2.2. Adaptations of organisms Adaptations of organisms to the environment are called adaptations. Adaptations are understood as any changes in the structure and functions of organisms that increase their chances of survival. The ability to adapt is one of the main properties of life in general, since

Chapter 3. KEY ABIOTIC FACTORS AND ADAPTATION TO THEM

3.1.3. Temperature adaptations of poikilothermic organisms The temperature of poikilothermic organisms changes following the ambient temperature. They are predominantly ectothermic, producing and retaining their own heat is not enough to withstand the thermal regime.

3.1.4. Temperature adaptations of homoiothermic organisms

3.4. The main ways of adapting living organisms to environmental conditions In all the variety of adaptations of living organisms to adverse environmental conditions, three main ways can be distinguished. The active way is an increase in resistance, the development of regulatory processes,

Chapter 4. BASIC ENVIRONMENTS OF LIFE AND ORGANISMS ADAPT TO THEM On our planet, living organisms have mastered four main habitats, which differ greatly in the specifics of the conditions. The aquatic environment was the first in which life arose and spread. Subsequently, living

4.1. Aquatic habitat. Specificity of adaptation of hydrobionts Water as a habitat has a number of specific properties, such as high density, strong pressure drops, relatively low oxygen content, strong absorption of sunlight, etc.

8.6. Higher Aesthetic Emotions as a Consequence of Natural Selection Once we are convinced that our elementary aesthetic emotions could indeed be formed by natural selection, we can begin to consider the origin of much more complex

IV. Instincts for Adaptation to the Evolutionary Environment

5. PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINATES OF HUMAN ADAPTATION TO EXTREME CONDITIONS OF ACTIVITY At present, the main directions in the study of adaptation have become the definition of the stages of formation of the psychophysiological system of adaptation, the criteria for its formation,

5. The most important conclusions from the theory of natural selection A. The expediency of life phenomena as a result of natural selection Darwin's work, as noted at the beginning, contributed to the establishment of a materialistic worldview in wide circles of readers. It's possible

17. Social instincts as a product of natural selection The idea that instinct arises under the influence of natural selection was first suggested by Charles Darwin in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1873). In this last and least known of his four

Adaptations are various adaptations to the environment developed by organisms in the process of evolution. .

There are three main ways that organisms adapt to environmental conditions: the active way, the passive way, and the avoidance of adverse effects.

Active path - strengthening of resistance, development of regulatory processes that allow to carry out all the vital functions of the body, despite the deviation of the factor from the optimum. For example, maintaining a constant body temperature in warm-blooded animals (birds and mammals), which is optimal for the flow of biochemical processes in cells.

The passive path is the subordination of the vital functions of the body to changes in environmental factors. For example, the transition under adverse environmental conditions to a state of anabiosis (hidden life), when the metabolism in the body almost completely stops (winter dormancy of plants, preservation of seeds and spores in the soil, stupor of insects, hibernation of vertebrates).

Avoidance of adverse effects is the development by the body of such life cycles and behaviors that allow avoiding adverse effects. For example, seasonal migrations of animals.

Adaptations can be divided into three main types: morphological, physiological and ethological.

Morphological adaptations - changes in the structure of the organism (for example, the modification of a leaf into a thorn in cacti to reduce water loss, the bright color of flowers to attract pollinators). Morphological adaptations in plants and animals lead to the formation of certain life forms.

Physiological adaptations - changes in the physiology of the body (for example, the ability of a camel to provide the body with moisture by oxidizing fat reserves, the presence of cellulose-degrading enzymes in cellulose-degrading bacteria).

Ethological (behavioral) adaptations - changes in behavior (for example, seasonal migrations of mammals and birds, hibernation in winter, mating games in birds and mammals during the breeding season).

15. The aquatic environment of life and its characteristics. Classification of hydrobionts

Hydrobionts - (from the Greek hydor - water and bios - life) organisms that live in the aquatic environment.

