"What is a person? What is his nature, essence, purpose? What determines the meaning and value of human life? What are the cardinal problems of human existence? How is the fate of humanism today? What is the specificity of the philosophical comprehension of a person? These and other similar questions that determine the content philosophical and anthropological thought, are today in the focus of attention of many scientists. "[Gurevich, 1988, p. 504]

"An active interest in the problem of man as a whole is due, first of all, to the need of a particular individual to constantly solve life problems that arise in the context of his daily existence. Catastrophic destruction of the natural environment, impoverishment of the familiar landscape, the unexpected spread of the latest pandemics that threaten to devastate the Earth, nuclear weapons- all this gives rise to a feeling of total insecurity of people's lives, the possible death of all mankind. This situation undoubtedly encourages reflection, attempts to understand the current reality. "[Gurevich, 1988, p. 504] "Philosophical thinking about a person is even more encouraged by worldview and cognitive factors. Modern biology, psychology, cultural studies, history, ethnography have accumulated a lot of conflicting information that requires generalization and philosophical reflection. "[Gurevich, 1988, p. 505] "The concept of philosophical anthropology is polysemic. These words designate the most diverse and sometimes incomparable shades of metaphysical thought. It is difficult to judge the criteria that would allow for the necessary demarcations. In defining the subject matter of philosophical anthropology, two difficulties immediately arise. It is extremely difficult to isolate the actual anthropological theme in the complex of philosophical knowledge.

Thinking about a person captures the widest range of problems. This spectrum is practically inexhaustible. As a result, almost all philosophical plots are drawn into the orbit of philosophical and anthropological thought. Her own space becomes boundless. "[Gurevich, 1995, p. 92] "Not every anthropological topic acquires the status of philosophical and anthropological. In order for philosophical thought to be recognized as human, some preconditions are needed. But what are they? Perhaps it is assumed that the idea is built into a certain integral anthropological framework? Or must a philosopher first declare himself as an anthropologically oriented thinker? Perhaps the comprehension itself should be epoch-making, reveal the essence of man, and not express the particularity of human nature? Finally, it is possible that M. Buber is right when he divides epochs into anthropological and non-anthropological ones.

Another source of philosophical and anthropological thinking is concrete scientific knowledge. Perhaps it is appropriate to see the heralds of the theme of man in those who relied on the data of the natural sciences and tried to develop the foundations of human behavior (S. Freud, M. Scheler, E. Cassirer)? However, the most significant intuitions are born in philosophy not only on the foundation of real knowledge, but often in spite of it. It is possible that it is precisely in this, and not at all in following science, that the sign of philosophical-anthropological thinking proper. "[Gurevich, 1995, p. 93] Problems of philosophical anthropology. Types of anthropological teachings.

" Max Scheler, who was more interested in the problem of anthropology than other philosophers, says: "Zu keiner Zeit der Geschiche der Mensch sich so problematisch geworden ist, wie in der Gegenwart." This means that the time has come for philosophical anthropology, which until now did not exist The person began to cognitively worry about himself.

Psychological, biological, sociological studies of man did not solve any riddle about man and did not build philosophical anthropology. A person was approached from different points of view and studied in part. And the very name of anthropology is applied to a science that is least of all capable of solving the whole problem of man.

Whereas philosophical anthropology should be the basis of ethics. Moreover, the problem of man is the fundamental problem of philosophy. Even the Greeks realized that a person can begin to philosophize only from the knowledge of himself.

The key to being for man is hidden in man. In the cognition of being, man is a very special reality, not standing among other realities. Man is not a fractional part of the world, he contains an integral riddle and solution of the world. The fact that man, as an object of cognition, is at the same time a cognizer, has not only epistemological, but also anthropological significance. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 54] "The problem of a person cannot be replaced by either the problem of the subject, transcendental consciousness, or the problem of the soul, psychological consciousness, or the problem of the spirit, or the problem of ideal values, ideas of goodness, truth, beauty, etc. Man is not the subject of epistemology, is not the soul of psychology, is not the soul of pneumotology, is not the ideal value of ethics, logic, aesthetics. All circles of being intersect in a person. Psychologism must be overcome in philosophy, but anthropologism cannot be overcome. Philosophy must be consciously and not naively anthropological. Man is a great mystery to himself, because he bears witness to the existence higher world. The superhuman beginning is a constitutive sign of human existence. Man is a being dissatisfied with himself and capable of outgrowing himself. The very fact of human existence is a gap in the natural world and testifies that nature cannot be self-sufficient and rests on supernatural being. As a being belonging to two worlds and capable of overcoming himself, man is a contradictory and paradoxical being, combining polar opposites in himself. With the same right it can be said of man that he is a being high and low, weak and strong, free and slave. The mystery and inconsistency of man are determined not only by the fact that he is a being who has fallen from a height, an earthly being who has preserved in himself the memory of heaven and a glimmer of heavenly light, but even deeper by the fact that he is from the very beginning a child of God and a child of something, meonic freedom. Its roots are in heaven, in God and in the lower abyss. Man is not only a product of the natural world and natural processes, but at the same time he lives in the natural world and participates in natural processes. It depends on the natural environment, and at the same time it humanizes this environment, introduces a fundamentally new beginning into it. The creative act of man in nature has a cosmogonic meaning and signifies a new stage of cosmic life.

Man is a fundamental novelty in nature. The problem of man is completely insoluble if we consider him from nature and only in relation to nature. Man can only be understood in his relation to God. You cannot understand a person from what is below him, you can only understand him from what is above him. Therefore, the problem of man in all its depth was posed only in religious consciousness. All theologies have an anthropological part. Philosophical anthropology in the true sense of the word does not exist. But there has always been religious anthropology" [Berdyaev, 1993, p. 55] "M. Scheler established four types of anthropological teachings:

1) Jewish-Christian, the creation of man by God and the fall into sin; 2) ancient Greek, man as a bearer of reason;

3) natural science, man as a product of the evolution of the animal world;

4) the theory of decadence, the emergence of consciousness, reason, spirit as a biological decline, the weakening of life. " [Berdyaev, 1993, p. 56] "Nietzsche's anthropology can be reckoned among the types of teachings about decadence in a certain sense. Nietzsche would like to overcome man, to return to the ancient demigod, the hero-superman. M. Scheler himself perfectly shows that it is biologically impossible to substantiate the advantages and heights of a person. Biologically, man does not differ from the animal, he differs from him only by a principle that is higher than life, by the principle of the spirit. Man is man only as the bearer of the spirit. The spirit manifests itself in the personality. Man is a being who overcomes himself and the world. Man is an eternal protestant against reality. M. Scheler sharply distinguishes between life and spirit. The direction of the spirit cuts off the temporal stream of life. Spirit ideas life. But for M. Scheler the spirit is not active, completely passive. He also has no freedom. Life is active, but the spirit is very reminiscent of the ideal values ​​that life must realize. The existence of a spirit in man greatly complicates the question of man's development from an anthropological point of view. From a biological-anthropological point of view, a person regresses rather than progresses. He is a divided and weakened being. This must be recognized as an undeniable truth. Consciousness weakened the power of instinct in a person, made him biologically defenseless. Its organs have not become sophisticated due to the progress of civilization, but, on the contrary, have weakened. A person has to sadly recall the lost primitive power. The organs of struggle and defense are transformed from biological ones into social ones, he relies on social environment and her tools. But when human strength is based on social tools, it ceases to be biologically hereditary. From the biological-anthropological point of view, a person does not improve, he improves only from the point of view of an increase in the strength of consciousness and spirit, on the one hand, and social, invented by him. technical tools- with another. But this also means that the integrity of man is more and more violated and he becomes a being more and more divided. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 57]" More value for anthropology, there are two brilliant thinkers, who were not recognized in their time, but are now very influential - Kierkegaardt and Bachoven. Kierkegaardt, who was a remarkable psychologist, defines a person by the fear and horror he experiences. Fear, or horror (Angst), expresses the spiritual significance of a person, his inability to be content with himself, his attitude towards the transcendent God, his sinfulness, and consequently, his fall from a height. Undoubtedly, fear is inherent in man, and his fear testifies that a person must be defined in relation to what is higher than him. Kierkegaardt considers the hallmark of a person's significance to be precisely unreasonable, groundless fear, fear of the transcendent mystery of being. Bahoven is also of great importance for philosophical anthropology. Bahoven reveals the deep, archaic layer of human nature, its original connection with the mother's womb, the struggle between the male, solar, and female, telluric principles, the metaphysics of sex in man. For Bahoven, polarity is the main sign of a person. The cosmic struggle between sun and earth, between personalism and collectivism, takes place in it. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 60] Personalism. Personality and the individual. Personality and society. "The doctrine of man is, first of all, the doctrine of personality. True anthropology must be personalistic. And here is the main question - how to understand the relationship between the personality and the individual, between personalism and individualism? The individual is a naturalistic-biological category. Personality is a religious-spiritual category. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 62] "The individual is part of the species, he has left the species, although he can isolate himself from the species, oppose himself to it and fight with it. The individual is generated by the biological generic process. The individual is born and dies. Personality is not born, it is created by God. Personality is God's idea and God's plan, which arose in eternity. Personality for a natural individual is a task. Personality is an axiological, evaluative category. We say of one man that he has a personality, and of another that he has no personality, although both are individuals. Sometimes even a naturalistically, biologically and psychologically brilliant individual may not have a personality. Personality is integrity and unity, possessing an unconditional and eternal value. An individual may not have such wholeness and unity at all, may be torn apart, and everything in him may be mortal. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 62] "M. Scheler owns an interesting doctrine of personality. He wished to construct a purely personalistic ethic. Philosophical anthropology, which should substantiate ethics, is very poor, and M. Scheler is one of the few philosophers who have done something for it. According to Scheler, man is a being who rises above himself and above all life. The main thing for him is the opposition not of man and animal, but of personality and organism, spirit and life. This is the main dualism in Scheler - the dualism of spirit and life. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 63] "The individual is relative to the genus. The individual is related to society. Personality presupposes other personalities and a community of personalities. The individual presupposes the existence of the genus. The individual feeds on the race, and he is mortal, as the race is mortal. The personality does not share the fate of the family, it is immortal. The complexity of a person is that he is both an individual, part of a family, and a personality, a spiritual being. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 64] Gender. Male and female.

