War of the Spanish Succession and the Beginning of the Decline of French Influence
The cause of the war was the dynastic dispute between the French Bourbons and the Austrian Habsburgs over the right to inherit the Spanish throne after the death in November 1700 of Charles II (1665–1700), the last representative of the Spanish Habsburgs. Charles II appointed his great-nephew Philip of Anjou, grandson of the French king Louis XIV (1643–1715), as successor. The Austrian party nominated Archduke Charles of Habsburg, the second son of the German Emperor Leopold I (1657–1705), who was the great-nephew of Charles II's father, Philip IV (1621–1665), as their candidate. In April 1701, Philip of Anjou entered Madrid and was crowned King Philip V of Spain (1701–1746); The French occupied all the fortresses in the Spanish Netherlands. The prospect of Spain falling into the hands of the French Bourbons aroused serious concerns among France's main maritime rival, England, which had been in a personal union with another major maritime power, Holland, since 1689. In September 1701, Leopold I entered into an anti-French military alliance with the English king and the Dutch stoutholder William III; he was joined by the Prussian King Frederick I, Elector Georg-Ludwig of Hanover, many imperial cities and petty princes of Upper Germany. On the side of Louis XIV were Elector Maximilian-Immanuel of Bavaria, Elector Joseph-Clement of Cologne, Dukes Vittore Amedeo II of Savoy and Carlo IV of Mantua.
At the first stage, hostilities were conducted in three theaters - 1) in Italy and in the south-east of France; 2) in Germany, the Netherlands and northeast France; 3) in Spain.
Italy and southeastern France.
The war began in Italy in the summer of 1701. The Austrian commander, Prince Eugene of Savoy, in June 1701 led his army along mountain paths through the Tridentine Alps to the Duchy of Milan, which belonged to the Spaniards, on July 20, with a sudden blow, defeated the French army of Marshal Catin at Carpi on the Verona plain and captured the area between the Mincio rivers and Ech; Katina retreated to Milan; he was replaced by Marshal Villeroy. Having repulsed the attack of the Spaniards at Chiarri on September 1, 1701 (to the east of the Ollo river), the Austrians defeated the French on February 1, 1702 near Cremona; Marshal Villeroy was taken prisoner. The new French commander, the Duke of Vendôme, succeeded in stopping the Austrians after bloody battle at Luzzara on the river Po on August 15, 1702 and keep Milan and Mantua. However, Duke Rainaldo of Modena went over to the side of Emperor Leopold I. In October 1703, the Duke of Savoy followed suit. In 1704, the Duke of Vendôme successfully fought against the Austro-Savoy detachments in Piedmont; in May 1704 he took Vercelli, and in September - Ivrea. In August of the following 1705, he fought with Eugene of Savoy at Cassano on the Adda River, but could not achieve victory. In the first half of 1706, the Duke of Vendôme took several Savoy fortresses, defeated the Austrians at Calcinato on April 19, and on May 26 laid siege to Turin, the capital of the Duchy of Savoy. However, in July he was recalled to the northern theater of operations; The French army was led by the Duke of Orleans and Marshal Marsin. Eugene of Savoy, waiting for the approach of the auxiliary army of Prince Leopold of Dessau from Germany, on September 7, 1706 utterly defeated the French near Turin, capturing seven thousand prisoners, including Marshal Marsin. Savoy was liberated from the enemy, the Duchy of Milan was transferred to the Archduke Charles, who proclaimed himself in November 1703 the Spanish King Charles III. In March 1707 the French signed General surrender, pledging to purify Italy in exchange for the right to unhindered return to their homeland. In July 1707 the Austrians captured Naples; The Kingdom of Naples also ended up in the hands of Charles III. At the same time, the Allied attempt to invade France from the southeast in the summer of 1707 ended in failure: in June 1707, the imperial and Savoyard troops entered Provence and on June 17, 1707, with the support of the Anglo-Dutch fleet, besieged Toulon, but the heroism of the defenders of the city forced them to retreat.
Germany, the Netherlands and northeastern France.
At the end of 1701 the Anglo-Dutch army of the Duke of Marlborough invaded the Spanish Netherlands and captured the cities of Venlo, Roermond and Luttich; then the Cologne region was conquered. In the summer of 1702, imperial troops under the command of Margrave Ludwig of Baden launched an offensive against French possessions on the Rhine and took Landau, but were later defeated by Marshal Villars at Friedlingen.
In the spring of 1703 Villard moved into Upper Germany. Although his attempt to capture the Stahlhoffen lines (fortifications near Rastatt) on April 19-26, 1703 was unsuccessful, in May he managed to connect with Maximilian-Immanuel of Bavaria. The Franco-Bavarian army invaded Tyrol from the north and occupied Kufstein, Rattenberg and Innsbruck, but soon, due to the hostility of the local population, retreated to Bavaria, holding only Kufstein. In August, the Duke of Vendome unsuccessfully tried to break into Tyrol from Italy. At the same time, the elector's victory over the Austrian general Stirum at Hochstedt on the Danube and his capture of Augsburg thwarted the attack of the Margrave of Baden on Bavaria. The anti-Austrian uprising of Ferenc Rakoczi II in Hungary and the unrest of French Protestants in the Cevennes significantly complicated the situation for both Leopold I and Louis XIV.
In January 1704 the Bavarian elector captured Passau; in the spring of 1704, the French corps of Marshal Marsin joined his troops. However, in June, the Marlborough army came from the Netherlands to help the Imperials, and on July 2, 1704, they defeated the French and Bavarians at Mount Schellenberg near Donauwert and captured the city. The arrival of the twenty-thousandth corps of Marshal Talara did not help the elector to avoid a heavy defeat from the combined forces of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy on August 13, 1704 at Hochstedt; the French and Bavarians lost twenty thousand killed and wounded and fifteen thousand prisoners (Talar was also taken prisoner). The victors occupied Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau. Maximilian-Immanuel left Bavaria and, together with the French, went to the left bank of the Rhine, and then to the Netherlands.
After the death of Leopold I in 1705, the new emperor Joseph I (1705–1711), together with the Duke of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy, developed a plan for the invasion of France, which, however, was opposed by the Margrave of Baden. The French hastily fortified the defenses on the frontier; the suppression of the Protestant rebellion in the Cévennes provided Louis XIV with a reliable rear. Under these conditions, Marlborough did not dare to attack Villar's camp at Zirk on the Moselle and returned to the Netherlands. In May 1706, Villeroy launched an offensive in Brabant and crossed the river. Dil, but on May 23, at Romilly near Louvain, he suffered a crushing defeat from Marlborough, losing a third of his army, and retreated behind the river Lys (Leie). The Allies captured Antwerp, Mecheln (Mechelen), Brussels, Ghent and Bruges; The Spanish Netherlands submitted to Charles III.
In 1707 the French, under the command of Villard, ousted the imperial troops from Alsace, crossed the Rhine, and captured the Stahlhoffen fortified lines. However, their further advance deep into the German lands was stopped. In the north, the Austrian General Schulenburg laid siege to the French fortress of Bethune on July 14, 1707, and forced it to surrender on August 18.
Spain.
