certain sounds in the corresponding phonetic positions and in combination with other sounds, and even in some grammatical groups of words and forms or in individual words, provided that they have their own pronunciation features.

In view of the fact that language is a means of human communication, it needs to unify oral and written design. Just like spelling errors, mispronunciation draws attention to speech from its outside, which acts as a hindrance in the course of language communication. Since orthoepy is one of the aspects of the culture of speech, it has the task of contributing to the raising of the pronunciation culture of our language.

The conscious cultivation of precisely the literary pronunciation on the radio, in the cinema, the theater, and in school is of very significant importance in relation to the mastering of the literary language by the masses of many millions.

Vocabulary norms are such norms that determine the correct choice of a suitable word, the appropriateness of its use within the framework of a well-known meaning and in combinations that are considered generally accepted. The exceptional importance of their observance is determined by both cultural factors and the need for mutual understanding of people.

An essential factor determining the significance of the concept of norms for linguistics is the assessment of the possibilities of its application in various types linguistic research work.

To date, there are such aspects and areas of research in which the concept under consideration can become productive:

Study of the nature of operation and implementation different kind language structures(including the establishment of their productivity, distribution in various functional areas of the language).
The study of the historical aspect of language changes in relatively short time periods (“microhistory”), when both minor shifts in the structure of the language and significant changes in its functioning and implementation are revealed.

Degrees of normativity

A rigid, strict degree that does not allow for alternatives.
Neutral, allowing equivalent options.
A more mobile degree that allows the use of colloquial or obsolete forms.

Language norm(literary norm) - these are the rules for the use of speech means in a certain period of development of the literary language, that is, the rules for pronunciation, word usage, the use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means adopted in social and linguistic practice. This is a uniform, exemplary, generally recognized use of language elements (words, phrases, sentences).

The norm is obligatory for both oral and written speech and covers all aspects of the language. Signs of the norm literary language: relative stability, common use, general obligatoriness, correspondence to usage, traditions and possibilities of the language system.

Language norm- accepted in social and linguistic practice educated people rules of pronunciation, word usage, use of traditionally established grammatical, stylistic and other linguistic means (Russian language. Encyclopedia. M., 1997).

Language norms - a phenomenon historical, they change. The sources of changes in the norms of the literary language are different: colloquial speech; local dialects; vernacular; professional jargons; other languages. The change of norms is preceded by the appearance of their variants that really exist in the language at a certain stage of its development, are actively used by its speakers. Variants of norms are reflected in the dictionaries of the modern literary language. For example, in the Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language, accented variants of such words as normalize and normalize, thinking and thinking. Some variants of words are given with appropriate marks: creationaboutG and (col.) tvabouthorn, contract and (simple) contract. If we turn to the Orthoepic Dictionary of the Russian Language (1983), then we can follow the fate of these options. Yes, the words normalize and thinking become preferred and normalize and thinking are labeled "additional." (permissible). In a relationship cottage cheese and cottage cheese the norm has not changed. And here is an option treaty from the colloquial form he moved into the category of colloquial, has the mark "additional" in the dictionary.

Language norms are not invented by scientists. They reflect regular processes and phenomena occurring in the language and are supported by speech practice. The main sources of the language norm include the works of classical and contemporary writers, analysis of the language of the mass media, generally accepted modern usage, data from live and questionnaire surveys, scientific research by linguists.

Indicators of various normative dictionaries give reason to say about three degrees of normativity:

Norm I degree - strict, rigid, not allowing options;

The norm of the II degree is neutral, it allows equivalent options;

Norm III degree - more mobile, allows the use of colloquial, as well as obsolete forms.

The historical change in the norms of the literary language is a natural, objective phenomenon. It does not depend on the will and desire of individual native speakers. The development of society, the change in the social structure determines the emergence of new traditions, the functioning of literature and art lead to a constant renewal of the literary language and its norms.

The norms of the literary language reflect the originality of the Russian national language, contribute to the preservation of the linguistic tradition, the cultural heritage of the past. They protect the literary language from the flow of dialect speech, social and professional jargon, and vernacular. This allows the literary language to remain holistic, generally understandable, to perform its main function - cultural.

Stress standards. The features and functions of stress are studied by the section of linguistics called accentology(from lat.- accent).