"The main problem for anthropology is the problem of sex. Man is a sexual being, and sexual polarity characterizes human nature. Sex is not at all a function of the human organism, sex is a property of the entire human organism, of each of its cells. This was shown by Freud. This was always said by V.V. Rozanov.Man is not only a sexual being, but also a bisexual being, combining the male and female principles in different proportions and often in a fierce struggle.A man, in whom the feminine principle would be completely absent, would be an abstract being, completely cut off from the cosmic element.Women , in which the masculine principle would be completely absent, would not be a personality. The masculine principle is primarily anthropological and personal. The feminine principle is predominantly cosmic and collective. Only the combination of the masculine anthropological-personal principle with the feminine cosmic-collective principle creates the fullness of man This connection is carried out in two ways - in each m man and in every woman inside their bisexual, androgynous nature and through the exit of the male nature into another female nature and the female into another male nature. In the fallen world, there is a cosmic struggle between the male and female principles, the male and female principles are not only looking for union, but they are constantly fighting with each other as mortal enemies. This characterizes the polarity of human nature. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 68] Conscious and unconscious.

“Man is a sick being, with a strong subconscious life, and therefore psychopathology has a decisive word in him, although not the last one. The human soul is split, a painful confrontation of opposite elements takes place in it. only the modern consciousness and the modern structure of the soul, it also contains the ancient archaic man, there is a child with infantile instincts, there is a neurasthenic and a madman. modern consciousness with archaic infantile and pathological elements creates an extraordinary complexity of the human soul, which is difficult to study by the old psychological methods. A person not only deceives others, but also deceives himself. A person very often does not know himself what is happening to him, and falsely interprets what is happening both for himself and for others. The life of the subconscious or the unconscious completely eluded the old psychology, it took on faith the testimony of consciousness. And for the new psychology and psychological anthropology, the main thing is the distinction in the human soul between consciousness and the subconscious. The disease of the human soul is determined by the conflict of consciousness and the subconscious. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 73] Freedom of will and ethics.

“The religious and metaphysical problem of freedom, in which the ethical problem of freedom is also rooted, does not at all coincide with the traditional school problem of will. The doctrine of free will rests on false premises, on an old psychology that cannot be maintained. elements of mental life, through which a person makes a choice between good and evil and becomes responsible for evil. "[Berdyaev, 1993, p. 81] Let's discuss psychoanalytic anthropology in more detail.

"The psychoanalytic vision of a person is characterized by a number of features that allow us to talk about an approach that is unconventional for Western philosophy to comprehend the inner nature, driving forces and life of a human being. "[Leybin, 1986, p. 239] "The advancement of the psychoanalytic doctrine of man took place on turn of XIX-XX centuries, when the Austrian neurologist S. Freud (1865-1939) proposed a new method of treating neurotics, called psychoanalysis. This method soon developed into a general psychoanalytic doctrine of man. This is how the psychoanalytic vision of man appeared, based on the isolation of the unconscious and conscious aspects of human activity as not reducible to each other and characterized by their own laws of structuring and functioning. At the same time, priority was given to the unconscious, which, according to Freud, is the source of human motivational behavior, the organizing center around which all other components of the human psyche are structured. "[Leybin, 1986, p. 240] "In contrast to the theorists, who tried to find the cause of human behavior in the external environment that causes a response of the body, the founder of psychoanalysis turned to internal stimuli, under the influence of which, in his opinion, all mental processes that determine the motivational structure of people's behavior. At the same time, he proceeded from the fact that "man is a creature with a weak intellect, he is dominated by his instincts." He set out to identify the so-called "primary drives" that make up the core of the unconscious. The founder of psychoanalysis believed that the symptoms of neurotic diseases should be sought in the remnants and symbols of memories of sexual experiences that take place in childhood each person. These forgotten childhood experiences do not disappear automatically, according to Freud, but leave indelible marks in the soul of the individual. Being repressed from consciousness, sexual drives and desires are just waiting for a favorable opportunity to re-assert themselves in a veiled form. "[Leibin, 1986, p. 242] "The doctrine of the sexual etiology of neuroses then developed in Freud into more general theory, according to which sexual desires are directly involved in the creation of the highest cultural, artistic, ethical, aesthetic and social values ​​of the human spirit. Thus, Freud not only focused on the sexual activity of a human being, but also tried to illuminate literally all the processes of an individual-personal and cultural-social nature through the prism of sexuality. "[Leibin, 1986, p. 243]

"Understanding the nature of conflict situations is facilitated by the Freudian interpretation of the personality, based on the identification of three structural elements that have their own specifics and are in a certain subordination to each other. "It" (Id) is a deep layer of unconscious drives, the essential core of the personality around which are structured and over which other elements are built. "I" (Ego) - the sphere of consciousness, a kind of mediator between the unconscious drives of a person and external reality, including the natural and social environment. "Super-I" (Super-Ego) - the sphere of obligation, moral censorship, acting on behalf of parental authority and the establishment of norms in society. Freud's "I" is nothing more than a special, differentiated part of the "It", and therefore, in the psychoanalytic vision of a person, it is not consciousness that controls unconscious processes, but, on the contrary, the latter dominate On the other hand, the moral and social "Superego", which it would seem that it should smooth out the friction between the "It" and the "I", turns out to be Freud's heir and carrier of the unconscious. This means that the "I" is, as it were, dependent not only on the unconscious "It", but also on the social "Super-I", which rules over it in the form of two "demons" - conscience and an unconscious sense of guilt. Thus, the Freudian "I", not being, in the words of the founder of psychoanalysis, "the master in his own house", is in conflict situations with the outside world, "It" and "Super-I", which constantly dramatizes human existence. Anthropologization of the unconscious turns into a dramatization of human existence in the world. "[Leibin, 1986, p. 244] "On the whole, a person seems to Freud by no means a soft-hearted, good-natured creature: among his unconscious drives there is an innate tendency to destruction and an unbridled passion for torturing himself and other people. It is precisely because of these inner qualities of man that culture and civilization are constantly under the threat of destruction. Unlike thinkers who recognized exclusively the "good nature" of man and focused on the conscious activity of people, Freud seeks to reveal the shadow sides of human existence, the impulsive and aggressive inclinations of the individual, and also to emphasize the leading role of unconscious drives in human life. He also recognized the rational principle in man, saying only with regret that "the primacy of the intellect lies in the distant future, but still not infinitely far away."

Such, in general terms, is Freud's psychoanalytic vision of man. It bore the imprint of methodological limitations and ideological fallacy. At the same time, the psychoanalytic vision of man gave a new turn in the philosophical understanding of the existence of man in the world, which was reflected in many Western philosophical and psychological trends. The folding of human problems into the interior of the individual, the focus on those aspects of life that are found on the other side of consciousness, the interpretation of human existence from the point of view of intrapersonal conflicts and collisions - all this was very appealing to Western theorists, starting from the psychoanalytic vision of man proposed by Freud. "[Leibin, 1986, p. 245] Erich Fromm proposed an original concept of individual freedom, which reveals the socio-psychological mechanisms of escape from freedom.

"What is freedom in the sense of human experience? Is it true that the desire for freedom is organically inherent in human nature?" [Fromm, 1990, p. 15] "What does freedom mean for modern man, why and how does he seek to get rid of it. "[Fromm, 1990, p. 30] "The concept of freedom changes depending on the degree of a person's awareness of himself as an independent and separate being" [Fromm, 1990, p. 30] "Human existence and freedom are inseparable from the very beginning" [Fromm, 1990, p. 37] "The process of development of human freedom has a dialectical character. On the one hand, this is the process of human development, the mastery of nature, the increase in the role of reason, the strengthening of human solidarity. But on the other hand, the strengthening of individualization also means strengthening, uncertainty; and therefore, the place a person in the world and the meaning of his life. At the same time, the feeling of powerlessness and insignificance of an individual person grows. "[Fromm, 1990, p. 39] "There is only one productive way for the connection of an individualized person with the world: active solidarity with other people, spontaneous activity (love and work) that again connects him to the world, but not by primary ties, but as a free and independent individual. " [Fromm, 1990, p. 40]

If the economic, social and political conditions on which the whole process of individualization of a person depends cannot become the basis for the positive realization of the personality, but at the same time people lose the primary ties that gave them a sense of confidence, then such a gap turns freedom into an unbearable burden: it becomes a source of doubt, entails a life devoid of purpose and meaning. And then there is a strong tendency to get rid of such freedom: to go into submission or find some other way to connect with people and the world in order to escape uncertainty even at the cost of freedom. "[ Fromm, 1990, p. 40] Fromm defines individualization as "the process of growing isolation of the individual from the original connections" [Fromm, 1990, p. thirty]. "The bonds that exist before the process of individualization leads to the complete isolation of the individual" [Fromm, 1990, p. 31] Fromm calls "primary bonds".

Consider the mechanisms of escape from freedom. "First of all, the mechanism that consists in the tendency to abandon the independence of his personality, to merge his "I" with someone or something external, in order to thus acquire the strength that the individual himself lacks. In other words, the individual is looking for new, "secondary bonds" instead of the lost primary ones. Distinct forms of this mechanism can be found in the desire for subordination and domination, or - to use a different formulation - in masochistic and sadistic tendencies that exist to one degree or another in both neurotics and healthy people. "[Fromm, 1990 , c. 124]

"Since the term "sadistic-masochistic" is associated with perversions and neuroses, I prefer to speak not of the sadistic-masochistic, but of the" authoritarian "character, especially when it is not about neurotics, but about normal people. "[Fromm, 1990, p. . 142] "The attitude of the authoritarian character to life, his whole philosophy is determined by his emotional aspirations. The authoritarian character loves the conditions that limit the freedom of man, he gladly submits to fate." [Fromm, 1990, p. 146] "A common feature of all authoritarian thinking is the belief that life is determined by forces that lie outside of a person, outside of his interests and desires. The only possible happiness lies in the submission to these forces." [Fromm, 1990, p. 147] "There is no concept of equality in authoritarian philosophy." [Fromm, 1990, p. 149] "Sadistic-masochistic aspirations must be distinguished from destructiveness, although for the most part they are interrelated." [Fromm, 1990, p. 153] "Destructiveness differs already in that its goal is not active or passive symbiosis, but destruction, elimination of the object. But its roots are the same: powerlessness and isolation of the individual. I can get rid of the feeling of my own powerlessness in comparison with the surrounding world, destroying this world. Of course, if I manage to eliminate it, then I will be completely alone, but it will be a brilliant loneliness, it is such an isolation in which I will not be threatened by any external forces. Destroying the world is the last, desperate attempt to keep this world from destroying me. "[Fromm, 1990, p. 154]" Other mechanisms of "escape" consist in a complete detachment from the world, in which the world loses its threatening features (we see this picture in some psychoses), or in psychological self-aggrandizement to such an extent that the world , surrounding a person becomes small in comparison. "[Fromm, 1990, p. 158]

Consider a person in pragmatism and existentialism. “Of the many currents of bourgeois philosophy, pragmatism is one of those that are most connected with the problem of man. According to the assurances of its creators, pragmatism made a turn from the narrow professional problems of philosophers to broad human problems, put human life, interests and doubts at the center of its attention, passions and struggles of people, their eternal desire to understand themselves, to improve the conditions of their existence, to make them more reasonable and humane.