On October 12, 1702, in the bay of Vigo in Galicia, the Anglo-Dutch squadron under the command of J. Rook destroyed the Spanish fleet, which was carrying a large consignment of silver and gold from Mexico. In May 1703, the Portuguese king Pedro II joined the anti-French coalition. In March 1704, an Anglo-Dutch expeditionary force landed in Portugal. On August 4, 1704, the squadron of J. Hand captured the strategically important Gibraltar, and on August 24 defeated the French fleet near Malaga, preventing it from connecting with the Spanish. October 9, 1705 Lord Peterborough took Barcelona. The Spanish provinces of Aragon, Catalonia and Valencia recognized the authority of Charles III.
In the summer of 1706, the allies launched an offensive against Madrid from the west, from Portugal, and from the northeast, from Aragon. In June, the Portuguese occupied the capital; Philip V fled. On June 29, the English squadron of D. Bing took Alicante. But soon the French marshal Berwick (the illegitimate son of James II of England), relying on the broad support of the Castilians, returned Madrid. After his victory over the Anglo-Portuguese army at Almansa on April 25, 1707, Charles III lost all of Spain except Catalonia.
During this period, hostilities focused on the northeastern and Spanish fronts.
In 1708, in order to destabilize the internal political situation in Great Britain, the French tried to provoke an uprising in Scotland in favor of James Edward Stuart, the son of James II of England, who was deposed in 1688, but failed completely. In the Netherlands, the Duke of Vendôme resumed active operations and returned Ghent and Bruges. However, Eugene of Savoy came to the aid of Marlborough, and on July 11, 1708, their combined army inflicted a severe defeat on the French at Oudenarde on the river. Scheldt. The Duke of Vendôme was forced to leave Brabant and Flanders. On August 12, 1708, Eugene of Savoy laid siege to the key northern French fortress of Lille; after the defeat by the British on September 28 of the corps of the Comte de La Motte, Lille capitulated on October 25, and the road to France was opened. This prompted Louis XIV to enter into peace negotiations, which, however, dragged on. In the summer of 1709, the allies launched a new offensive in the north: the Austrians under the command of Count Mercy invaded Alsace, and the Marlborough army besieged the Dutch border fortress of Tournai. Although the British managed to take Tournai on August 13, which withstood a thirty-six-day siege, the Austrians were defeated on August 26 at Rumersheim and left for the Rhine. Villard moved to Flanders to help Mons, besieged by the allies, but on September 11, 1709, he was defeated near the village of Malplaque on the Scheldt by the combined forces of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy; Mons surrendered to the victors. Failures at the fronts, a sharp deterioration in the financial position of France and the famine of 1709 forced Louis XIV to make serious concessions to his opponents. In July 1710, an agreement was reached in Gertrudenburg, according to which the Bourbons renounced the Spanish throne and received Sicily as compensation.
In the summer of 1710 the Allies stepped up their operations in Spain. The Austrian General G. Shtarhemberg, having won the battles at Almenar (Aragon) on July 27 and at Zaragoza on August 20, occupied Madrid on September 28. But the general hatred of the Spaniards for the "heretics" helped the Duke of Vendôme to gather an army of twenty thousand. On December 3, he managed to recapture the capital. On December 9, he surrounded Stanhope's English corps at Brihueg and forced him to surrender. On December 10, he attacked the Austrians at Villaviciosa, who, although they defeated him, retreated to Catalonia. Most of Spain was lost to Charles III.
Spanish resistance led to the breakdown of the agreement at Gertrudenburg. However, in 1711 there was a turn in British foreign policy: in May 1710, the Tories won the parliamentary elections, opponents of the continuation of the war; the positions of the military party at court were weakened after the disgrace of the Duchess of Marlborough, wife of the marshal and first lady-in-waiting, Queen Anne (1702–1714). The death on April 17, 1711 of the childless Joseph I and the election of Archduke Charles to the German throne under the name of Charles VI created a real threat of concentration in the same hands of all the possessions of the House of Habsburg in Europe and America and the restoration of the empire of Charles V, which went against the national interests of Great Britain. In July 1711, the British government entered into secret negotiations with France, and in September informed the allies about them. The mission of Eugene of Savoy to London in January 1712 to prevent an agreement was unsuccessful. In the same month, a peace congress opened in Utrecht with the participation of France, Great Britain, Holland, Savoy, Portugal, Prussia and a number of other states. The result of his work was the signing of a series of treaties (Peace of Utrecht) from April 11, 1713 to February 6, 1715: Philip V was recognized as the king of Spain and its overseas possessions on the condition that he and his heirs renounce the rights to the French throne; Spain ceded Sicily to the Duchy of Savoy, and Great Britain ceded Gibraltar and the island of Menorca, giving it also the right to the monopoly sale of African slaves in its American colonies; France gave the British a number of possessions in North America (Nova Scotia, the islands of St. Christopher and Newfoundland) and pledged to tear down the fortifications of Dunkirk; Prussia acquired Geldern and the county of Neuchâtel, Portugal - some territories in the Amazon valley; Holland received equal rights with England in trade with France.
The emperor, left from January 1712 without allies, continued the war with Louis XIV, but after the defeat inflicted on the Austrians by Villard at Denen on July 24, 1712, and the success of the French on the Rhine in the summer of 1713, he was forced in November 1713 to agree to negotiations with France, which ended with the Rastadt Peace on May 6, 1714. Charles VI recognized the transition of the Spanish crown to the Bourbons, receiving for this is a significant part of the European possessions of Spain - the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, the Spanish Netherlands and Sardinia; France returned the fortresses she had captured on the right bank of the Rhine, but retained all her former territorial acquisitions in Alsace and the Netherlands; the Bavarian and Cologne electors received back their possessions.
The result of the war was the division of the huge Spanish power, which finally lost its status as a great one, and the weakening of France, which dominated Europe in the second half of the 17th century. At the same time, the naval and colonial power of Great Britain increased significantly; the positions of the Austrian Habsburgs strengthened in Central and Southern Europe; Prussian influence increased in northern Germany.
Ivan Krivushin
On September 11, 1709, the largest battle of the 18th century took place - the Battle of Malplac between the Franco-Bavarian army under the command of the Duke de Villars and the troops of the anti-French coalition, led by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy, which was one of the culminating episodes of the War of the Spanish Succession.Battle of Malplac
The morning of September 11, 1709 was dank. A thick fog, usual for the autumn Flanders, spread along the ground. The light gray uniforms of the soldiers of the French army seemed to merge with the predawn twilight; From the side of the enemy, who had placed a defile between the Sarsky and Laniersky forests behind a wide, densely overgrown bush, drums rumbled, thousands of feet, shod in soldier's shoes, trampled the dew-soaked grass into the mud. A gunshot rang out, a second, a tenth. Duke Claude Louis de Villars, Marshal of France, looked at the dial of an expensive pocket watch, then looked up at his staff officers: “It has begun, gentlemen.” The hands showed 7 hours and 15 minutes.
The 18th century, with the light hand of writers and philosophers, is often called "frivolous" and "enlightened". An amazing time when the spirit of the gloomy Middle Ages had not yet disappeared in the palaces of kings and knightly armor was side by side in portraits of nobles along with magnificent wigs. Mankind just as frivolously and naturally exterminated each other in wars, willingly using the gifts of enlightenment for the effectiveness of the process. Starting with the pan-European War of the Spanish Succession, the age of absolutism ended in a strained way with the guillotine of Robespierre and the beginning of the wars of the Napoleonic era.