Diversity of hydrobionts

Pelagic organisms (plants or animals that live in the water column or on the surface)

Neuston - a set of microorganisms living near the surface film of water on the border of aquatic and air environments.

Pleuston - plant or animal organisms that live on the surface of the water, or semi-submerged in water.

Rheophylls are animals that have adapted to living in flowing waters.

Nekton - a set of aquatic actively swimming organisms that can resist the force of the current.

Plankton are heterogeneous, mostly small organisms, freely drifting in the water column and unable to resist the flow.

Benthos (a set of organisms that live on the ground and in the soil of the bottom of water bodies)

The hydrosphere as an aquatic environment of life occupies about 71% of the area and 1/800 of the volume of the globe. The main amount of water, more than 94%, is concentrated in the seas and oceans. In the fresh waters of rivers and lakes, the amount of water does not exceed 0.016% of the total volume of fresh water.

In the ocean with its constituent seas, two ecological regions are primarily distinguished: the water column - the pelagial and the bottom - the benthal. Depending on the depth, the benthal is divided into the sublittoral zone - the area of ​​​​smooth decrease in land to a depth of 200 m, the bathyal - the region of a steep slope and the abyssal zone - the ocean floor with an average depth of 3-6 km. The deeper benthal regions corresponding to the depressions of the oceanic bed (6-10 km) are called the ultra-abyssal. The edge of the coast, flooded during high tides, is called the littoral. The part of the coast above the level of the tides, moistened by the splashes of the surf, is called the superlittoral.

The open waters of the oceans are also divided into vertical zones corresponding to the benthal zones: epipeligial, bathypeligial, abyssopegial.

Approximately 150,000 animal species, or about 7% of their total number, and 10,000 plant species (8%) live in the aquatic environment.

The share of rivers, lakes and swamps, as noted earlier, is insignificant compared to seas and oceans. However, they create a supply of fresh water necessary for plants, animals and humans.

A characteristic feature of the aquatic environment is its mobility, especially in flowing, fast-flowing streams and rivers. In the seas and oceans, ebbs and flows, powerful currents, and storms are observed. In lakes, water moves under the influence of temperature and wind.

16. Ground-air environment of life, its characteristics and forms of adaptation to it

Life on land required such adaptations that were possible only in highly organized living organisms. The ground-air environment is more difficult for life, it is characterized by a high oxygen content, a small amount of water vapor, low density, etc. This greatly changed the conditions of respiration, water exchange and movement of living beings.

The low air density determines its low lifting force and insignificant bearing capacity. The organisms of the air environment must have their own support system that supports the body: plants - a variety of mechanical tissues, animals - a solid or hydrostatic skeleton. In addition, all the inhabitants of the air environment are closely connected with the surface of the earth, which serves them for attachment and support.

Low air density provides low movement resistance. Therefore, many land animals have acquired the ability to fly. 75% of all terrestrial creatures, mainly insects and birds, have adapted to active flight.

Due to the mobility of air, the vertical and horizontal flows of air masses existing in the lower layers of the atmosphere, passive flight of organisms is possible. In this regard, many species have developed anemochory - resettlement with the help of air currents. Anemochory is characteristic of spores, seeds and fruits of plants, protozoan cysts, small insects, spiders, etc. Organisms passively transported by air currents are collectively called aeroplankton.

Terrestrial organisms exist in conditions of relatively low pressure due to the low density of air. Normally, it is equal to 760 mm Hg. As altitude increases, pressure decreases. Low pressure may limit the distribution of species in the mountains. For vertebrates, the upper limit of life is about 60 mm. A decrease in pressure entails a decrease in oxygen supply and dehydration of animals due to an increase in the respiratory rate. Approximately the same limits of advance in the mountains have higher plants. Somewhat more hardy are the arthropods that can be found on glaciers above the vegetation line.