Stress in Russian is free, which distinguishes it from some other languages in which stress is assigned to a particular syllable. For example, in English the first syllable is stressed, in Polish it is the penultimate one, in Armenian, French it is the last one. In Russian, stress can fall on any syllable, which is why it is called heterogeneous. Let's compare the stress in the words: compass, mining, document, medicine. In these words, the stress falls on the first, second, third, fourth syllables respectively. Its diversity makes stress in Russian an individual sign of each individual word.

In addition, stress in Russian can be mobile and fixed. If in various forms word stress falls on the same part, then such stress is fixed (shore, save, save, save, save, save - the stress is attached to the ending). An accent that changes its place in different forms of the same word is called movable (right, right, right; can, can, can).

Most of words of the Russian language has motionless accent.

Features of Russian stress:

Stress in Russian is free, different;

It is mobile and immovable.

Stress is of great importance in Russian and performs various functions. The semantics of the word depends on the stress (cotton - cotton, cloves - cloves). It refers to the grammatical form (arms - nominative plural, and arms - genitive singular). Finally, stress helps to distinguish the meaning of words and their forms: protein - genitive case of the word b e lka, a b e lok - nominative case of the word that names constituent part eggs or part of the eye.

The diversity and mobility of stress often leads to speech errors (instead of a chal, p about nyalpronounce started, understood).

The difficulty in determining the place of stress in a particular word increases, since for some words there are variants of stress. At the same time, there are options that do not violate the norm and are considered literary, for example, sparkling - sparkling, salmon - salmon, thinking - thinking. In other cases, one of the accents is considered incorrect, for example, correctly: kitchen toolent, moveathailand not right: kitchen, toolsatcop, walkeraystvo.

Whole line stress variations associated with professional area use. There are words in which a specific stress is traditionally accepted only in a narrowly professional environment; in any other setting, it is perceived as a mistake. For example:

epilepsia doctors epilepsyandI,

toaboutmpas sailors have a computer a with .

AT public speaking, business communication, everyday speech quite often there is a deviation from the norms of the literary language. So, some people think that it is necessary to speak means of production, but cash, passed two quarter, but the second quarter this year. The words facilities and quarter regardless of the meaning, they have only one accent.

Errors in stress can lead to a distortion of the meaning of the statement. For example, in one of the TV shows, works by Spanish artists were shown. They showed a picture that depicted a river bank, a tree with a rich crown, through the leaves of which one could see blue sky and the greens of other plants. A monk sat under a tree. The broadcaster said: “This picture is called “The Hermit in the Desert”. Everyone who watched the program was probably surprised and thought: what kind of desert is this? The thing is that the picture does not depict a desert, but a secluded, deserted place where a hermit lives, which is called Patchill or Patcoldness. The mispronounced word created the impression that the title of the painting did not match its content.

In order to avoid mistakes in setting stress, one should know not only the norm, but also the types of options, as well as the conditions under which one or another of them can be used. To do this, it is recommended to refer to special dictionaries and reference books.

Orthoepic norms. Orthoepic norms are pronunciation norms of oral speech. They are studied by a special section of linguistics - orthoepy . Orthoepy is also called the set of rules for literary pronunciation. Orthoepy determines the pronunciation of individual sounds in certain phonetic positions, in combination with other sounds, as well as their pronunciation in certain grammatical forms, groups of words or in individual words.

Maintaining uniformity in pronunciation is of great importance. Orthoepic errors always interfere with perceiving the content of speech: the listener's attention is distracted by various pronunciation irregularities and the statement in its entirety and with sufficient attention is not perceived. Pronunciation, corresponding to orthoepic norms, facilitates and speeds up the process of communication. So social role correct pronunciation is very great, especially at the present time in our society, where oral speech has become the means of the widest communication at various meetings, conferences, and congresses.

Consider basic rules of literary pronunciation, which must be adhered to.

Pronunciation of vowels. In Russian speech, among vowels, only stressed ones are pronounced clearly. In an unstressed position, they lose their clarity and clarity of sound, they are pronounced with weakened articulation. It is called reduction law.

Vowels [a] and [o] at the beginning of a word without stress and in the first pre-stressed syllable are pronounced as [a]: ravine -[a] enemy, autonomy -[a]w[a]nomiya, milk - m[a]l[a]ko.