This attitude, consistently pursued by representatives of pragmatism, allowed them in a number of cases to identify and fix certain aspects of a person's public and private life, to make certain successful psychological observations. "[Melville, 1986, p. 104] "Pragmatists consider man as an active being

par excellence. His activity, both practical and theoretical, is caused primarily by immediate vital needs and needs and is aimed at satisfying them. It is in this understanding of man, arising from the extension of Darwinian, evolutionary principles of adaptation to the environment, the struggle for the existence and survival of the fittest, that the specifics of pragmatism and the new that it introduced into bourgeois philosophy lie. "[Melville, 1986, p. 104] Consider the most prominent representatives.

William James. "The philosophy of James can unconditionally be called the philosophy of man." [Melville, 1986, p. 107]

"Man, not as a generic being, but as a given specific personality, becomes for James the alpha and omega of all philosophy. "[Melville, 1986, p. 107] "The most important personal problem for James is the problem of action aimed at survival and adaptation to the environment in the broadest sense of the word." [Melville, 1986, p. 108] "According to James, a person by its very essence is a practical being, whose biological nature is intended for action, which consists in adapting to the environment. The main purpose of his consciousness is to determine goals and find means to achieve them. "[Melville, 1986, c. 108] "John Dewey continued to develop the fundamental ideas of pragmatism. The central concept of his philosophy was the concept of "experience" in which the James concept of the stream of consciousness (thoughts, sensations, etc.) merged with the idea of ​​active interaction between a person and the environment, an organism with its environment. Experience in Dewey includes absolutely everything that can be realized in one way or another by a person and interact with him practically and theoretically. "[Melville, 1986, p. 111] "Dewey believes that a person should not disturb himself with abstract questions, both metaphysical and social. Man is an empirical being living in the empirical world and not able to go beyond immediate experience. All his needs are determined by the current needs of survival and adaptation to the environment in which he lives and in which he can make certain particular changes.Dewey believes that only such a "method of reasonableness" meets the requirements of democracy, giving each person the opportunity to freely experiment in any field, try, make mistakes and correct mistakes and share your experience and its results with other people." [Melville, 1986, p. 115] "The pragmatism of Richard Rorty is the most complete embodiment of sociocentric tendencies in modern bourgeois philosophy, not only placing society at the center of the world, but also reducing the physical world to the social world in the form of various socially convenient, and therefore socially accepted theories and concepts. Man in this concept he acts as an active being, but with certain reservations: firstly, his activity, at least that which is taken into account by Rorty, is spiritual in nature, and secondly, the subject of this activity are geniuses in the form of great scientists, philosophers or artists who create new languages, new forms of discourse, new paradigms, which are then perceived by the mass of people and become an unconditional and undeniable norm for them. "[Melville, 1986, p. 118]

"Thus, although pragmatism emphasized the active, active nature of man, his understanding of activity was entirely idealistic in nature and therefore could contribute very little to the scientific understanding of man." [Melville, 1986, p. 118] At the beginning of the 20th century, a current called existentialism arose.

"The focus of existentialism was a personality thrown into a crisis, hopeless, or, as its representatives themselves put it, a "borderline" situation. In relation to this personality, questions of guilt and responsibility, decision and choice, freedom as a measure of human sanity, death as a conscious the boundaries of individual existence, etc. "[Soloviev, 1966, p. 76] "Existentialist philosophers made an attempt to radically rethink not only the most important philosophical problems, but also the very way of philosophical thinking as such." [Asmus, 1978, p. 222] "Existentialists are equally concerned with showing not only the uniqueness of their philosophical position, but also its peculiar universality. For them, the very existential type of thinking and worldview is something that always takes place in any person, including a thinker, but which for one reason or another, the person himself is inclined to obscure, discard or not show at all outside. "[Asmus, 1978, p. 222]

"Existentialists set before the philosophy of man a number of tasks of a moral and psychological order: they boil down to the search for some spiritual resources in a contemporary, which, ensuring the integrity and autonomy of his inner peace, at the same time would have developed in him sufficient "immunity" to any form of intrusion of society into the sphere of his personal experiences, individual motivations of activity. "[Tavrizyan, 1978, p. 137] "From an existentialist point of view, the reflexivity inherent in modern thinking, the tendency to introspection, encouraged by the general rationalist spirit of the era, contribute to the alienation of man from himself. "[Tavrizyan, 1978, p. 137]

"Existentialists want to say that a person is simply unable to exist without devoting his life to something. This is his fundamental predisposition, primary in relation to the presence of any target designations. And it is exposed precisely when all socially stable values ​​collapse, when a person looking for a worthy burden for himself, as they look for their daily bread. "[Soloviev, 1966, p. 82] In conclusion, I again quote E. Yu. Solovyov.

"Existentialism - in all its variants - was the doctrine of Stoic non-participation in history - flight, emigration from a rationally comprehensible historical movement. From the basic premises of Stoic anti-historicism, the conclusion inevitably followed that personal action, no matter how significant its social and political consequences turned out to be, is not may and should not be motivated by social interest or political considerations.

"[Soloviev, 1967, p. 135] Among the many problems, I consider the problem of euthanasia to be very important.

“First of all, it should be clarified that euthanasia is understood not just as an easy, painless death, but a death that corresponds to the desire of the dying person himself (or his relatives and friends, if the dying person has irretrievably lost consciousness) and occurs with the assistance - active or passive - of a physician. It is this defined as the context - the context of medical practice - in which it is possible to meaningfully discuss the problems of euthanasia, and the circle of persons directly involved in it. At the same time, both the deep layers of human existence and the fundamental values ​​of society are affected here, which explains the sharpness of the discussion. " [Yudin, 1991, p. 248] “It is commonly believed, especially among opponents of euthanasia, that its prohibition is one of the universal human norms. But this is far from being the case. For example, the Hippocratic oath does not consider saving life as an unconditional duty of a doctor. In accordance with the Criminal Code of the RSFSR of 1922 it was allowed to kill the patient out of compassion; later this legal norm was eliminated. "[Yudin, 1991, p. 249] "A heightened interest in such an issue as human rights, which has manifested itself especially clearly since the beginning of the last third of our century, is typical today for many social movements. It also finds expression in the debate over the permissibility of euthanasia. It is no coincidence that those who consider euthanasia permissible usually put forward the right of a person to dispose of his own life as he sees fit as the main argument. "[Yudin, 1991, p. 251] "Most often put forward by opponents of euthanasia is an argument. Firstly, it is the possibility of an erroneous diagnosis of the patient's inevitable death. Another, but somewhat similar, argument can also be attributed here: there is always the possibility that a new method of treatment will be found and a disease that is considered incurable today will recede tomorrow before the latest achievements of medicine. What can be said in this regard? Obviously, if a person who has reliable information about the state of his health retains hope, then no one has the right to deprive him of this hope. "[Yudin, 1991, p. 254] "The counterargument, which is usually used by supporters of euthanasia, can also be formulated in this way: the doctor's duty is to alleviate the patient's suffering, and if the patient is hopelessly ill and at the same time medicine knows no other ways to alleviate suffering, then why the doctor can not resort to such an extreme method? Another form of expression of the same, in fact, argument is connected with the inclusion in the argument of the already mentioned principle - the rights of the individual should be fundamental. "[Yudin, 1991, p. 255] "In recent years, there have been clear trends aimed at softening this confrontation. It is about clarifying and perhaps even rethinking the very concept of death, and hence the concept of life. Proposed (and moreover - adopted by law) criteria for death based on understanding and evaluation of the functioning of the human brain. The criterion of complete brain death of an individual makes it possible to state death in the event that his brain functions are irreversibly impaired. Even more broad is the criterion according to which death is ascertained in the event of an irreversible loss of consciousness, that is, the higher functions of the brain (coma). This criterion has already been recognized in the United States (in a number of states). "[Yudin, 1991, p. 256] There are other arguments for and against. "It can be assumed that as attention to the problem of human rights grows in our society, as institutions strengthen rule of law capable of protecting the individual from departmental arbitrariness, the attitude towards the question of the permissibility of euthanasia will become more and more favorable. At the same time, it is already obvious today that the problem of euthanasia, as well as many other health problems, is not only a medical problem.

Society cannot become healthy as long as human health remains only a departmental concern" [Yudin, 1991, p. 261] In conclusion, I would like to consider the future of a person as an individual and personality.