Gas composition of air. In addition to the physical properties of the air environment, its chemical properties are very important for the existence of terrestrial organisms. The gas composition of air in the surface layer of the atmosphere is quite homogeneous in terms of the content of the main components (nitrogen - 78.1%, oxygen - 21.0%, argon - 0.9%, carbon dioxide - 0.003% by volume).

The high oxygen content contributed to an increase in the metabolism of terrestrial organisms compared to primary aquatic ones. It was in the terrestrial environment, on the basis of the high efficiency of oxidative processes in the body, that animal homeothermia arose. Oxygen, due to its constant high content in the air, is not a limiting factor for life in the terrestrial environment.

The content of carbon dioxide can vary in certain areas of the surface layer of air within fairly significant limits. Increased air saturation with CO? occurs in zones of volcanic activity, near thermal springs and other underground outlets of this gas. In high concentrations, carbon dioxide is toxic. In nature, such concentrations are rare. Low CO2 content slows down the process of photosynthesis. Under indoor conditions, you can increase the rate of photosynthesis by increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide. This is used in the practice of greenhouses and greenhouses.

Air nitrogen for most inhabitants of the terrestrial environment is an inert gas, but individual microorganisms (nodule bacteria, nitrogen bacteria, blue-green algae, etc.) have the ability to bind it and involve it in the biological cycle of substances.

Moisture deficiency is one of the essential features of the ground-air environment of life. The whole evolution of terrestrial organisms was under the sign of adaptation to the extraction and conservation of moisture. The modes of environmental humidity on land are very diverse - from the complete and constant saturation of air with water vapor in some areas of the tropics to their almost complete absence in the dry air of deserts. The daily and seasonal variability of water vapor content in the atmosphere is also significant. The water supply of terrestrial organisms also depends on the mode of precipitation, the presence of reservoirs, soil moisture reserves, the proximity of groundwater, and so on.

This led to the development of adaptations in terrestrial organisms to various water supply regimes.

Temperature regime. The next distinguishing feature of the air-ground environment is significant temperature fluctuations. In most land areas, daily and annual temperature amplitudes are tens of degrees. The resistance to temperature changes in the environment of terrestrial inhabitants is very different, depending on the specific habitat in which they live. However, in general, terrestrial organisms are much more eurythermic than aquatic organisms.

The conditions of life in the ground-air environment are complicated, in addition, by the existence of weather changes. Weather - continuously changing states of the atmosphere near the borrowed surface, up to a height of about 20 km (troposphere boundary). Weather variability is manifested in the constant variation of the combination of such environmental factors as temperature, air humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, wind strength and direction, etc. The long-term weather regime characterizes the climate of the area. The concept of "Climate" includes not only the average values ​​of meteorological phenomena, but also their annual and daily course, deviation from it and their frequency. The climate is determined by the geographical conditions of the area. The main climatic factors - temperature and humidity - are measured by the amount of precipitation and the saturation of the air with water vapor.

For most terrestrial organisms, especially small ones, the climate of the area is not so much important as the conditions of their immediate habitat. Very often, local elements of the environment (relief, exposition, vegetation, etc.) change the regime of temperatures, humidity, light, air movement in a particular area in such a way that it differs significantly from the climatic conditions of the area. Such modifications of the climate, which take shape in the surface layer of air, are called the microclimate. In each zone, the microclimate is very diverse. Microclimates of very small areas can be distinguished.

The light regime of the ground-air environment also has some features. The intensity and amount of light here are the greatest and practically do not limit the life of green plants, as in water or soil. On land, the existence of extremely photophilous species is possible. For the vast majority of terrestrial animals with diurnal and even nocturnal activity, vision is one of the main ways of orientation. In terrestrial animals, vision is essential for finding prey, and many species even have color vision. In this regard, the victims develop such adaptive features as a defensive reaction, masking and warning coloration, mimicry, etc. In aquatic life, such adaptations are much less developed. The emergence of brightly colored flowers of higher plants is also associated with the peculiarities of the apparatus of pollinators and, ultimately, with the light regime of the environment.