The age of enlightened monarchs began with the death of an unenlightened monarch, an invalid, the owner of a whole bunch of various chronic diseases, the fruit of blood relations of Charles II of Habsburg, who left his place on the throne of Spain empty. However, in the intervals between the favorite game of spillikins, epileptic seizures and throwing improvised objects at subjects under pressure " the right people"In 1669 he made a will, according to which he left the entire Spanish Empire to Philip II, Duke of Anjou, the grandson of Louis XIV. The duke was Charles' great-nephew, since the king of France was married to his older sister.
Charles II of Spain, whose death "actually created the plot"
Being closely related to the extinct Spanish Habsburgs, the Habsburgs of Austria had every reason to challenge the will, appealing to the state of health of the deceased king and family bonds. Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I expressed deep concern about the ambitions of his brother Louis XIV. After all, if the combination of the sun-king were successful, France would become the owner of colossal territorial possessions in both Americas and Europe. Weighing the pros and cons, jealously watching the appetites of their old rival, the English government of Queen Anne also indicated extreme concern. Since these were times in which knightly honor was still remembered, it was considered literally mauvais ton to ignore such diplomatic demarches. To all calls to “moderate imperial ambitions”, the official Louvre responded with notes full of sophistication, the essence of which, upon closer examination, was reduced to “But you, gentlemen, would not go looking for truffles in the Bois de Boulogne!”
And then the floor was given to the cast-iron and copper diplomats, whose eloquence was measured by pounds of gunpowder and cannonballs.
Long road to the throne
Quite quickly, two coalitions were determined. The ambitions of Louis XIV were contested by Austria and England. Soon, the Netherlands, Portugal, Prussia, the Duchy of Savoy and a number of small "partners" decided to try their luck on the side of the offended. On the side of the “golden lilies”, the coat of arms of the French Bourbons, Spain proper fought, Bavaria, friendly to Paris, and several less significant allies. The fighting unfolded in several theaters: in Flanders, Spain and Italy. The struggle went on in the colonies and at sea. Possessing the most powerful army in Europe at that time, a strong fleet, France at first quite successfully fought off the pressing opponents. The problem was that it was the French troops that bore the brunt of the war in almost all directions. Exhausted by the rule of temporary workers under the feeble-minded Charles II, Spain was in an extremely distressed situation. She did not have a combat-ready army - there was no money for her, the once mighty fleet was dilapidated at the berths, the treasury was practically empty. Real military aid huge on the map, but essentially exhausted, the Spanish Empire could not help its ally. The forces of the remaining members of the French coalition were limited.
Gradually, military happiness began to leave Louis XIV. Dispersion of forces affected, internal tension grew. And most importantly, there was less and less of the main resource for waging war, about which another famous Frenchman of Corsican origin spoke about almost a hundred years later - money. The Sun King led a very active foreign policy, and a lot of resources were spent on various strategic adventures and projects. In the midst of the last in the reign of Louis and herself big war The French economy began to choke.
In Paris, they decided that the moment had come to search for "ways out of the impasse" and began to probe the possibility of a "peaceful settlement." However, the appetites of the opposite side were in no way inferior to the “kingdom of golden lilies”. Opponents of Louis demanded not only to clear all the territories occupied by his troops, to abandon the colonies in the West Indies, but also to send an army to Spain in order to expel his grandson from there. It was already too much. The old king rejected such humiliating conditions and decided to fight to the end. He addressed an appeal to the people, urging them to stand under the royal banners for the "honor of France." Thousands of volunteers joined the army. Additional recruiting kits were organized. By the beginning of the campaign in 1709, France was able to concentrate more than 100 thousand people in Flanders, the main military theater. At first, it was decided to entrust the command of the army to the aged Marshal Buffler, but he refused in favor of the junior in rank (that is, who received the title of Marshal of France after him) Duke Claude Louis Hector de Villars, the best commander of the king at that time.
Duke de Villars
Training
A son of his time, Villars had many of the virtues and vices of that era. Desperately brave, repeatedly personally leading the attacking troops, a talented strategist and tactician, the duke could without a twinge of conscience increase the losses of the enemy in a report, he liked to brag with or without reason. But who is not without sin? One way or another, the appointment of Villars as commander after his successful operations in the Duchy of Savoy, the army received with enthusiasm. After putting things in order, tightening discipline, often by harsh methods, the duke began active actions.
He was opposed by an allied army under the command of no less famous commanders - Sir John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough, and Prince Eugene of Savoy. These were the best military leaders of the anti-French coalition. The Allies laid siege to the strategically important fortress of Mons, the fall of which would open the way deep into France. The French command could not afford the fall of this key position. Villars began to advance his troops to Mons.
However, on September 9, having passed the town of Malplaquet, at the exit from the defile between the Sarsky and Lanier forests, the French stumbled upon enemy positions. Intelligence reported to the allies about the approach of Villar, so they occupied several villages on possible way his following and reinforced them with artillery. In addition, the combined Anglo-Austrian army, reinforced by the Dutch and Prussian contingents, outnumbered the French. Villars wanted to fight and therefore decided to stand in close proximity to the Allies besieging Mons, threatening his presence. Thus, he forced Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy to take the fight. There is a discrepancy in various sources as to why Villard was not attacked immediately. English historians say that Marlborough was eager to fight, but the representatives of the Republic of the United Provinces (or the Netherlands) begged him to wait for the arrival of additional forces. Another version points to Prince Eugene of Savoy, who called to wait for the Prussian detachment of General Lottum (23rd infantry battalion).
Schematic of the Battle of Malplaque
An important factor was the sortie of the garrison of Mons proper, encouraged by the approach of Villars. One way or another, but bogged down in “briefings and discussions, the allies gave Villar two whole days to set up positions. What a talented French marshal did not fail to take advantage of. The French army consisted of 120 infantry battalions, 260 cavalry squadrons and 80 guns. total strength up to 90 thousand people. During the pause, kindly presented to Villar by the allies, the French equipped three lines of earthen ramparts, reinforced with redoubts and notches. Artillery shot through the entire space in front of the positions. Part of it was put into reserve. The fortifications occupied three successive lines of infantry, followed by two lines of cavalry.
On the eve of the battle, the elderly Marshal Buffler arrived at the camp, whose appearance even more inspired the troops. The old man did not grumble and lecture Willar, but simply asked to participate in the case. The duke graciously instructed Buffler to command the troops on the right flank. Its core was 18 battalions of the elite Bourbon, Piedmontese and Royal brigades under the overall command of the 68-year-old Lieutenant General Pierre d'Artagnan-Montesquieu (cousin of the lieutenant commander of the "gray" royal musketeers, the same d'Artagnan). The center was commanded by the duke's brother, Lieutenant General Armand de Villars. The Guard was there. The left flank was given to the Marquis de Guesbriant. Enough infantry was left in reserve, whose combat effectiveness was beyond doubt: the Bavarian and Cologne Guards, the Irish Green (by the color of their uniforms) brigade, whose personnel were filled with hatred for the British, as well as other units. The cavalry was to play the role of a mobile fire brigade. The best regiments - the Bavarian Carabinieri, the Rottenburg regiment, the French "Maisons du Roi" - the duke decided to save for that very last resort. Subsequently, this helped the French to avoid complete defeat.
Allied commanders inspect the formation
French army soldiers
Allied Forces various sources indicate differently, but in any case they outnumbered the French. The most commonly cited figure is 117,000 men: 162 infantry battalions, 300 cavalry squadrons, and 120 guns. The national composition was even more motley than that of the French. This included English, Imperial (Austrian), Dutch, Prussian, Danish, Hanoverian battalions and squadrons. Plus contingents of small German states, which you can’t even see on the map.