"The philosophical orientation and logic of the analysis of issues related to the future of man require consideration of it in unity social entity and natural-biological existence, which, as is known, is itself determined social conditions. At the same time, this presupposes, firstly, a strict distinction between the concepts of the individual and personality and, secondly, an account of their dialectical relationship. "[Frolov, 1983, p. 207] "Major shifts in the economy and everyday life of people that have occurred over the past decades strongly raise the question of the impact of changes in living conditions on the biological and mental characteristics of a person. social development in relation to human biology does not always and not in everything lead to favorable results. Discussing and taking into account the negative consequences of the impact of certain social factors on the human body is one of the most important problems of modern science. Therefore, the problem of human adaptation to the environment becomes very relevant in these conditions. "[Frolov, 1983, p. 218] "Biological adaptation of a person is currently understood extremely broadly and is not limited only to the preservation of biological homeostasis, i.e. to achieve a stable balance and self-regulation of a living organism in changing environmental conditions. "[Frolov, 1983, p. 218] "A person of the future will certainly expand his adaptive capabilities with the help of a wide variety of means, including pharmacology and psychotherapy, and this will enable him to fully and without harm to health operate in the most difficult, sometimes extreme conditions . Serious data have already been obtained that testify to new, previously unknown reserves of the biological nature of man and his psychophysiological capabilities. "[Frolov, 1983, p. 218] "The man of the future is a reasonable and humane man, inquisitive and active. And just as a personality, with its unique originality,

uniqueness of the individual "I", a person asserts himself as a social being. "[Frolov, 1983, p. 263]

Literature

1. Berdyaev N. A. On the appointment of a person. M.: Respublika, 1993, 383 p.

2. Leybin V. M. Psychoanalytic anthropology.// Bourgeois philosophical anthropology of the XX century. M.: Nauka,

1986, p. 239-259.

3. Melville Yu. K. Pragmatic philosophy of man.// Bourgeois philosophical anthropology of the XX century. M.:

Science, 1986, p. 104-118.

4. Gurevich P. S. Philosophical anthropology: the experience of systematics. / / Questions of Philosophy, 1995, N 8, p. 92-102.

5. Gurevich PS Man as an object of socio-philosophical analysis.// The problem of man in Western philosophy.

Moscow: Progress, 1988, p. 504-518.

6. Fromm E. Escape from freedom. Moscow: Progress, 1990, 272 p.

7. Solovyov E. Yu. Existentialism (article one).// Questions of Philosophy, 1966, N 12, p. 76-88.

8. Solovyov E. Yu. Existentialism (article two) .// Questions of Philosophy, 1967, N 1, p. 126-139.

9. Asmus V. F. Existential philosophy: its intentions and results.// Man and his being as a problem

modern philosophy. Moscow: Nauka, 1978, p. 222-251.

10. Tavrizyan G. M. "Existential world" as the antipode of social life in French existentialism.//

Man and his being as a problem of modern philosophy. Moscow: Nauka, 1978, p. 135-157.

11. Frolov I. T. Human prospects. Moscow: Politizdat, 1983, 350 p.

12. Yudin BG The right to voluntary death: against and for.// On the human in man. Moscow: Politizdat, 1991, p. 247-

Parhoma&Vlad production

• Introduction
• World and Man. The fundamental question of philosophy
• Socio-historical character of philosophy. Philosophy in the system of culture. Functions of philosophy.
• findings

Introduction

Philosophy occupies an important place in the system of extremely diverse knowledge about the world around us. Having originated in ancient times, it has gone through a centuries-old path of development, during which a variety of philosophical schools and currents arose and existed.

The word "philosophy" is of Greek origin and literally means "love of wisdom". Philosophy is a system of views on the reality around us, a system of the most general concepts about the world and the place of man in it. Since its inception, it has sought to find out what the world is like as a whole, to understand the nature of man himself, to determine what place he occupies in society, whether his mind can penetrate the secrets of the universe, to know and turn the powerful forces of nature for the benefit of people. Philosophy thus poses the most general and at the same time very important, fundamental questions that determine a person's approach to the most diverse areas of life and knowledge. To all these questions, philosophers gave very different, and even mutually exclusive answers.

The struggle between materialism and idealism, the formation and development in this struggle of a progressive, materialistic line, is the law of the entire centuries-old development of philosophy. The struggle of materialism against idealism expressed the struggle of the progressive classes of society against the reactionary classes. In ancient times, philosophy existed in China and India. In the VMM-VM centuries. BC. philosophy arose in ancient Greece, where it reached a high level of development. In the Middle Ages, philosophy as an independent science did not exist; it was part of theology. The 15th-15th centuries mark the beginning of a decisive turn from medieval scholasticism to experimental research. The growth of capitalist relations, industry and trade, the great geographical and astronomical discoveries and achievements in other areas of natural science led to the emergence of a new worldview based on experimental knowledge. Thanks to the discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, Giordano Bruno, science has taken a huge step forward.

The path of philosophical understanding of the world is very complicated. Cognition always includes particles of fantasy.

Philosophy has existed for about three millennia, and all this time there has been a struggle of opposing views in it, which does not stop even now. Why is this struggle going on, what are its causes?

World and Man. The fundamental question of philosophy.

The world is one and diverse – there is nothing in the world but moving matter. There is no other world but the world of infinite matter moving in time and space. The material world, nature is an infinite variety of objects, bodies, phenomena and processes. This is inorganic nature, the organic world, society in all their inexhaustible richness and diversity. The diversity of the world lies in the qualitative difference between material things and processes, in the variety of forms of motion of matter. At the same time, the qualitative diversity of the world, the diversity of forms of material movement exists in unity. The real unity of the world consists in its materiality. The unity of the world and its diversity are in a dialectical relationship, they are internally and inextricably linked, a single matter does not exist otherwise than in qualitatively diverse forms, all the diversity of the world is the diversity of forms of a single matter, a single material world. All the data of science and practice convincingly confirm the unity of the material world.

Philosophy is a theoretically formulated worldview. This is a system of the most general views on the world, a person's place in it, an understanding of the various forms of a person's relationship to the world. Philosophy differs from other forms of worldview not so much in its subject matter, but in the way it is comprehended, the degree of intellectual development of problems and methods of approach to them. Therefore, when defining philosophy, the concepts of a theoretical worldview and a system of views are used.

Against the background of spontaneously emerging (everyday, mythological) forms of worldview, philosophy appeared as a specially developed doctrine of wisdom. Unlike mythological and religious traditions, philosophical thought has chosen as its guideline not blind, dogmatic faith, not supernatural explanations, but free, critical reflection on the principles of reason about the world and human life.

In the worldview there are always two opposite angles of view: the direction of consciousness "outside" - the formation of a picture of the world, the universe, and, on the other hand, its appeal "inside" - to the person himself, the desire to understand his essence, place, purpose in the natural and social world. A person is distinguished by the ability to think, to know, to love and hate, to rejoice and grieve, to hope, to desire, to feel a sense of duty, pangs of conscience, etc. The various relationships of these angles of vision permeate the whole of philosophy.

Take, for example, the issue of human freedom. At first glance, it only applies to humans. But it also presupposes an understanding of natural processes and realities that do not depend on the human will. public life which people cannot ignore.

The philosophical worldview is, as it were, bipolar: its semantic “nodes” are the world and man. What is essential for philosophical thinking is not a separate consideration of these opposites, but their constant correlation. Various problems of the philosophical worldview are aimed at understanding the forms of their interaction, at understanding the relationship of man to the world.

This big multifaceted problem “the world is a person”, in fact, acts as a universal one and can be considered as a general formula, an abstract expression of almost any philosophical problem. That is why it can, in a certain sense, be called the fundamental question of philosophy.

Central to the clash of philosophical views is the question of the relation of consciousness to being, or, in other words, of the relation of the ideal to the material. When we talk about consciousness, ideal, we mean nothing but our thoughts, experiences, feelings. When it comes to being, material, then this includes everything that exists objectively, independently of our consciousness, i.e. things and objects of the external world, phenomena and processes occurring in nature and society. In philosophical understanding, ideal (consciousness) and material (being) are the broadest scientific concepts (categories) that reflect the most general and at the same time opposite properties of objects, phenomena and processes of the world.

The question of the relationship between consciousness and being, spirit and nature is the main question of philosophy. From the solution of this issue, ultimately, depends the interpretation of all other problems that determine the philosophical outlook on nature, society, and, therefore, on man himself.

When considering the fundamental question of philosophy, it is very important to distinguish between its two sides. First, what is primary - ideal or material? This or that answer to this question plays the most important role in philosophy, because to be primary means to exist before the secondary, to precede it, ultimately, to determine it. Secondly, can a person know the world, the laws of development of nature and society? The essence of this side of the main question of philosophy is to clarify the ability of human thinking to correctly reflect objective reality.

Solving the main question, philosophers were divided into two large camps, depending on what they take as the source - material or ideal. Those philosophers who recognize matter, being, nature as primary, and consciousness, thinking, spirit as secondary, represent a philosophical direction called materialistic. In philosophy, there is also an idealistic direction opposite to the materialistic one. Philosophers-idealists recognize the beginning of all existing consciousness, thinking, spirit, i.e. perfect. There is another solution to the main question of philosophy - dualism, which believes that the material and spiritual sides exist separately from one another as independent entities.

The question of the relationship of thinking to being has another side - the question of the cognizability of the world: can a person cognize the world around him? Idealistic philosophy, as a rule, denies the possibility of knowing the world.

The first question with which philosophical knowledge began: what is the world in which we live? In essence, it is equivalent to the question: what do we know about the world? Philosophy is not the only area of ​​knowledge designed to answer this question. Over the centuries, its solution has included ever new areas of special scientific knowledge and practice. At the same time, special cognitive functions fell to the lot of philosophy. In different historical epochs, they took on a different form, but still some stable common features were preserved.

The formation of philosophy, along with the emergence of mathematics, marked the birth of a completely new phenomenon in ancient Greek culture - the first mature forms of theoretical thinking. Some other areas of knowledge reached theoretical maturity much later and, moreover, in different time.

Philosophical knowledge of the world had its own requirements. Unlike other types of theoretical knowledge (in mathematics, natural science), philosophy acts as a universal theoretical knowledge. According to Aristotle, the special sciences are engaged in the study of specific types of being, philosophy takes upon itself the knowledge of the most general principles, the beginnings of all things.

In cognition of the world, philosophers of different eras turned to solving such problems that either temporarily, in a certain historical period, or fundamentally, forever, turned out to be beyond the field of understanding, the competence of individual sciences.

It can be seen that in all philosophical questions there is a correlation "the world - man". It is difficult to answer questions related to the problem of the cognizability of the world in a straightforward manner - such is the nature of philosophy.

Socio-historical character of philosophy.

Philosophy in the system of culture.

Functions of philosophy.

History should not pass without a trace for us, because the past always, one way or another, lives in the present, and the present will inevitably be an integral part of the future. Knowledge of the historical development of philosophy can and should warn us against repeating the mistakes and delusions characteristic of the thinkers of the past.