The relief of the terrain and the properties of the soil are also the conditions for the life of terrestrial organisms and, first of all, plants. The properties of the earth's surface that have an ecological impact on its inhabitants are united by "edaphic environmental factors" (from the Greek "edafos" - "soil").

In relation to different properties of soils, a number of ecological groups of plants can be distinguished. So, according to the reaction to the acidity of the soil, they distinguish:

acidophilic species - grow on acidic soils with a pH of at least 6.7 (plants of sphagnum bogs);

neutrophilic - tend to grow on soils with a pH of 6.7-7.0 (most cultivated plants);

basiphilic - grow at a pH of more than 7.0 (mordovnik, forest anemone);

indifferent - can grow on soils with different pH values ​​​​(lily of the valley).

Plants also differ in relation to soil moisture. Certain species are confined to different substrates, for example, petrophytes grow on stony soils, and pasmophytes inhabit free-flowing sands.

The terrain and the nature of the soil affect the specifics of the movement of animals: for example, ungulates, ostriches, bustards living in open spaces, hard ground, to enhance repulsion when running. In lizards that live in loose sands, the fingers are fringed with horny scales that increase support. For terrestrial inhabitants digging holes, dense soil is unfavorable. The nature of the soil in certain cases affects the distribution of terrestrial animals that dig holes or burrow into the ground, or lay eggs in the soil, etc.

17. Soil as a living environment. Classification of soil animals, form of adaptation

The soil is a surface layer of land, consisting of a mixture of mineral substances obtained from the decay of rocks, and organic substances resulting from the decomposition of plant and animal remains by microorganisms. Various organisms that destroy the remains of dead organisms (fungi, bacteria, worms, small arthropods, etc.) live in the surface layers of the soil. The vigorous activity of these organisms contributes to the formation of a fertile soil layer suitable for the existence of many living beings. The soil is characterized by high density, slight temperature fluctuations, moderate moisture, insufficient oxygen content and high concentration of carbon dioxide. Its porous structure allows the penetration of gases and water, which creates favorable conditions for soil organisms such as algae, fungi, protozoa, bacteria, arthropods, molluscs and other invertebrates.

Adaptation of a person to a new environment for him is a complex socio-biological process, which is based on a change in the systems and functions of the body, as well as habitual behavior. Human adaptation refers to the adaptive reactions of his body to changing environmental factors. Adaptation manifests itself at different levels of organization of living matter: from molecular to biocenotic. Adaptation develops under the influence of three factors: heredity, variability, natural / artificial selection. There are three main ways that organisms adapt to their environment: the active way, the passive way, and the avoidance of adverse effects.

active path- strengthening of resistance, development of regulatory processes that allow to carry out all the vital functions of the body, despite the deviation of the environmental factor from the optimum. For example, maintaining a constant body temperature in warm-blooded animals (birds, humans), optimal for the flow of biochemical processes in cells.

passive way- subordination of the vital functions of the organism to changes in environmental factors. For example, under unfavorable environmental conditions, the transition to a state of anabiosis (hidden life), when the metabolism in the body almost completely stops (winter dormancy of plants, preservation of seeds and spores in the soil, stupor of insects, hibernation, etc.).

Avoidance of adverse conditions- development by the body of such life cycles and behaviors that allow avoiding adverse effects. For example, seasonal migrations of animals.

Usually, the adaptation of a species to the environment takes place by one or another combination of all three possible ways of adaptation.
Adaptations can be divided into three main types: morphological, physiological, ethological.

Morphological adaptations- changes in the structure of the organism (for example, the modification of a leaf into a thorn in cacti to reduce water loss, bright colors of flowers to attract pollinators, etc.). Morphological adaptations in animals lead to the formation of certain life forms.

Physiological adaptations- changes in the physiology of the body (for example, the ability of a camel to provide the body with moisture by oxidizing fat reserves, the presence of cellulose-degrading enzymes in cellulose-destroying bacteria, etc.).