Overall command was exercised by the Duke of Marlborough, "Corporal John", as the soldiers called him. He led the left flank, where it was planned to deliver a decisive blow. The left flank, whose function was to get on the nerves of the French, diverting their attention from the main direction, was commanded by the no less famous Eugene of Savoy.
The Allies understood that they were facing a well-equipped, tough position. It was decided, inflicting distracting blows on the center and right flank, in the meantime to go around and crush the left flank, to overturn the French. Villars, on the other hand, hoped that, relying on his redoubts with guns, he would be able to bleed and exhaust the enemy, so that later he could try to counterattack.
Battle
The British attack
Both sides prepared for battle. Both sides were waiting for him. At 3 o'clock on September 11, 1709, under the cover of thick fog, the troops of Marlborough and Eugene of Savoy began to deploy for the attack. The starting positions were occupied. At 07:15, when the fog finally lifted, the Allied artillery opened fire. Aiming was carried out approximately, so the effectiveness of the shelling of the protected French positions was negligible. After half an hour of burning gunpowder, the Allied column, consisting of 36 battalions under the command of the Saxon General Schulenburg, launched an attack around the enemy's left flank. This first, trial, attack was repulsed by concentrated fire. French artillery, which intensively used buckshot. Did not bring progress and a few repeated attacks.
Seeing the futility of the attempts, Prince Eugene of Savoy gives the order to put forward additional batteries for direct fire, since the number of allied artillery allowed. The guns were supposed to clear the way for the attacking infantry. Villard also responds to requests for help by strengthening the left flank with units from the reserve. The intensity of the cannonade increases. Frustrated by the unsuccessful attempts to outflank the French flank, Prince Eugene has already concentrated more than 70 infantry battalions, and by noon Schulenburg and Lotum manage to finally outflank the enemy’s left flank. A large concentration of forces played its role. Four French brigades, already bled dry by a long defense, were forced to leave their positions and withdraw.
Villars, having received a report of pressure on the left flank, reacted dynamically and quickly. It was clear that we are talking about the integrity of the entire defensive line. Infantry from the reserve is advanced to the threatening sector, battalions are withdrawn from less dangerous directions. The duke himself also came here to personally lead the battle. Leading the counterattack was the Irish Brigade, whose fighting impulse increased from the realization that it was the British that were in front of them. The blow of the infantry against the attacking columns of the allies was supplemented by the swift onslaught of the guards cavalry, and the positions were returned, the British overturned. It was one of the key moments of the battle. Orderlies hurried to Marlborough and Prince Eugene with requests for help, that the French fire was too accurate and strong, and the positions were fortified.
However, as happened more than once in world history, both before and after that, a stray fragment of the core made adjustments to historical reality. The Duke of Villars was wounded in the leg and had to be carried into the depths of the ranks. The French attack bogged down and did not continue. Command was assumed by Marshal Buffler, who began to quickly return the troops that had participated in the counterattack to their previous positions - whatever one may say, but the superiority of the Allies in numbers affected. Eugene of Savoy, seeing that the center of the enemy was weakened, transferred the pressure on him. No less than 15 battalions of English infantry became the spade that was driven into the gap between the center and the left flank of the French. The gap under the influence of artillery expanded. The units holding the defense here were overturned and forced to retreat. Prince Eugene immediately took advantage of this and placed in this place artillery battery, which began to smash the positions of the French army with longitudinal fire.
The Duke of Marlborough, meanwhile, tirelessly attacked the right flank. General d'Artagnan-Montesquieu, under whom three horses were killed, fought with almost three times the enemy's strength with true Gascon courage and bravery. From the persistent requests of the staff officers to take care of themselves and move away from the first line, the old general brushed aside and joked about " new fashion on wigs ruffled by bullets. The columns of the Dutch, attacking under the command of the Prince of Orange, were swept away by the French with volleys of buckshot almost point-blank. Mountains of corpses piled up in front of the redoubts of the brigades of the cousin of the captain of the musketeers. But the general situation began to tilt in favor of the allies. The French line trembled. Eugene of Savoy was preparing forces for the final attack, which, according to his plan, was to decide the outcome of the battle. Concentrating fresh squadrons of heavy cavalry like the tip of a spear, the prince commanded the attack.
The Earl of Orkney's column under fire
The most dramatic moment of the battle had come. At first, the French managed to somehow restrain the onslaught of such a mass of cavalry, but the outcome of the case was decided by the column of Major General George Douglas-Hamilton, Earl of Orkney 1st, consisting of 15 battalions of infantry, transferred to Marlborough at the request of Eugene of Savoy. Having suffered huge losses, she was the first to break into the depths of the French center, already weakened by continuous attacks and artillery fire. Allied cavalry poured into the gap that had formed. In this situation, Marshal Buffler was forced to order a retreat. Hiding behind the counterattacks of the heavy guards cavalry, prudently reserved by Villars for the most extreme case, the French army retreated in relative order, snarling and without panic. Having suffered heavy losses, the Allies pursued them listlessly and without enthusiasm.
By evening, the massacre, which had lasted all day, was over. The battlefield was left to the allies. The Battle of Malplac went down in history as the largest battle of the 18th century, where more than 200 thousand people participated on both sides, supported by almost 200 guns. The losses of the allies were simply huge - numerous frontal attacks against the French fortifications cost the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene of Savoy, according to various estimates, from 25 to 30 thousand people. French losses are estimated at half that: 12-14 thousand.
After battle
Formally, the tactical victory went to the allies. They managed to force the French to retreat, leaving their positions. The fortress of Mons capitulated a month later, without waiting for the assault. However, a closer look at the results of the battle reveals a slightly different situation. The French army was not defeated. She retained all her artillery - only 16 guns were lost. The enemy was drained of blood and suppressed by losses and abandoned the offensive deep into France. Wounded Villars was filled with optimism. In a letter to Louis XIV, he cheerfully rapped: "Don't worry, sir, a few more such defeats and your enemies will be destroyed."
Sarah Churchill
The Battle of Malplac was the last battle fought by the Duke of Marlborough. "Brave Corporal John" was recalled to England. It happened under very curious circumstances. Sarah Churchill, the Duke's wife, was Queen Anne's confidante. She was also the spokeswoman for the Tory party, who advocated the war to a victorious end. It so happened that the queen ordered fashionable gloves from a well-known milliner. Her friend, the Duchess Churchill, not wanting to give in, ordered exactly the same. In an effort to be the first to get the desired detail of the toilet, the duchess constantly urged the milliner, who was forced to complain through the mediation of familiar ladies-in-waiting to the queen. She, having learned about the tricks of her friend, was furious. Sarah Churchill remained Anna's confidante, but from that moment on, the Duchess's star began to steadily dim. The Duke of Marlborough was recalled from the continent, and the Whig party, which advocated the idea of a "constructive dialogue with France", took over at court.
Marshal d'Artagnan
Valor at Malplac brought the long-awaited marshal's baton to Pierre d'Artagnan, who from then on referred to himself only as Montesquieu, in order to avoid confusion with the illustrious cousin. The Duke of Villars, who had recovered from his wound, again stood at the head of the French army, so that in 1712, personally leading the attacking troops, he would utterly defeat Eugene of Savoy in the battle of Denen.