The materialistic doctrine of society created by Marx brought significant changes to the previously established understanding of philosophy. The essence of this change was to consider philosophy as a special form of social, historical knowledge. In the light of the new materialistic views on society that Marx arrived at, the idea of ​​a special, supra-historical position of philosophical reason became fundamentally impossible. Any consciousness, including philosophical, appeared as an expression of a historically changing being, itself woven into the historical process and subject to its various influences. In the abstract, non-historical form of philosophy, Marx saw a symptom of a certain defectiveness of the traditional philosophical consciousness, which, on the whole, he highly valued. A completely different view was opposed to the age-old ideas about philosophy as an autonomous "kingdom of reason": life, practice gives impulses for theoretical thinking; Philosophy, on the other hand, must comprehend the experience of historical development and indicate the paths, ideals, goals based on the analysis of this experience. In the new Marxist vision, philosophy thus appeared as a form of socio-historical knowledge. This applies primarily to the subject of philosophical reflection. Social consciousness was understood as an expression of social being.

Social being is a set of conditions for the material life of society, primarily a way of producing material goods and an economic system. Social being determines the social consciousness of people. Public consciousness is understood as philosophical, political, religious views, etc. The question of the relationship between social being and public consciousness- the main question of philosophy in relation to social phenomena. Social being is primary, determines the social consciousness, the spiritual life of society. What is the existence of society, what are the conditions of the material life of society, such are the ideas, theories, political views, political institutions of society.

In the light of this understanding, the previously proposed description of a person's relationship to the world can be concretized as follows: a person is not taken out of the world, he is inside it; the closest being for people is social being, their relationship to nature is mediated by social being - labor, knowledge; the boundaries in the system "man - society - nature" are mobile.

Social relations are relations between people that are established in the process of their joint activities. Social relations are divided into material and ideological. The production of material goods is the basis of existence and development human society. Therefore, of all social relations, the most important are production, economic relations. Production relations determine the nature of all other social relations - political, legal, etc. Understanding the dependence of all social relations on production made it possible for the first time to explain the actual course of human history.

Philosophy in its new interpretation was revealed as a generalized concept of social life as a whole and its various subsystems - practice, knowledge, politics, law, morality, art, science, including natural science, on the basis of which the scientific and philosophical picture of nature is largely recreated. The most capacious understanding of the socio-historical life of people in unity, interaction, development of all its components is carried out today within the framework of the cultural-historical approach. The historical-materialistic understanding of society made it possible to develop a broad view of philosophy as a phenomenon of culture, to understand its functions in the complex complex of socio-historical life of people, to realize the real areas of application, procedures and results of philosophical worldview.

Consideration of philosophy as a cultural and historical phenomenon makes it possible to cover the entire dynamic complex of its problems, interrelations, and functions. The social life of people in its cultural and logical consideration appears as a single, holistic process associated with the formation, functioning, storage, transmission of cultural and historical values, with the critical overcoming of outdated and the formation of new forms of experience, with complex systems of correlation of the diverse manifestations of human activity in various historical specific types of crop types.

Being effective method historical research, the culturological approach is able to play a significant role in the development of the theory of certain social phenomena, since it acts as a summary, a generalization of their real history. Concluding that philosophy is based on the understanding of human history, K. Marx had in mind not the actual description of the historical process, but the identification of patterns and trends in history. Accordingly, the philosopher, in contrast to the historian, seemed to him a theoretician, generalizing historical material in a special way and forming on this basis a philosophical and theoretical worldview.

From a historical point of view, philosophy is not the primary, but the simplest form of consciousness. By the time of the emergence of philosophy, mankind had come a long way, accumulated various skills of action, accompanying knowledge and other experience. The emergence of philosophy is the birth of a special, secondary type of social consciousness, aimed at comprehending the already established forms of practice and culture. It is no coincidence that the way of thinking embodied in philosophy, addressed to the entire field of culture, is called critical-reflexive.

Culture is a set of material and spiritual values ​​created by mankind in the process of socio-historical practice. Culture is a social phenomenon that expresses the level reached at a given stage in the development of society in the field of technical progress, production experience and people's skills for work, in the field of education and upbringing, in the field of science, literature, art and institutions corresponding to them. In a narrower sense, culture is understood as the totality of forms of the spiritual life of society that arise and develop on the basis of a historically defined mode of production of material goods. In this regard, culture includes the level achieved in society in the development of education, in the development of science, literature, art, philosophy, morality, etc., and the institutions corresponding to them. The most important indicators of the historically achieved level of cultural development are the degree of application of technical improvements, scientific discoveries in social production, the cultural and technical level of producers of material goods, as well as the degree of dissemination of education, literature, and art among the population. Any new culture is historically connected with the culture of the past.

First of all, philosophy reveals the most general ideas, representations, forms of experience on which one or another specific culture or socio-historical life of people as a whole is based. They are called cultural universals. An important place among them is occupied by categories that include such universal concepts as being, matter, object, phenomenon, process, property, relation, change, development, cause - effect, random - necessary, part - whole, element - structure, etc. Categories reflect the most common connections, relationships of things. In their totality, they reflect the basis of all human understanding, intellect. These concepts are applicable not to any one area of ​​phenomena, but to any phenomena. Neither in everyday life, nor in science, nor in various forms of practical activity can one manage, say, without the concept of cause. Such concepts are present in all thinking; human rationality rests on them. That is why they are referred to as the ultimate foundations, the universal forms of culture. Classical philosophy from Aristotle to Hegel closely connected the concepts of philosophy with the doctrine of categories. In the chamomile scheme, the core corresponds to the general conceptual apparatus of philosophy - the system of categories.

For many centuries philosophers considered categories to be eternal forms of "pure" reason. The historical-materialistic approach revealed a different picture: categories are formed historically with the development of human thinking and are embodied in speech structures, in language. Turning to language as a cultural and historical formation, analyzing the forms of statements and actions of people, philosophers reveal the most general foundations of speech thinking and practice.

In the complex of the most general foundations of culture, an important place is occupied by generalized images of being and its various parts (nature, society, man) in their interconnection and interaction. Having been subjected to theoretical study, such images are transformed into a philosophical doctrine of being - ontology (from the Greek ontos - being and logos - teaching). In addition, various forms of relations between the world and man are subject to theoretical understanding - practical, cognitive and value; hence the name of the corresponding sections of philosophy: praxeology (from the Greek praktikos - active), epistemology (from the Greek gnoseos - knowledge) and axiology (from the Greek axios - valuable).

Philosophical thought reveals not only intellectual, but also moral-emotional and other "universals" that always refer to specific historical types of cultures and, at the same time, belong to humanity as a whole, to world history.

In addition to the function of explication of "universals", philosophy as a rational-theoretical form of worldview also takes on the task of rationalization - translation into a logical, conceptual form, as well as systematization, theoretical expression of the total results of human experience in all its forms.

The development of generalized ideas and representations from the very beginning was part of the task of philosophy as a rational-theoretical form of worldview. In the process of historical development, the basis of philosophical generalizations changed its appearance, covering more and more extensive experimental, and then theoretical knowledge. At first, philosophical thought turned to various non-scientific and pre-scientific, including everyday, forms of experience. The breadth of coverage of phenomena, consideration from a single point of view, seemingly distant from each other, forms of experience, knowledge, coupled with the power of theoretical thought rising above particulars, contributed to the formation of a general concept of atomism. The most ordinary, everyday observations, combined with a special philosophical way of thinking, often served as an impetus for the discovery of amazing features and patterns of the surrounding world (the transition of quantity into quality, the internal inconsistency of various phenomena, and many others). Everyday experience, life practice participate in all forms of philosophical exploration of the world by people constantly, and not only in the early stages of history. The basis for philosophical generalizations was significantly enriched as concrete scientific knowledge developed and deepened.

Philosophy also performs an important critical function in culture. The search for solutions to complex philosophical issues, the formation of a new worldview is usually accompanied by criticism of various kinds of delusions, prejudices, mistakes, stereotypes that rise on the path to true knowledge, correct action.

In relation to the previous and existing cultural and historical experience, philosophy plays the role of a kind of worldview "sieve". Advanced thinkers, as a rule, question and destroy outdated views, dogmas, world outlook schemes. At the same time, they strive to preserve everything valuable, rational, true in the rejected forms of worldview, to support it, to substantiate it, to develop it.

Philosophy addresses not only the past and present, but also the future. As a form of theoretical thought, it has powerful constructive possibilities for the creative formation of fundamentally new ideas, worldview images, and ideals. Philosophy is capable of building various versions of the worldview, as if preparing trial systems of worldview for the future, which is full of surprises and is never completely clear for people living today. This is confirmed by the existence in the history of philosophy of different options for understanding and solving worldview problems.

The most important function of philosophy in the cultural and historical life of people is the coordination, integration of all forms of human experience - practical, cognitive and value. Their holistic philosophical understanding is a necessary condition for a harmonious and balanced social life. A worldview orientation corresponding to the interests of mankind requires the integration of all the main tasks and values ​​of human culture. Their harmonization is feasible only for universal thinking, provided by the complex spiritual work that philosophy has taken upon itself in human culture.

An analysis of the most important functions of philosophy in the system of culture shows that the cultural-historical approach has made noticeable changes in the classical ideas about the subject, goals, methods and results of philosophical activity.

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Introduction

3. Man and the world in the philosophy and culture of the Ancient East

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Philosophy occupies an important place in the system of extremely diverse knowledge about the world around us. Having originated in ancient times, it has gone through a centuries-old path of development, during which a variety of philosophical schools and currents arose and existed. The word "philosophy" is of Greek origin and literally means "love of wisdom". Philosophy is a system of views on the reality around us, a system of the most general concepts about the world and the place of man in it. Since its inception, it has sought to find out what the world is like as a whole, to understand the nature of man himself, to determine what place he occupies in society, whether his mind can penetrate the secrets of the universe, to know and turn the powerful forces of nature for the benefit of people. Philosophy thus poses the most general and at the same time very important, fundamental questions that determine a person's approach to the most diverse areas of life and knowledge. To all these questions, philosophers gave very different, and even mutually exclusive answers. The struggle between materialism and idealism, the formation and development in this struggle of a progressive, materialistic line, is the law of the entire centuries-old development of philosophy. The struggle of materialism against idealism expressed the struggle of the progressive classes of society against the reactionary classes. In ancient times, philosophy existed in China and India. In the VMM-VM centuries. BC. philosophy arose in ancient Greece, where it reached a high level of development. In the Middle Ages, philosophy as an independent science did not exist; it was part of theology. The 15th-15th centuries mark the beginning of a decisive turn from medieval scholasticism to experimental research. The growth of capitalist relations, industry and trade, the great geographical and astronomical discoveries and achievements in other areas of natural science led to the emergence of a new worldview based on experimental knowledge. Thanks to the discoveries of Copernicus, Galileo, Giordano Bruno, science has taken a huge step forward. The path of philosophical understanding of the world is very complicated. Cognition always includes particles of fantasy.