Ethological (behavioral) adaptations- changes in behavior (for example, seasonal migrations of mammals and birds, hibernation in winter, mating games in birds and mammals during the breeding season, etc.). Ethological adaptations are characteristic of animals.

Living organisms are well adapted to periodic factors. Non-periodic factors can cause disease and even death of a living organism. A person uses this by applying antibiotics and other non-periodic factors. However, the duration of their exposure can also cause adaptation to them.
The environment has a huge impact on a person. In this regard, the problem of adapting a person to his environment is becoming increasingly important. In social ecology, this problem is of paramount importance. At the same time, adaptation is only the initial stage, at which reactive forms of human behavior predominate. The person does not stop at this stage. He shows physical, intellectual, moral, spiritual activity, transforms (for worse or worse) his environment.

Human adaptation is divided into genotypic and phenotypic. Genotypic adaptation: a person outside of his consciousness can adapt to changing environmental conditions (temperature changes, food taste, etc.), that is, if the adaptation mechanisms are already in the genes. Phenotypic adaptation is understood as the inclusion of consciousness, one's personal qualities of a person in order to adapt the body to a new environment, to maintain balance in new conditions.

The main types of adaptation include physiological, adaptation to activity, adaptation to society. Let's focus on physiological adaptation. Under the physiological adaptation of a person is understood the process of maintaining the functional state of the body as a whole, ensuring its preservation, development, performance, maximum life expectancy. Great importance in physiological adaptation is attached to acclimation and acclimatization. It is clear that a person's life in the Far North differs from his life at the equator, since these are different climatic zones. Moreover, a southerner, having lived for a certain time in the north, adapts to it and can live there permanently and vice versa. Acclimation is the initial, urgent stage of acclimatization under changing climatic and geographical conditions. In some cases, a synonym for physiological adaptation is acclimatization, that is, the adaptation of plants, animals and humans to new climatic conditions for them. Physiological acclimatization occurs when a person, with the help of adaptive reactions, increases working capacity, improves well-being, which can deteriorate sharply during the period of acclimation. When new conditions are replaced by old ones, the body can return to its previous state. Such changes are called acclimatization. The same changes that, in the process of adapting to a new environment, have passed into the genotype and are inherited, are called adaptive.

Adaptation of the body to living conditions (city, village, other locality). not limited to climatic conditions. A person can live in the city and in the countryside. Many people prefer the metropolis with its noise, pollution, frantic pace of life. Objectively, living in a village, where clean air, a calm, measured rhythm, is more favorable for people.

The same area of ​​adaptation includes moving, for example, to another country. Some quickly adapt, overcome the language barrier, find a job, others with great difficulty, others, having adapted outwardly, experience a feeling called nostalgia.

We can highlight the adaptation to the activity. Different types of human activity impose different requirements on the individual (some require perseverance, diligence, punctuality, others require speed of reaction, the ability to make decisions independently, etc.). However, a person can cope with these and other types of activity quite successfully. There is an activity that is contraindicated for a person, but he can perform it, as adaptation mechanisms work, which is called the development of an individual style of activity.
Particular attention should be paid to adaptation to society, other people, and the team. A person can adapt to a group by assimilating its norms, rules of conduct, values, etc. The mechanisms of adaptation here are suggestibility, tolerance, conformity as forms of submissive behavior, and on the other hand, the ability to find one’s place, find a face, and show determination.

We can talk about adaptation to spiritual values, to things, to states, for example, to stressful ones, and to many other things. In 1936, the Canadian physiologist Selye published the message "Syndrome caused by various damaging elements", in which he described the phenomenon of stress - a general non-specific reaction of the body aimed at mobilizing its defenses under the influence of irritating factors. In the development of stress, 3 stages were distinguished: 1. stage of anxiety, 2. stage of resistance, 3. stage of exhaustion. G. Selye formulated the theory of the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) and adaptive diseases as a consequence of the adaptive reaction, according to which GAS manifests itself whenever a person feels danger to himself. The visible causes of stress can be injuries, postoperative conditions, etc., changes in abiotic and biotic environmental factors. In recent decades, the number of anthropogenic environmental factors with a high stress effect has significantly increased (chemical pollution, radiation, exposure to computers during systematic work with them, etc.). Negative changes in modern society should also be attributed to stress factors in the environment: an increase, a change in the ratio of the urban and rural population, an increase in unemployment, and crime.