In the rest of the unstressed syllables, that is, in all unstressed syllables, except for the first pre-stressed one, in place of the letter it after solid consonants, a very short (reduced) obscure sound is pronounced, which in different positions varies from pronunciation close to [s] to pronunciation close to [a]. Conventionally, this sound is denoted by the letter [ъ]. For example: head- g[b]lova, side - st [b] ron, expensive - d[b] horny, city - mountains [b] d, watchman - side[b]g.

Letters i, e in pre-stressed syllable denote a sound, the middle between [e] and [i]. Conventionally, this sound is indicated by the sign [and e]: nickel - p [and e] so, pen - p [and e] ro. The vowel [and] after a solid consonant, preposition, or when the pronunciation of the word is continuous with the previous one, it is pronounced as [s]: medical institute - medical [s] institute, from a spark - from [s] hidden, laugh and grief - laughter[s] grief. If there is a pause, [and] does not go into [s]: laugh and grief.

The absence of vowel reduction interferes with the normal perception of speech, as it reflects not the literary norm, but dialectal features. So, for example, the letter-by-letter (non-reduced) pronunciation of the word [milk] is perceived by us as a rounding dialect, and the replacement of unstressed vowels by [a] without reduction - [malako] - as a strong akanye.

Pronunciation of consonants. The basic laws of pronunciation of consonants are stunning and assimilation.

In Russian speech, voiced consonants are obligatory stunned at the end of a word. We pronounce bread [n] - bread, sa[t] - garden, smo[k] - smog, any[f"] - love etc. This stun is one of characteristic features Russian literary speech. It should be noted that the consonant [g] at the end of the word always turns into a paired deaf sound [k]: le [k] - lay down, vice [k] - threshold etc. In this case, the pronunciation of the sound [x] is unacceptable as a dialect. The exception is the word God - Bo[x].

In the position before vowels, sonorant consonants and [v] the sound [g] is pronounced as a voiced explosive consonant. It is most stable in the word [g] Lord.

[G] is pronounced like [x] in a combination of gk and gch: le [hk "] y - easy, le[hk]o - easily.

In combinations of voiced and deaf consonants (as well as deaf and voiced), the first of them is likened to the second.

Attention should be paid to the combination ch, since mistakes are often made in its pronunciation. There is fluctuation in the pronunciation of words with this combination, which is associated with a change in the rules of the old Moscow pronunciation.

According to the norms of the modern Russian literary language, the combination ch is usually pronounced like this [ch], this especially applies to words of book origin (greedy, careless) as well as words that appeared in the recent past (camouflage, landing).

Pronunciation [shn] instead of spelling ch currently required in female patronymics on the -ichna: Ilyini [shn] a, Lukini [shn] a, Fomini [shn] a, and is also preserved in separate words: horse [shn] o, re[shn] ica, pr-che [shn] aya, empty [shn] th , square[shn]ik, eggs[psh]itsa, etc.

Some words with a combination -ch in accordance with the norm, they are pronounced in two ways: order [shn] o and order [ch] o. In some cases, a different pronunciation of the combination ch serves for semantic differentiation of words: heart [ch] beat - heart [shn] friend.

Pronunciation of borrowed words. They, as a rule, obey modern orthoepic norms and only in some cases differ in features in pronunciation. For example, the pronunciation of the sound [o] is sometimes preserved in unstressed syllables (m [o] del, [o] asis, [o] tel) and solid consonants before the front vowel [e] (s [te] nd, ko [de] ks, porridge [ne]). In most borrowed words, before [e], the consonants are softened: ka[t"]et, pa[t"]efon, faculty[t"]et, mu[z"]her, [r"]ektor, pio[n" ]ep. Back-lingual consonants are always softened before [e]: pa[k"]et, [k"]egli, s[x"]ema, ba[g"]et.

Description of orthoepic norms can be found in the literature on the culture of speech, in special linguistic studies, for example, in the book by R.I. Avanesov "Russian literary pronunciation", as well as in the explanatory dictionaries of the Russian literary language, in particular, in the one-volume " explanatory dictionary Russian language "S.I. Ozhegova and N.Yu. Shvedova.

Morphological norms. Morphology - a section of grammar that studies the grammatical properties of words, that is, grammatical meanings, means of expression grammatical meanings, grammatical categories.-

Morphological norms - rules for using morphological norms different parts speech.