Villard at Denen
This brought additional points to Louis XIV during the peace negotiations that ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which ended this long and bloody war. The grandson of Louis XIV remained on the Spanish throne, but renounced his claims to the French throne. So a new royal dynasty of the Spanish Bourbons appeared. Centuries passed, the winds of revolutions swept away the French monarchy, became the history of the 1st and 2nd Empires, a series of republics passed, and King Philip VI of the Bourbon dynasty still rules in Madrid, whose ancestors received the right to the throne largely on the blood-soaked fields near small town of Malplaque.
In the photo: Battle of Denen (1712). Painting by Jean Alo
Causes of the War of the Spanish Succession
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) is the largest European conflict that began in 1701 after the death of the childless king of Spain, Charles II of Habsburg, whose power extended to the Old and New Worlds.
Before his death, he bequeathed his crown to his great-nephew, Philip of Anjou, who was the grandson of .
Strengthened in this way, France did not suit many other European rulers, who also had views of the Spanish inheritance. Philip of Anjou would later become Philip V of Spain.
Sasha Mitrahovich 26.11.2017 08:24
The Spanish inheritance was claimed by European monarchs who had offspring from marriage alliances with Spanish princesses: the main contender was the French king Louis XIV of Bourbon, who hoped to get the Spanish crown to his grandson Philip of Anjou (the future king Philip V of Spain), then came the Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I Habsburg, who proposed his son Archduke Charles as a candidate for the Spanish throne, and the third contender was the young Bavarian prince Joseph Ferdinand, grandson of Emperor Leopold.
England and Holland, seeking to use the beginning of the decline of Spain in their own interests and to prevent the strengthening of the Holy Roman Empire and France, insisted on the division of Spanish possessions. At first it was supposed to resolve the controversial issue amicably, through negotiations. However, the contradictions were too great, diplomacy reached a dead end.
Sasha Mitrahovich 26.11.2017 08:25
On September 7, 1701, England, Holland and the Holy Roman Empire made an alliance against the Frenchman Louis XIV; many other countries later joined this union. On the side of France, a modest coalition of not the most powerful Spain and several German electors acted.
The war was fought simultaneously in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, and also on the seas, and became especially tense after the death of Leopold I. Most of the major clashes ended in victory for the opponents of Louis XIV. And only at the final stage of France was successful.
Sasha Mitrahovich 26.11.2017 08:27
The War of the Spanish Succession ended with the signing of the peace treaties of 1713-1714.
As a result of the war, the huge Spanish Empire was divided, it finally lost the status of a great power, and the result of the war was a significant weakening of France, which dominated Europe in the second half of the 17th century. Philip V of Bourbon was left with Spain with its colonies, but with the condition that his heirs refuse to claim the French crown.
The Austrian Habsburgs acquired Spanish possessions in the Netherlands and Italy. England, as always, achieved the most significant successes: she acquired lands that were important for strengthening her maritime and colonial power.
Sasha Mitrahovich 26.11.2017 08:28
Oscar Jaeger.
The World History. In 4 t.
T. 3. New story. In 7 books.
St. Petersburg: Special literature, 1997-1999.
Book VII
Chapter I
War of the Spanish Succession and the Peace of Utrecht
War of the Spanish Succession
Death of Charles II of Spain, 1700 Question of succession
On November 1, 1700, the moment finally arrived, which the European sovereigns, who had claims to the Spanish throne, had been waiting for with trepidation. Charles II died only thirty-nine years old and left no descendants. He succeeded his father, Philip IV, in 1665. Naturally in poor health, he could not be a long-liver, and even his marriage to a German princess was childless. And now the question of succession to the throne began to worry many in earnest. Philip IV had two sisters: Anna - married to Louis XIII of France, and Maria Anna - wife of Emperor Ferdinand III. From marriage to Louis XIII, Louis XIV was born, and from marriage to Ferdinand, Leopold I. his rights to the paternal throne, but the whole world, including the Spaniards, knew that Louis XIV did not for a moment attach the slightest importance to this act of his wife, moreover, her refusal was not approved by the Spanish Cortes.
The accession of Spain to one or another power was to give the latter such a significant advantage over others that the tension in which all of Europe was at the time of the death of Charles II of Spain is quite understandable. William III of England, also, by virtue of his good relations to Louis XIV (after the Treaty of Rizvik), wished to take part in the division of a large inheritance, which could fall to his share. His ambassador and favorite, Wilhelm Bentinck, Duke of Partland, managed to bring this matter to a successful conclusion: And in October 1698, an agreement was held in The Hague on the participation in the Spanish heritage of three states: France, the States General and England. According to this agreement, the distant heir to the Spanish throne, the son of a daughter born from the marriage of Leopold I and Margaret Theresa of Spain, Prince Joseph Ferdinand of Bavaria, was to get Spain, India and the Netherlands. To the Archduke Charles, the second son of the emperor, Milan; and to France, Naples, Sicily, and several places in the Pyrenees. Charles II himself was prompted to sign a will in favor of the young prince, but fate decided otherwise: in 1699, Joseph Ferdinand, then still a child, died of smallpox. Then Louis once again extended the hand of reconciliation to his allies and in 1700 concluded a new agreement with England and the Netherlands: Spain and the Netherlands were to go to the second archduke, Milan to the Duke of Lorraine, who, on the other hand, had to give up, in favor of France, from his possessions , Naples and Sicily - to the Dauphin of France. Together they demanded the participation of Austria, but neither Austria nor Spain herself wanted to know anything about this division. No matter how lately the power of the Spaniards has fallen, but not only for them, but also for neighboring lands, it was a shame that this state was disposed of so unceremoniously, as if it were completely powerless and devoid of any significance. However, the Spaniards themselves could not but realize that they no longer had the strength to fight numerous enemies, and therefore, involuntarily, they came to the only, relatively still tolerable, way out of predicament: Recognize France's right to the Spanish throne. Charles II himself, as a weak and sickly person, naturally had to prefer the French to the Austrian pressure, as the most dear to him and desired by the unity of spiritual harmony between the two peoples: both the French and the Spaniards were Catholics. At the request of the patient himself, Pope Innocent XIII approved with his own signature the rights of the French royal house to the Spanish throne, but, however, so that the size of the possessions remained unchanged. Thus, a month later, the closest relative of the heir of the late Charles II, the second son of the Dauphin, the Duke of Anjou, turned out to be the king of Spain, a month later.
Testament of Charles II
The Spaniards were very pleased with this resolution of the question, which was terrible for them, and Louis XIV did not consider it necessary to indulge in long reflection, therefore, when on November 10, 1700 the Spanish courier arrived in Paris with an official paper from his government, the 12th king himself congratulated his grandson, became king of Spain. On January 23, 1701, the newly elected King Philip V was already on the border of his new possessions, and in April he solemnly entered Madrid.
France and the emperor. War
The general opinion was that the French and Spaniards did not get along, and meanwhile, the latter very peacefully obeyed the requirements of the former. So, for example, in the Spanish Netherlands, the fortresses were calmly occupied by the French garrison, and the stadtholder, Elector Max Emmanuel of Bavaria, for his part, even joined the French, but now in the rank of "Reichsprince" (imperial prince), his brother followed his example, Joseph Clement of Cologne, who was at enmity with the emperor and hoped for the help of the French to strengthen his power. The Dukes of Wolfenbüttel, the Duke of Savoy and Mantua also sided with France. For his part, the emperor also gathered his friends around him. He was joined: in Upper Germany, all the petty sovereigns and imperial cities, in Northern Germany - the House of Hanover and the new Elector Georg Ludwig. But the most important thing was that the most influential of all the German sovereigns, the Elector of Brandenburg, also took the side of the emperor, especially since the news of the death of Charles II came to Vienna on November 16, that is, on the very day when it was the condition of renaming Prussia into a kingdom was signed. But the most important question was in what the maritime powers would do: England and the Netherlands.