1. World and man. The fundamental question of philosophy

The world is one and diverse - there is nothing in the world but moving matter. There is no other world but the world of infinite matter moving in time and space. The material world, nature is an endless variety of objects, bodies, phenomena and processes. This is inorganic nature, the organic world, society in all their inexhaustible richness and diversity. The diversity of the world lies in the qualitative difference between material things and processes, in the variety of forms of motion of matter. At the same time, the qualitative diversity of the world, the diversity of forms of material movement exists in unity. The real unity of the world consists in its materiality. The unity of the world and its diversity are in a dialectical relationship, they are internally and inextricably linked, a single matter does not exist otherwise than in qualitatively diverse forms, the entire diversity of the world is the diversity of forms of a single matter, a single material world. All the data of science and practice convincingly confirm the unity of the material world. Philosophy is a theoretically formulated worldview. This is a system of the most general views on the world, a person's place in it, an understanding of the various forms of a person's relationship to the world. Philosophy differs from other forms of worldview not so much in its subject matter, but in the way it is comprehended, the degree of intellectual development of problems and methods of approach to them. Therefore, when defining philosophy, the concepts of a theoretical worldview and a system of views are used. In the worldview there are always two opposite angles of view: the direction of consciousness "outside" - the formation of a picture of the world, the universe, and, on the other hand, its appeal "inside" - to the person himself, the desire to understand his essence, place, purpose in the natural and social world. A person is distinguished by the ability to think, to know, to love and hate, to rejoice and grieve, to hope, to desire, to feel a sense of duty, pangs of conscience, etc. The various relationships of these angles of vision permeate the whole of philosophy. The philosophical worldview is, as it were, bipolar: its semantic "nodes" are the world and man. What is essential for philosophical thinking is not a separate consideration of these opposites, but their constant correlation. Various problems of the philosophical worldview are aimed at understanding the forms of their interaction, at understanding the relationship of man to the world. This large multifaceted problem "the world - man", in fact, acts as a universal one and can be considered as a general formula, an abstract expression of almost any philosophical problem. That is why it can, in a certain sense, be called the fundamental question of philosophy. Central to the clash of philosophical views is the question of the relation of consciousness to being, or, in other words, of the relation of the ideal to the material. When we talk about consciousness, ideal, we mean nothing but our thoughts, experiences, feelings. When it comes to being, material, then this includes everything that exists objectively, independently of our consciousness, i.e. things and objects of the external world, phenomena and processes occurring in nature and society. In philosophical understanding, ideal (consciousness) and material (being) are the broadest scientific concepts (categories) that reflect the most general and at the same time opposite properties of objects, phenomena and processes of the world. The question of the relationship between consciousness and being, spirit and nature is the main question of philosophy. From the solution of this issue, ultimately, depends the interpretation of all other problems that determine the philosophical outlook on nature, society, and, therefore, on man himself. When considering the fundamental question of philosophy, it is very important to distinguish between its two sides. First, what is primary - ideal or material? This or that answer to this question plays the most important role in philosophy, because to be primary means to exist before the secondary, to precede it, ultimately, to determine it. Secondly, can a person cognize the world around him, the laws of development of nature and society? The essence of this side of the main question of philosophy is to clarify the ability of human thinking to correctly reflect objective reality. Solving the main question, philosophers divided into two large camps, depending on what they take as the source - material or ideal. Those philosophers who recognize matter, being, nature as primary, and consciousness, thinking, spirit as secondary, represent a philosophical direction called materialistic. In philosophy, there is also an idealistic direction opposite to the materialistic one. Philosophers-idealists recognize the beginning of all existing consciousness, thinking, spirit, i.e. perfect. There is another solution to the main question of philosophy - dualism, which believes that the material and spiritual sides exist separately from one another as independent entities. The question of the relation of thinking to being has a second side - the question of the cognizability of the world: can a person cognize the world around him? Idealistic philosophy, as a rule, denies the possibility of knowing the world. The first question with which philosophical knowledge began: what is the world in which we live? In essence, it is equivalent to the question: what do we know about the world? Philosophy is not the only area of ​​knowledge designed to answer this question. Over the centuries, its solution has included ever new areas of special scientific knowledge and practice. At the same time, special cognitive functions fell to the lot of philosophy. In different historical epochs, they took on a different form, but still some stable common features were preserved. The formation of philosophy, along with the emergence of mathematics, marked the birth of a completely new phenomenon in ancient Greek culture - the first mature forms of theoretical thinking. Some other areas of knowledge reached theoretical maturity much later and, moreover, at different times. Philosophical knowledge of the world had its own requirements. Unlike other types of theoretical knowledge (in mathematics, natural science), philosophy acts as a universal theoretical knowledge. According to Aristotle, the special sciences are engaged in the study of specific types of being, philosophy takes upon itself the knowledge of the most general principles, the beginnings of all things. In cognition of the world, philosophers of different eras turned to solving such problems that either temporarily, in a certain historical period, or fundamentally, forever, turned out to be beyond the field of understanding, the competence of individual sciences. It can be seen that in all philosophical questions there is a correlation "the world - man". It is difficult to answer questions related to the problem of the cognizability of the world in a straightforward manner - such is the nature of philosophy.

2. Man's relation to the world as a subject of philosophy

Philosophy as a historical type of worldview appears last, after mythology and religion. Philosophy solves the main question of the worldview (about the relation of a person to the world) in a theoretical form (ie, the theoretical justification of the worldview). This means that there was new type rationality, for which neither a human nor a supernatural component is needed. Philosophy is interested in the objectively existing world itself without the human role in it. In the philosophical worldview there are always two opposite angles of view: 1) the direction of consciousness "outside" - the formation of one or another picture of the world, the universe; and 2) his appeal "inside" - to the man himself, the desire to understand his essence, his place in the natural and social world. Moreover, a person here appears not as a part of the world in a number of other things, but as a being of a special kind (by the definition of R. Descartes, a thing that thinks, suffers, etc.). It is distinguished from everything else by the ability to think, to know, to love and hate, to rejoice and grieve, and so on. The "poles" that create the "field of tension" of philosophical thought are the "external" world in relation to human consciousness and the "inner" world - psychological, spiritual life. The various correlations of these "worlds" permeate the whole of philosophy. Philosophical worldview is, as it were, bipolar: its semantic "nodes" are the world and man. What is essential for philosophical thought is not a separate consideration of these poles, but their constant correlation. Unlike other forms of worldview in the philosophical worldview, such a polarity is theoretically pointed, it appears most clearly, and forms the basis of all reflections. Various problems of the philosophical worldview, located in the "field of force" between these poles, are "charged", aimed at understanding the forms of their interaction, at understanding the relationship of man to the world. The problem "the world - man", in fact, acts as a universal one and can be considered as an abstract expression of almost any philosophical problem. That is why it can, in a certain sense, be called the fundamental question of philosophy. The main question of philosophy captures the ontological and epistemological relationship of matter and consciousness. This question is fundamental because without it there can be no philosophizing. Other problems become philosophical only because they can be viewed through the prism of man's ontological and epistemological relationship to being. This question is also the main one because, depending on the answer to its ontological part, two main, fundamentally different universal orientations in the world are formed: materialism and idealism. The main question of philosophy, as noted in the literature, is not only a “litmus paper” with which one can distinguish scientific materialism from idealism and agnosticism; it becomes at the same time a means of orienting man in the world. The study of the relationship between being and consciousness is a condition without which a person will not be able to develop his attitude to the world, will not be able to navigate in it. A characteristic feature of philosophical problems is their eternity. This means that philosophy deals with problems that at all times retain their significance. Human thought constantly rethinks them in the light of new experience. These are the following philosophical questions: 1) about the relationship between spirit and matter (spirit is primary for idealists, matter for materialists); 2) the cognizability of the world (epistemological optimists believe that the world is cognizable, objective truth is accessible to the human mind; agnostics believe that the world of essences is fundamentally unknowable; skeptics believe that the world is not cognizable, and if we are cognizable, then not completely); 3) the question of the origins of being (monism - either matter or spirit; dualism - both; pluralism - being has many bases).