The peculiarities of the Russian language are that the means of expressing grammatical meanings often vary. At the same time, the variants may differ in shades of meanings, stylistic coloring, scope of use, correspond to the norm of the literary language or violate it. The skillful use of options allows you to more accurately express an idea, diversify speech, testifies to the speech culture of the speaker.

most large group constitute options, the use of which is limited functional style or genre of speech. So, in colloquial speech, there are often forms of the genitive plural orange, tomato, instead of oranges, tomatoes; from her, from her instead of from her, from her. The use of such forms in official written and oral speech is considered a violation of the morphological norm.

Real nouns sugar, fuel, oil, petroleum, salt, marble are usually used in the singular form. AT professional speech to designate varieties, varieties of substances, the plural form is used: sugar, fuel, oil, oil, salt, marbles. These forms have a stylistic connotation of professional use.

There are many morphological variants in the Russian language, which are considered as identical, equivalent. For example: turners - turners, workshops - workshops, in the spring - in the spring, doors - doors.

In other cases, one of the forms violates the norm of the literary language: rail, a rail not right, shoe, a shoes and shoe not right.

There are many masculine and feminine words in Russian to designate people by their position, profession. With nouns denoting the position held, profession, rank, rank, the difficulties that arise in speech are explained by the peculiarities of this group of words. What are they?

Firstly, in the Russian language there are masculine names and there are no feminine parallels to them, or (much less often) there are only feminine names. For example: rector, businessman, financier, truce and laundress, nanny, milliner, manicurist, midwife, dowry, lace maker, seamstress-minder.

Secondly, there are both masculine and feminine names, both of which are neutral. For example: an athlete is an athlete, a poet is a poetess.

Thirdly, both forms (both masculine and feminine) are formed, but the feminine words differ in meaning or stylistic coloring. Yes, the words professor, doktorsha have the meaning "professor's wife", "doctor's wife" and a colloquial connotation, and how the job titles become colloquial. Generic Parallels cashier, watchman, accountant, controller, laboratory assistant, janitor, usher qualify as colloquial, and doctor - as spacious.

Difficulties arise when it is necessary to emphasize that we are talking about a woman, and there is no neutral feminine parallel in the language. Cases like this are on the rise. According to scientists, the number of names that do not have a female generic parallel increases every year, for example: space physicist, TV commentator, TV reporter, bionic, cyberneticist and others, while this position can be held by a woman.

What exit do writers and speakers find?

As linguists note, not only in oral speech, but also in newspaper texts, business correspondence, more and more often, a syntactic indication of the gender of the called person is used, when, with a masculine noun, the verb in the past tense has a feminine form. For example: the doctor came, the philologist said, the foreman was there, our bibliographer advised me. Such constructions are currently considered acceptable, not violating the standard of the literary language.

The use of masculine nouns that do not have a feminine derivational parallel as a name for women has led to increased fluctuations in the forms of agreement. The following options became possible: young physicist Yakovleva - young physicist Yakovleva.

In the frequency-stylistic dictionary of variants “Grammatical correctness of Russian speech”, regarding such use of definitions, it is said: “In written strictly official or neutral business speech, the norm of agreement on the external form of the noun being defined is adopted: outstanding mathematician Sofia Kovalevskaya; Indira Gandhi is the new Prime Minister of India.

Most frequent grammatical errors associated with the use of the gender of nouns. You can hear the wrong phrases: railway rail, French shampoo, big callus, registered parcel. But the nouns rail, shampoo - masculine, and corn, parcel - feminine, so you should say: railway rail, French shampoo, big corn, registered parcel.

Violation grammar rules often associated with the use of prepositions in speech. So, the difference in semantic and stylistic shades between synonymous constructions with prepositions is not always taken into account. due to and thanks to. Pretext thanks to retains its original lexical meaning associated with the verb thank, therefore it is used to indicate the cause that produces the desired result: thanks to the help of comrades, thanks to the right treatment. With a sharp contradiction between the original lexical meaning of the preposition thanks to and indicating a negative reason, the use of this preposition is undesirable: did not come to work due to illness. In this case, it is correct to say - because of illness.

Prepositions thanks to, in spite of, according to, towards on modern standards are used only with the dative case.

syntactic rules. Sometimes writers don't consider word order and create sentences that have two meanings. For example, how to understand the phrase Was the owner of the house asleep? Is it about the sleeping owner of the house, or about where the owner slept? In a sentence There is no such term in ancient documents of this kind. combination this kind may refer to a combination ancient documents or by the word term.