Maritime powers
In the first minute, they both recognized France's right to the Spanish throne, as well as Philip V - the king of Spain, but Holland could not help but fear for her interests when such powerful powers as France and Spain merged together. King Wilhelm was also not particularly pleased with this turn of affairs: he believed that Louis, so to speak, had violated his condition with him. But in his state, opinions were divided: parliament had already disagreed with him more than once, which even took advantage of the death of Gloucester, the only one of the sons of Princess Anne who was still alive, in order to further weaken the king's importance. The House of Hanover was called to the throne, i.e. the offspring of the first “princess” Sophia, the daughter of the former king of Bohemia and Elizabeth Stuart, and it was an indispensable condition that the English king belonged to the Anglican faith, so that he would never leave his possessions without the permission of Parliament, that all his governmental affairs be subject to discussion by a privy council, that only parliament itself should have the right to depose judges. But the lust for power and too great audacity of the parliamentary authorities had already aroused the people against themselves, and not at all peaceful rumors began to arise among the people. Many of the freeholders of the county of Kent jointly submitted even a kind of petition in this spirit. This was only an isolated case, but Wilhelm III and his closest assistant, Heintzius, had long understood the sad state of affairs that arose from the general dissatisfaction with the actions of parliament and representatives of the upper privileged classes.
End of William III's reign
On September 17, 1701, James II died in the Faubourg Saint-Germain of Paris. last years he enjoyed there the hospitality of the French king and devoted himself exclusively to the salvation of the soul in the circle of the Trappists, the strictest society of monks, which was founded in 1662. Even during the life of James II, Louis XIV expressed his intention to make his son king of England, and as soon as this monk-king closed his eyes forever, James III was proclaimed king of England, Scotland and Ireland. It is curious to note that in haste no one thought how terrible the expression “... and the French king” should now sound in the general title - one of the obligatory titles english kings. Wilhelm III, deeply indignant, dissolved the old parliament and convened a new one, the sixth in his reign. In September 1701, a coalition (alliance, agreement) took place in The Hague between England, Holland and Emperor Leopold I against France, and in April Wilhelm himself wanted to become the head of the army in the Netherlands, but death prevented him. He fell off his horse while hunting, which is why he died on March 8, 1702. As usual, this supremely valiant man and sovereign received a proper assessment in history only much later. Like all people who take to heart everything good and honest, everything high and beautiful, Wilhelm III kept himself extremely independent and, following his duty and the voice of conscience, cared little about how it would be looked at. Such a life undermined his health, but he, already sick, died accidental death. According to the acts of 1689, he was succeeded by the second daughter from the first marriage of James II - Anna (1702-1714).
War. Queen Anne, 1702
For twelve whole years the War of the Spanish Succession continued, and all of Southern and Western Europe took part in it. France had the advantage that her troops were more cohesive and had to experience less movement than the military forces of other powers. Its army is estimated at approximately 200,000 people, with a population of 15,000,000. The places of action during this war were either Italian, or German, or Dutch possessions. In order to better understand the course of hostilities, we will consider them in each country in turn.
Campaign of 1702
The military operations of the French in Italy were of little success. This time, on the part of the Austrians, there was such a brave and experienced commander, with whom at that time no one could equal. It was Prince Eugene of Savoy, who had a particularly strong influence on the victory of Christians over the Turks. Eugene's mother, the niece of the famous Cardinal Mazarin, and the cardinal himself predicted him to be spiritual, but from childhood, Eugene did not show the slightest inclination to that. King Louis XIV himself refused young man permission to go to military service, to which, on the contrary, he had a strong desire. Then Eugene left France and attracted everyone's attention with his exploits near Vienna, during the invasion of the Turks in 1683. The war with the Turks was, so to speak, a school for him, and in between he served in Italy (1688), where in 1691 he was made commandant of Turin, and in 1693 he was promoted to field marshal general. During his victorious advances against the Turkish hordes, Duke Charles of Lorraine presented him to the emperor as the most incomparable commander of that century. The dexterity and originality of his military techniques are especially remarkable in the Italian campaign. Instead of going, like the French, along travel roads, Eugene of Savoy led his detachments, with the help of mountain dwellers, along an unpaved path and took the French army by surprise, which, under the command of Marshal Catinat, was defeated in the Verona plain and lost important position under the Carpi.
Catina retreated in order to keep at least Milan behind him, but at that time the king, dissatisfied with him, handed over command of the troops to Villeroy, who, by the highest order, gave battle to the Prince of Savoy. The troops converged at Chiari (Chiari), east of Adda, and the French marshal, utterly defeated, was himself captured, which, however, was not particularly beneficial for the winners, since he was replaced by the Duke of Vendôme, a very capable and enterprising. The battle of Luzzara ended somehow indefinitely, but the French managed to keep Mantua and Milan behind them, while the Austrians were joined by several small possessions, such as Modena and Mirandula.
Italy. Netherlands
War broke out in the Netherlands in 1702. William was succeeded here by the Duke of Marlborough, a man with a brilliant military talent, but not particularly devoted to William III, while under Queen Anne he became the head of the Whig party and enjoyed her full confidence. With his wife, Lady Marlborough, the queen was in the closest friendship.
It was not difficult to pacify the North German princes - supporters of France, and then some important points in the Dutch possessions, such as, for example: Venlo, Roermond, Luttich, were in the power of the allies. The combined troops of the latter (i.e., England, the Netherlands and Brandenburg) amounted to a total of 60,000 people.
Germany, 1703
It was only in 1703 that especially vigorous hostilities began in Germany. Here the French had a powerful ally in the person of Elector Maximilian Emmanuel of Bavaria, who, along with exorbitant ambition, also possessed remarkable military abilities. In May 1703, the French army, under the leadership of Villard, joined with the troops of the Elector, and both leaders agreed among themselves to take possession of Tyrol and, thus, unite with the French troops in Italy.
In addition, the Elector still had in mind to keep these lands for himself, and the French would have nothing against this. At the head of a 12,000-strong army, Maximilian of Bavaria marched up the Inn, to Kufstein, Rattenberg and Innspruck. Complaints against the government were heard everywhere, and the elector, without hesitation, promised everyone that life would be better for them under his care. However, this was not to the liking of the masses of the people: the elector and his troops were greeted with hostile cries, stones were thrown at them from the fortifications and from the city walls. The Duke of Vendôme was denied access to South Tyrol; the elector could not connect with him either, and retained only Kufstein behind him in Tyrol. The war was thus transferred to the soil of Bavaria. Strong detachments were advancing from Swabia under the leadership of Margrave Ludwig of Baden, but Max Emmanuel still did not want to negotiate peace, to which his brothers, the rest of the sovereigns and allies, persuaded him.
Having defeated the Austrian general Styrum at Gegstedt on the Danube, the elector took Augsburg, and the margrave retreated again. Just as the Tyrolean population hindered his success in this country, so the emperor himself was hindered in his plans by an uprising in Hungary, headed by a certain Rakoci. But in France, too, the masses of the people made themselves felt, and even at the very time when Louis XIV was sure that the strength of his sovereign power was forever firmly established. An insignificant part of the Protestants who still remained in the mountains of Languedoc - Cevennes, aroused the entire local population against the nobles and Catholics, ruthlessly repaying the latter for the cruelties that the Protestants had to endure from them. Only in 1703, with the help of the army, was it possible to suppress the erupted passions of the oppressed and their supporters.