2. Man and the world in the philosophy and culture of the Ancient East

Middle of the 1st millennium BC. e. - that milestone in the history of the development of mankind, at which in three centers ancient civilization -- China, India and Greece -- practical simultaneously emerges philosophy. The commonality of the genesis does not exclude the ways of forming a systematized philosophical knowledge in various centers of ancient civilization. In India, this path ran through opposition to Brahminism, which assimilated tribal beliefs and customs, preserved a significant part of the Vedic ritual, recorded in the four Samhitas, or Vedas ("Veda" - knowledge), collections of hymns in honor of the gods. Each Veda was later overgrown with brahmana (commentary), and even later with aranyakas ("forest books" intended for hermits) and, finally, upanishads ("sitting at the teacher's feet"). The first evidence of an independent systematic presentation of Indian philosophy was the sutras (sayings, aphorisms), VII-VI century BC. e. Until modern times, Indian philosophy has practically developed exclusively in line with the six classical darshan systems (Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimansa), oriented towards the authority of the Vedas, and unorthodox currents: Lokayata, Jainism, Buddhism. The Vedantists defended the monistic model of the world, according to which Brahman is the ideal One, the cause of the world. Sanhyaikas and yogis tended towards dualism: they recognized the unmanifested prakriti, possessing undefinable guna elements. The Lokayatikas or Charvakas, the Indian materialists, maintained that there were four "great essences" inherent in the beginning: earth, water, air, and fire. Representatives of the Nyayas and especially the Vaisheshikas were among the ancient atomists (atoms create a moral image of the world, realizing the moral law of dharma). The position of Buddhism was in the middle in the sense that, according to it, the universe was presented as an endless process of separate elements of matter and spirit, appearing and disappearing, without real personalities and without permanent substance. In many ways, the formation of ancient Chinese philosophy was similar. If in India numerous schools of philosophy were in one way or another connected with Vedism, then in China they were in contact with Confucian orthodoxy (rival schools of Taoism, Mohism and Legalism). Ancient myths describe the origin of the cosmos in no other way than by analogy with biological birth. The Indians had a marriage combination of heaven and earth. In the imagination of the Chinese, two spirits were born from the formless darkness, ordering the world: the male spirit yang began to rule the sky, and the female yin - the earth. Gradually, the ordering of chaos and the organization of the universe begin to be attributed to the “first man”. In Vedic myths, this is the thousand-headed, thousand-armed Purusha. The mind or spirit of which gave birth to the moon, eyes - the sun, mouth - fire, breath - wind. Purusha is not only a model of society, but also of a human community with the earliest social hierarchy, manifested in the division into "varnas"; From the mouth of the Purusha came the priests (Brahmins), from the hands - the warriors, from the thighs - the merchants, from the feet all the rest (Shudras). Similarly, in Chinese mythology, the origin is associated with the supernatural man Pansu. Turning to the rational understanding of the causality of the world in various manifestations of its constancy and variability, a person had to see his place in a new way, the purpose in which it also reflects the specifics of the social structure of ancient Asian society: centralized despotism and the rural community. In China, a single "great beginning" is deified in the Sky - "Tian". In the Shi Jing (Canon of Poems), Heaven is the universal progenitor and great ruler: it gives birth to the human race and gives the rule of life: the sovereign must be the sovereign, the dignitary-dignitary, the father-father ... Confucianism, which laid the ideological foundation of Chinese society from ancient times, put forward as a cornerstone of social organization - whether - norm, rule, ceremonial. Li assumed the maintenance of forever rank-hierarchical differences. In India, Brahma, who forms the real and unreal, is not only the "eternal creator" of beings, but also determines for all the names, type of activity (karma) and a special position. He is credited with the establishment of caste division ("Laws of Manu"), the highest position in which is occupied by the Brahmins. In ancient China, along with the ethical concept of Confucianism, focused on maintaining the harmony of man with society, there was a Taoist “going out” of society into space, to feel like not a cog in a powerful state mechanism, but a microcosm. The caste system in ancient India rigidly determined a person, leaving no hope for the possibility of getting rid of suffering in a different way than the path of rebirth. Hence the path of asceticism and mystical search in the Blagavad Gita, developed even more in Buddhism. Climbing along the path of human perfection in Buddhism ends with the state of nirvana (an indefinite ultimate goal - nirvana - a huge meaning, there is no end to perfection). Fluctuating between two extremes: substantiating the social status of morality by belittling a real individual or affirming a specific individual by ignoring social essence morality was a universal characteristic of the ancient era. However, the peculiarities of the social life of the ancient Asian society had an unfavorable effect on the development of individual freedom. This, in turn, determined further development philosophical thought, which for centuries remained in the closed space of traditional mental structures, was mainly occupied with commenting and interpretation.

4. The problem of man in modern philosophy

Since time immemorial, man has been the object of philosophical reflection. This is evidenced by the oldest sources of Indian and Chinese philosophy, especially the sources of the philosophy of ancient Greece. It was here that the well-known call was formulated: "Man, know yourself, and you will know the Universe and the Gods!" It reflected the complexity and depth of the human problem. Knowing himself, man gains freedom; before him the secrets of the Universe are revealed, and he becomes on a par with the Gods. But this has not happened yet, despite the fact that thousands of years of history have passed. Man was and remains a mystery to himself. There are grounds for asserting that the problem of man, like any truly philosophical problem, is an open and unfinished problem that we only need to solve, but do not need to solve completely. Kantian question: "What is a man?" remains relevant. In the history of philosophical thought, various human problems are known for research. Some philosophers tried (and are trying now) to discover some unchanging nature of man (his essence). At the same time, they proceed from the idea that such knowledge will make it possible to explain the origin of people's thoughts and actions and thereby indicate to them the "formula of happiness." But among these philosophers there is no unity, for each of them sees as an essence what the other does not see, and thus complete discord reigns here. Suffice it to say that in the Middle Ages the essence of man was seen in his soul turned to God; in the epoch of modern times, B. Pascal defined a person as a "thinking reed"; Enlightenment philosophers of the 18th century saw the essence of man in his mind; L. Feuerbach pointed to a religion based on love; K. Marx defined a person as a social being - a product of social development, etc. Following this path, philosophers discovered more and more facets of human nature, but this did not lead to a clarification of the picture, but rather complicated it. Another approach to the study of human nature can be conditionally called historical. It is based on the study of the monuments of the material and spiritual culture of the distant past and allows us to imagine a person as a historically developing being from its lower forms to its higher ones, i.e. modern. The stimulus for such a vision of man was given by the theory of evolution of Ch. Darwin. K. Marx occupies a prominent place among the representatives of this approach. Another approach explains the nature of man by the influence on him cultural factors and is called cultural. It is, to one degree or another, characteristic of many philosophers, which will be discussed in our lecture. A number of researchers note a very important side of human nature, namely, that in the course of historical development, a person carries out self-development, i.e. he "creates" himself (S. Kierkegaard, K. Marx, W. James, A. Bergson, Teilhard de Chardin). He is the creator not only of himself, but also of his own history. Thus man is historical and transient in time; he is not born "reasonable", but becomes so throughout the life and history of the human race. There are other approaches, you can read more about them in the work of E. Fromm and R. Hierau "Preface to the anthology" Human Nature "(see the list of references at the end of the lecture). Before proceeding to the presentation of specific issues, we will make one terminological explanation. We are talking about the fact that the philosophy of man in the specialized literature is called philosophical anthropology (from the Greek. anthropos - man and logos - teaching.) This term is used in this lecture.

Conclusion

man philosophy being

Philosophy is sometimes understood as some kind of abstract knowledge, extremely remote from the realities of everyday life. Nothing is further from the truth than such a judgment. On the contrary, it is in life that the most serious, deepest problems of philosophy originate, it is precisely here that the main field of its interests lies; everything else, down to the most abstract concepts and categories, down to the most cunning mental constructions, is ultimately nothing more than a means for comprehending life's realities in their interconnection, in all their fullness, depth and inconsistency. At the same time, it is important to keep in mind that from the point of view of scientific philosophy, understanding reality does not mean simply reconciling and agreeing with it in everything. Philosophy involves a critical attitude to reality, to what is becoming obsolete and obsolete, and at the same time - a search in the very reality, in its contradictions, and not in thinking about it, of the possibilities, means and directions for its change and development. The transformation of reality, practice, is the sphere where only philosophical problems can be resolved, where the reality and power of human thinking are revealed. An appeal to the history of philosophical thought shows that the theme of man is, firstly, enduring. Secondly, it is comprehended from various worldview positions, due to concrete historical and other reasons. Thirdly, in the history of philosophy, questions about the essence and nature of man, the meaning of his existence, remain unchanged. In essence, the history of anthropology is the history of understanding the process of separating a person from the outside world (antiquity), opposing him (Renaissance) and, finally, merging with him, gaining unity (Russian religious philosophy and other teachings).

Bibliography

1) Golubintsev V.O., Dantsev A.A. Philosophy for technical universities - Rostov-on-Don, 2010

2) Serik Myrzaly. Philosophy. - Almaty, 2008.

3) Shchitsko V.L., Sharakpaeva G.D., Dzharkinbaev E.E. Philosophy. Lecture notes for all specialties. - Almaty 2010.

4) Losev A.F. Philosophy, mythology, culture. - M., 1991.

5) The World of Philosophy in Brief.- M., 1991.

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Man as a subject of study of philosophy. Developments of philosophical anthropology. The dominance of the labor theory of anthroposociogenesis in dialectical materialist philosophy. The unity of the natural and the social in man. Spirituality and the problem of the meaning of life.

Philosophical pictures of the world are very diverse, but they are all built around the relationship: the world is a person. However, the inversion is also quite acceptable: a person is the world. Actually, on this distinction, two leading lines in philosophical knowledge are built, which can be conditionally called objectivist and subjectivist.

Objectivist conceptions, whether materialistic or idealistic, prioritize the world, believing that it is somehow objective, i.e. does not depend in its existence and qualities on the desires of the subjects and the human way of seeing. Truth is the same for all: for people, gods, demons and any sentient beings. If a centipede flies to us from Jupiter, which has ears on its feet, but sees only in the infrared part of the spectrum, the truths and laws of logic will be the same for it as for us, since they reflect the objective characteristics of reality (or, conversely, empirical reality is the expression of objective logical laws). Objectivist philosophical concepts believe that we all can and should find common positions on the issue of the qualities of reality and our place in it, and those who are stubborn in defending a special position are simply mistaken, falling into an illusion. Vivid examples of objectivist concepts were the philosophy of Hegel and Marx. Teachings of this type highly value the role of knowledge in people's lives, since they believe that rational knowledge directly connects us with the truth and shows the world as it is.

The opposite of objectivism is subjectivism, when the world common to all living subjects is replaced by a multitude of "worlds". I am my own Universe, I see reality exclusively from my point of view, I am in my situations and immensely lonely, because no one can share with me my individual world, which becomes a prison. All other reality is refracted through my unique "I", therefore, in general, it is difficult to say whether there is anything objective. Everything depends on me, and the world, as it were, fuses with me, becomes my projection, the result of my activity. The boundaries between the "I" and the world are blurred with the dominance of the personal principle. A prime example This kind of subjectivism is advocated by the philosophy of J. P. Sartre, who believes that a person, not of his own free will, "thrown into being" is completely free. common truths and general rules no. Everyone goes through life at their own peril and risk, doing whatever they want and answering only to themselves. To succumb to common truths and views is to betray oneself.

The huge "space" between the two extreme poles constitutes the field of philosophical search. Actually, the most important philosophical problem is the question: what in the world is from us, and what is from the world itself? What of subjectivity and what of objectivity? What depends on the person and what does not depend on? As in the old prayer: "Lord, let me understand what I can change, let me understand what I cannot change, and teach me to distinguish the first from the second!" Philosophy has been trying to distinguish for two and a half thousand years, although its search is not always successful.