Battle of Göchstedt, 1704
In addition, in 1703 there was another very significant event: the coalition was joined, in May, by the King of Portugal, and in October by the Duke of Savoy, and in November, Emperor Leopold I solemnly proclaimed his second son, Archduke Charles, King of Spain, in Vienna, in the same year 1703.
The next year was especially successful for the allies, despite the fact that its beginning was marked by an unpleasant and dangerous event for them: in January 1704, the energetic and fearless Elector of Bavaria took Passau and, with the help of French money, supported the Hungarian uprising, which they came to the aid of in the spring French armed detachments in the amount of 8,000 infantry and 2,500 cavalry, led by Marzen. The elector could indeed have had high hopes, since in this place the imperial defensive forces could not be compared with him. However, he was not destined to triumph. The imperial troops, which were under the control of two field marshals, were mainly led by one of them, Eugene of Savoy, and he succeeded in such a clever and cunning trick that the advantage was on the side of the Austrians. The Duke of Marlborough, who led the troops in the Netherlands, managed to deceive the French with Villar at the head, then he headed for Maastricht, Cologne, Koblenz, as if referring to the siege of one of the cities at the Moselle - for example, Trier, but from there he turned east, to Neckar, Mainz, Heilbronn, and finally, in June 1704, successfully connected at Geislingen with the troops of the emperor, commanded by the Margrave of Baden. The first military case in which they acted as a united force took place with the fortifications that the Elector of Bavaria erected on Schellenberg, near Donauwörth, who counted on them as a reliable stronghold in the event of an enemy attack. But his calculation was not justified: the city was taken and Louis XIV hastened to send his German ally 26,000 troops from among his Upper Rhine army, under the command of Marshal Tallard. Having successfully crossed the Black Forest, Tallar joined up with the elector at Augsburg. But Eugene of Savoy had already managed to attach his army to the army of Marlborough at Donauwörth. Without hesitation, together they continued offensive actions, the result of which was a brilliant victory at Lutzingen, Gegstedt and Blenheim, August 13, 1704. This battle is known as the Gögstadt or Blenheim battle, since these areas were equally close to the battlefield. The united Austro-British troops numbered 50,000, and there were the same number of Bavarian-French troops, but a good 15,000 of them were taken prisoner, and up to 20,000 people were killed and wounded. Among the prisoners of war was also Marshal Tallar, who was beyond the power of the duty assigned to him. The cities of Augsburg, Regensburg and Passau also fell under the authority of the emperor, and the elector had to completely leave his lands, and which the Austrian government began to dispose of. Together with the French, the elector moved to the left bank of the Rhine, and then to the Netherlands. France lost Landau; she now had to seriously fear for her own boundaries. Both Austrian commanders, as well as the Duke of Lorraine, stood for the attack on France itself. On their side was the emperor himself, the successor of his august father, Leopold I - Joseph I, who granted the winner at Blenheim, the Duke of Marlborough, the high and rarely bestowed dignity of "imperial prince" ("Reichsfurst").
Emperor Joseph I, 1705
However, things did not come to such a decisive attack on France. The French managed not only to strengthen their border possessions, but also to pacify the Protestant revolt in the Cevennes. In addition, the Duke of Baden, who enjoyed considerable authority in Germany, was against this plan, and the Duke of Marlborough, who was instructed to attack Villars, who was encamped at Sierk (Sierk, Mosel), did not take up this matter and returned to the Netherlands. And the emperor himself did not particularly defend his former plan, since in his possessions he had many worries about the Hungarian uprising, as well as with the Bavarian turmoil: his authorities positively did not get along with the population of Bavaria.
Ramigli and Turin, 1706
As unfortunate as 1705 was for the Allies, so successful were their affairs in 1706.
In the Netherlands, Marlborough, returning from the Moselle, pushed the French back, and in May 1706 Villeroy crossed the Dyle and north of Namur, at Ramilly, gave battle on the 23rd of the Duke of Marlborough, who himself sought it. The forces of the opponents were equal: on both sides there were approximately 60,000 people, but Villeroy chose his position unsuccessfully and therefore was defeated. He had to lose about a third of his troops, he was forced to retreat behind Lys, while major cities like Mecheln, Brussels, Ghent and Bruges were taken by the Allies. Charles III was universally proclaimed king of Spain and ruler of the Netherlands. In Italy, too, everything went as well as possible, although at first the French troops prevailed there, taking from Eugene of Savoy (since 1703 - an ally of the emperor) one after another several fortified points. They even laid siege to Turin, and for the whole of 1705 the Prince of Savoy could not succeed against them. But in the summer of 1706, reinforcements arrived from Germany - the Palatinate and Saxony - and Brandenburg troops led by Prince Leopold of Dessau, and thus, with his last 13,000 people, the Duke of Savoy still defended Turin. The failures of the best of the commanders of Louis XIV, the Duke of Vendôme, forced this sovereign to recall him to the northern troops, and in his place to appoint the Prince of the Blood, the Duke of Orleans, to Italy, to whom, in addition, a commander of a not particularly decisive nature was sent as an adviser - Marshal Marzen . Not resisting the advance of the Austrian army, they waited for her in the fortifications of Turin.
On September 7, 1706, under a hail of bullets, the Prussian detachments went on the attack twice, without flinching, and on the third broke into the fortress, forcing the French to retreat. The right wing and the center of the fortification soon fell into the power of the Allies, but when the Austrian cavalry appeared inside the fortress, the French retreat turned into a disorderly flight. The victors took 7,000 prisoners, including the wounded Marshal Marzen. This brilliant victory over the mighty French power produced grandiose results. The Duke of Savoy was returned to his possessions, Charles III was declared and recognized as the Duke of Milan, and the French troops were to leave Italy and clear all the positions they had occupied, following their complete general surrender, which ensured their unhindered return to their homeland in March 1707. In July of the same year, a significant army headed by Count Down took possession of Naples for Charles III, who was forced to recognize his authority over himself.
War in Spain
The Archduke himself had been on Spanish territory since March 1704. Here the advantage was on the side of the Anglo-Dutch fleet against the French-Spanish. In May 1702, the allies took possession of the “silver” Spanish fleet, which returned from Mexico to the harbor of Vigo, in Galicia, however, this victory did not bring any special benefits to the Austrians, since the cargo belonged mainly to German and Dutch merchants. The King of Portugal did not hesitate to join the allies, and in March 1704, 12,000 English and Dutch landed on the Portuguese coast, and then the Spanish anti-king, Carlos III, appeared in Lisbon. In August of the same year, the British succeeded in a very clever and profitable trick: their sailors climbed onto the ledges of the Cape of Gibraltar, where it was most convenient to climb them, and frightened the peaceful coastal inhabitants, who did not defend themselves in horror and only read prayers. All the efforts of the Portuguese again to seize this important point were in vain. In the same 1704, Lord Peterborough took Barcelona, which did not cost him much effort, since Philip V played too much of himself as a Castilian, and this offended the popular feeling of the Catalans, who, along with Aragon and Valence, recognized Carlos III as their king. In the summer of 1706, allies moved from Portugal and Aragon to the capital of Spain - Madrid. Philip was forced to leave it, and in June the Portuguese entered it, plunging the people into unimaginable horror. The Castilians alone remained loyal to Philip, and with their help, with Marshal Berwick (the illegitimate son of James II) at the head, King Philip V again entered Madrid, to the great joy of the population, who already saw in his very name the guarantee of the prosperity of their fatherland. The more far-sighted English commanders did not hide their fears that the Allied claims were unlikely to be fully successful. Charles III could stay in Barcelona, but that was all: his Spanish affairs did not go further than this, and meanwhile, the heart of the Spanish people belonged entirely to Philip.
Military action in 1707
The great hopes that were pinned on all sides for the next year, 1707, however, did not come true. The English fleet and the German-Piedmontese troops, led by Eugene of Savoy, besieged Toulon by sea and by land, attaching particular importance to this important point, from the conquest of which the British expected very important consequences. However, it turned out that France was invulnerable from this side: the neighboring provinces were preparing to repel the invasion and the British were forced to retreat. But the French, in turn, failed to invade Germany. They thought of taking advantage of the moment when Margrave Ludwig of Baden died, and this led to a very characteristic argument about who should be appointed to his high post as commander-in-chief of the imperial army: a Catholic or a Protestant? This issue was resolved in favor of the oldest margrave in years - Bayreuth. However, he was unable to fight such a bold and dexterous opponent as Marshal Villard; he was even forced out of the so-called "Stalhofer Lines" (fortifications), erected by Margrave Ludwig near Rastadt, but still the French left with nothing, since their plan to connect with the king of Sweden for joint actions failed.
- A) July 1712, the battle of Denen;
- B) 1713 Peace of Utrecht between France and Spain on the one hand, and England, Holland, Prussia, Savoy, Portugal on the other hand;
- C) 1714 Rastatt peace treaty between France and the "Holy Roman Empire".
- On April 17, 1711, the death of the childless Joseph I and the election of Archduke Charles to the German throne under the name of Charles VI created a real threat of concentration in the same hands of all the possessions of the Habsburg house in Europe and America and the restoration of the empire of Charles V, which went against the national interests of Great Britain. The British government entered into secret negotiations with France. Great Britain informed its allies about the Anglo-French negotiations.
In January 1912, the mission of Eugene of Savoy to London to prevent an agreement was unsuccessful. A peace congress opened in Utrecht with the participation of France, Great Britain, Holland, Savoy, Portugal, Prussia and a number of other states. Austria continued to conduct hostilities against France.
from April 11, 1713 to February 6, 1715 the signing of a series of treaties between the allies (except Austria) and France (Peace of Utrecht): Philip V was recognized as king.
Spain and its overseas possessions, subject to the renunciation of his and his heirs from the rights to the French throne; Spain ceded Sicily to the Duchy of Savoy, and Great Britain ceded Gibraltar and the island of Menorca, giving it also the right to the monopoly sale of African slaves in its American colonies; France gave the British a number of possessions in North America (Nova Scotia, the islands of St. Christopher and New Foundland) and pledged to tear down the fortifications of Dunkirk; Prussia acquired Geldern and the county of Neuchâtel, Portugal - some territories in the Amazon valley; Holland received equal rights with England in trade with France.
The conclusion of the Rastadt peace. Charles VI recognized the transition of the Spanish crown to the Bourbons, receiving for this a significant part of the European possessions of Spain - the Kingdom of Naples, the Duchy of Milan, the Spanish Netherlands and Sardinia; France returned the fortresses she had captured on the right bank of the Rhine, but retained all her former territorial acquisitions in Alsace and the Netherlands; the Bavarian and Cologne electors received back their possessions.
A) The Battle of Denenas took place on July 24, 1712, becoming part of the War of the Spanish Succession, and fixing the victory of the French Marshal de Villars over the Austrian and Dutch troops under the command of Eugene of Savoy.
Eugene crossed the river Scheldt with 105,000 troops, intending to give battle to Villars with his 120,000 soldiers.
He quickly marched to the city of Denen and occupied it, gaining commanding heights and a supply base. However, the strengthening of the Austrian Empire was not in the sphere of interests of England, because of which the widespread withdrawal of British troops from the allied command began. These actions led to the slowdown of the further offensive.
Villard took advantage of his advantages before attacking Eugene's army. Using artillery and snipers, he was able to bring chaos to enemy formations.
Only then did the French advance. The Allied army was outnumbered by the enemy. The Austrians on the right flank had fewer losses than the Dutch, between whom and the French there was a real massacre. However, the French offensive was repelled with the help of reserve detachments.
The French were subjected to three Austrian counterattacks, which were repulsed. The French were able to free Denin by pushing the enemy troops across the river.
B) Utrecht Peace - common name a number of peace treaties concluded in Utrecht in 1713: Franco-English, Franco-Dutch, Franco-Prussian, etc.
Completed, along with the Rastatt Peace of 1714, the War of the Spanish Succession.
The Peace of Utrecht, which put an end to the War of the Spanish Succession, was concluded on April 11, 1713. Negotiations began as early as February 1712 and continued for a whole year. The treaty took place, on the one hand, between France and Spain, and on the other, England, the United Provinces, Prussia, and Savoy. On April 14, Portugal signed the treaty.
The additions to the treaty were treatises between England and Spain - July 13, 1713, between Spain and Savoy - August 13. 1713, between Spain and Holland - June 26, 1714, between Spain and Portugal - February 6. 1715 U. treaty restored peace in Europe and resolved (together with the Treaty of Rastad) the question of succession in Spain.
Austria did not take part in the negotiations. Under the terms of the treaty, England received Gibraltar and Port Mahon from Philip V, who was recognized as the legitimate king of Spain and India and renounced his rights to the French throne.
From France, she got transatlantic possessions in Nova Scotia (Acadia, Newfoundland and Hudson Bay). Louis XIV undertook to tear down the fortifications of Dunkirchen. In addition, England concluded an advantageous treaty with Spain, which granted her the exclusive right to sell 5,000 Negroes in Spanish India. Holland, in addition to some relief in trade relations, received a number of Belgian fortresses - Menin, Ipern, Tournai. Savoy with Piedmont and Sicily was declared a kingdom. In the power of the Duke of Savoy, the possessions given to him under the Treaty of Turin were left.
His dynasty was recognized as having the right to the Spanish throne in the event of the suppression of the family of Philip V. Prussia received Geldern.
C) The Peace of Rastatt of 1714 was concluded on March 7 in Rastatt (South Baden) between France and the "Holy Roman Empire" (Emperor Charles VI of Habsburg); one of the treaties that ended the War of the Spanish Succession. The main terms of the Treaty of Rastatt are similar to those of the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. The emperor was forced to recognize Philip V of Bourbon's right to the Spanish crown, but a significant part of the "Spanish inheritance" passed to the Austrian Habsburg monarchy: the Spanish Netherlands, Northern Italy with Milan, the Kingdom of Naples, part of Tuscany, Sardinia France was to return Breisach and other cities captured by her on the right bank of the Rhine, and destroy her Rhine fortifications. The terms of the Rastatt peace were approved by the congress of German princes in Baden.
By and large, the Rastatt peace treaty was, in fact, part of the Utrecht peace that ended the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714), signed between France and Austria. During the years 1713-1714, this treaty was prepared by Marshal of France Claude Louis Hector de Villars and the Austrian Prince Eugene of Savoy.
In particular, this treaty ended the feud between King Louis XIV and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, which continued after the conflict was resolved in other respects.