Philosophers, wishing to understand the world, at the same time try to figure out whether it is possible to comprehend it at all and how exactly is it possible? Can we get true objective knowledge, or is any of our appeal to the world a look through the distorting glasses of needs and predilections? Great philosopher of the 18th century Immanuel Kant put forward the idea that space and time, through which we perceive reality, is only a way of our human vision, and what the world "in itself" is is completely unknown. "Well, we don't need to know!" - the pragmatist philosophers later said, “the main thing is to get practical results, and what is really there is not at all important!” However, other philosophers did not agree with such a rejection of knowledge and decided, if not to break through to reality “by itself ", then at least develop a common point of view on how the world appears to us.

Western philosophy today is dominated and contested by two main approaches. According to the first, there can be no general points of view on the world and the fate of man. Each person and each philosopher "stew in their own juice" and have no access to their brothers in mind.

In accordance with the second, mutual understanding between people is possible, and hence the formation of common, generally valid ideas about what the world and man are. Be that as it may, philosophers always communicate with each other, with other people and are looking for a common language, common perspectives of vision, despite the fact that there are indeed many "subjective worlds", and they are sometimes quite far apart from each other.

In order not to go to extremes, we can say that the world in which our life takes place is a fusion of the subjective and the objective, of what depends and what does not depend on us at all, and this complex dialectic is each time specifically considered by philosophy on a new level and in a new historical setting. At the same time, philosophers discuss the problem of the world and man in a conceptual language and never take anything simply on faith. Their job is to doubt everything, to subject everything to strict critical analysis and never stop at the achieved level of knowledge. In this philosophy is opposed to religion, which seeks to accurately reproduce the ancient canon.

The philosophical picture of the world is a picture endlessly drawn by an inquisitive intellect, including a complex interweaving of the human and the extrahuman, the material and the spiritual, the minute and the eternal.

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2 2 The program for preparing for the admission test for graduate school is compiled in accordance with the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education - GEF HPE (specialist and master's degree). EXPLANATORY NOTE. The main purpose of the test is to determine the level of formation of the future graduate student's ability to philosophize and readiness for intercultural, scientific communication. The program is aimed at identifying ideological and methodological readiness to improve the level of education, scientific and pedagogical qualifications. The future graduate student must demonstrate the accumulated skills and abilities. Philosophy makes it possible to introduce applicants to the philosophical heritage and values ​​of universal human significance, promotes the development of intelligence, the formation of a theoretical worldview, and the expansion of cultural horizons. Formation of an idea about the specifics of philosophy as a way of knowing and spiritually mastering the world, the main sections of modern philosophical knowledge, philosophical problems and methods for their study; mastery basic principles and methods of philosophical knowledge; introduction to the range of philosophical problems related to the field of the future professional activity, developing skills to work with original and adapted philosophical texts. The study of the discipline is aimed at developing the skills of critical perception and evaluation of information sources, the ability to logically formulate, present and reasonably defend one's own vision of problems and ways to solve them; mastering the methods of conducting discussions, polemics, dialogue.

3 3 CONTENT OF THE ENTRANCE TEST TO POSTGRADUATE STUDIES 1. Section of the discipline and its content Philosophy, its subject and place in culture. Philosophical questions in the life of modern man. The subject of philosophy. Philosophy as a form of spiritual culture. The main characteristics of philosophical knowledge. Functions of philosophy. 2. Historical types of philosophy. Philosophical traditions and modern discussions. The emergence of philosophy. Philosophy ancient world. medieval philosophy. Philosophy of the Ages. Modern Philosophy. Traditions of domestic philosophy. 3. Philosophical ontology. Being as a problem of philosophy. Monistic and pluralistic concepts of being. material and ideal existence. specificity of human existence. The problem of life, its finiteness and infinity, the uniqueness of multiplicity in the Universe. The idea of ​​development in philosophy. Being and consciousness. The problem of consciousness in philosophy. Knowledge, consciousness and self-consciousness. The nature of thinking. Language and thought. 4. Theory of knowledge. knowledge as a subject of philosophical analysis. Subject and object of knowledge. Knowledge and creativity. Basic forms and methods of knowledge. The problem of truth in philosophy and science. Variety of forms of cognition and types of rationality. Truth, evaluation, value. Knowledge and practice. 5. Philosophy and methodology of science. Philosophy and Science. Structure scientific knowledge. Verification and falsification. The problem of induction. The growth of scientific knowledge and the problem of scientific method. Specifics of social and humanitarian knowledge. Positivist and postpositivist concepts in the methodology of science. Rational reconstructions of the history of science. Scientific revolutions and change of types of rationality. Freedom of scientific research and social responsibility of the scientist. 6. Philosophical anthropology. Man and the world in modern philosophy.

4 4 Natural (biological) and public (social) in man. Anthroposynthesis and its complex nature. The meaning of life: death and immortality. Man, freedom, creativity. Man in the communication system: from classical ethics to the ethics of discourse. Social philosophy and philosophy of history. Philosophical understanding of society and its history. Society as a self-developing system. Civil Society, Nation and State. Culture and civilization. Multivariance of historical development. 7. Necessity and conscious activity of people in the historical process. Dynamics and typology of historical development. Socio-political ideals and their historical fate (Marxist theory of class society; " open society» K. Popper; "free society" F. Hayek; neoliberal theory of globalization). Violence and non-violence. Sources and subjects of the historical process. Basic concepts of the philosophy of history. Philosophical problems in the field of professional activity. Actual philosophical problems of system cognition, informatics, control theory, space exploration. EXAMPLE LIST OF QUESTIONS FOR THE ENTRANCE EXAM During the entrance examination, the following questions were raised: Metaphilosophy and the history of philosophy 1. Philosophy, its subject and role in society. 2. Philosophical consciousness and its structure. Philosophy and wisdom. 3. Philosophy and worldview. Worldview types. 4. The main question of philosophy and the main philosophical directions. 5. Methods of philosophical knowledge. Dialectics and its historical forms. 6. The emergence of philosophy. Philosophy and mythology. 7. The main types of philosophical culture: Eastern, Western, Russian.

5 5 8. Features of the Indian philosophical tradition. 9. Features of the Chinese philosophical tradition. 10. Cosmocentrism of ancient philosophy. Natural Philosophy of Ancient Greece. 11. Anthropological philosophy (sophists and Socrates). 12. Plato's objective idealism. 13. Philosophy and methodology of science of Aristotle. 14. Features of Hellenistic and ancient Roman philosophy. 15. Theocentrism of medieval philosophy. Patristics in Christian Philosophy. 16. Medieval scholasticism. The dispute between nominalism and realism about the nature of universals. 17. Philosophy of the Renaissance: anthropocentrism. 18. F. Bacon and R. Descartes - the founders of the philosophy of modern times. 19. Sensationalism and rationalism in the theory of knowledge of modern times. 20. Philosophy of the Enlightenment. 21. Critical philosophy of I. Kant. 22. German classical philosophy. Hegel's dialectical method. 23. Anthropological materialism L. Feuerbach. 24. Marxist philosophy in the XIX and XX centuries. 25. Features of Russian philosophy of the late XVIII-XX centuries. 26. Philosophy of positivism and pragmatism of the XIX-XX centuries. 27. Irrationalism XIX - early XX centuries: intuitionism, philosophy of life, Freudianism. 28. Non-classical philosophy of the XX century: phenomenology, existentialism. 29. Religious Western philosophy of the XX century: neo-Thomism, personalism. 30. Philosophy of postmodernism. Basic concepts and modern problems of philosophy

6 6 1. The concept of being and its types. 2. The concept of matter in philosophy and science. 3. Space and time as forms of existence. 4. Movement and development as ways of existence of matter. 5. The problem of consciousness in philosophy and science. 6. The structure of the human psyche. Conscious and unconscious. 7. Cognition and practice as activities. 8. The question of the cognizability of the world: agnosticism and epistemological optimism. 9. Subject and object of knowledge. 10. Sensory experience and rational thinking, their main forms. 11. Intuition and its role in cognition. 12. Truth and its criteria. Relative and absolute truth, dogmatism and relativism. 13. Empirical and theoretical levels of scientific knowledge. 14. Social philosophy and philosophy of history in the structure of philosophical knowledge. 15. Nature and society, their interaction. Environmental problem and ways to solve it. 16. Material and spiritual aspects of public life, their correlation. 17. Man as a subject of philosophical analysis. 18. Personality and society. Freedom and responsibility of the individual. 19. Philosophical understanding of culture. 20. Formational and civilizational approaches to understanding historical development. 21. Social progress, its criteria and main stages. 22. Spiritual life of society. Public consciousness, its structure and forms.

7 7 23. Science as a form of social consciousness. 24. Aesthetic consciousness. Philosophical understanding of art. 25. Philosophical understanding of religion. 26. Moral consciousness. Philosophical understanding of morality. 27. Legal consciousness and political consciousness. 28. Economic and ecological consciousness. 29. Current global situation. The main global problems of mankind and possible ways to solve them. 30. Information revolution as the most important component of scientific and technological revolution. RECOMMENDED LITERATURE Main literature Textbooks and manuals: 1. Golovko E.P. Introduction to the history of philosophy: textbook. allowance for students of all specialties MSUL. M: MGUL, p. 2. Gubin V.D. Philosophy. Tutorial. M: Prospect, p. 3. Kanke V.A. History of Philosophy: Thinkers, Concepts, Discoveries: Textbook. Moscow: Logos, p. 4. Kanke V.A. Philosophy. Historical and systematic course: A textbook for university students. 6th ed., revised. and additional Moscow: Logos, p. 5. Spirkin A.G. Philosophy: a textbook for university students. 2nd ed. Moscow: Gardariki, p. 6. Philosophy: a textbook for university students / Ed. V.N. Lavrinenko and V.P. Ratnikov. 3rd ed., rev. and additional M.: UNITI, p. 7. Shestova T.L. Fundamentals of philosophical knowledge: textbook. allowance. 3rd ed. Moscow: MGUL, p. 8. Philosophical encyclopedic Dictionary/ Red-comp. E.F. Gubsky and others. M.: INFRA-M, p.

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