As you know, a huge number of various living organisms live on the territory of our planet. Each of them lives exclusively in those living conditions to which it is adapted. The property of organisms to adapt to new features of the environment is called adaptation. Such adaptability is a whole set of different features of the physiological structure and behavioral characteristics of a particular species, which enable it to live in certain environmental conditions. Let's talk about the features of adaptation of organisms to environmental conditions in a little more detail.

Adaptation is the most important part of the evolutionary process, it helps the organism to solve certain ecological problems that the environment sets before it. Such tasks are solved by changing, improving, and sometimes even disappearing individuals. These processes help to achieve a state of adaptation of organisms to the ecological niches they occupy. Accordingly, adaptation can be viewed as a broad basis for the appearance or disappearance of certain organs, the division of species into different ones, the formation of new populations and varieties, and also for the complexity of organization.

Adaptation is a continuous process that affects a variety of characteristics of the organism.
Some new adaptations can arise only if a particular individual has hereditary information that contributes to a change in structures or functions in the right direction. So the development of the respiratory system in mammals and insects is possible only under the control of certain genes.

Consider the different types of adaptation of living organisms in more detail.

Passive Defense

During evolution, many living individuals have developed certain means to protect themselves and their offspring. So a striking example of such adaptation is considered to be protective coloration, as a result of which individuals become difficult to distinguish and protected from predators. For example, eggs laid on sand or ground are gray and brown in color with different spots, respectively, they are difficult to find among the surrounding soil. In areas inaccessible to predators, eggs in most cases are devoid of color.

Desert animals also use the same type of adaptation, because their color is usually represented by different shades of yellow-brown and sandy-yellow.
As a variant of passive protection, scaring coloring can also be considered, because it helps to protect yourself from predators, as if warning about the inedibility of a particular organism.

In addition, this kind of adaptation can also be considered in cases where the body develops similarity with the environment. Examples include beetles that look like lichens, cicadas that look like thorns in bushes, and stick insects that are indistinguishable from twigs.

Passive defensive adaptation mechanisms also include the high fecundity of certain individuals, as well as other means, such as hard coatings in crayfish and crabs, spines, thorns, and poisonous hairs in plants.

Relativity and expediency of adaptation

Changes in the structure and behavior of organisms appear in response to certain environmental problems, respectively, they differ in relativity and expediency. So if we talk about relativity, then it consists in the limitation of such adaptive changes depending on living conditions. So, for example, the special pigmented color of moth butterflies, in contrast to their white varieties, becomes noticeable and valuable only if you see them on a smoked tree trunk. When environmental conditions change, such adaptations may not bring any benefit to the body, and even harm it.

For example, active and constant growth of incisors in rats is only useful if they eat solid food. When switching to a soft diet, the incisors can grow to an excessive size and make eating impossible.

It is also worth emphasizing that adaptive changes are not able to provide their owners with 100% protection. The special coloration of bees and wasps protects them from being eaten by many birds, but there are varieties of birds that do not pay any attention to it. Hedgehogs are capable of eating poisonous snakes. And that hard shell that protects ground turtles from enemies is broken when they are dropped from a height by birds of prey.

Adaptation of organisms in human life

It is the adaptive properties of various organisms that explain the emergence of new bacteria and other microorganisms that are resistant to drugs. This trend is especially clear with the use of antibiotics, as over time their use becomes ineffective. Microorganisms can learn to synthesize a special enzyme that destroys the drug used, or their cell walls become impermeable to the active substances of the drug.

The emergence of resistant strains of microorganisms is often the fault of doctors who use minimal doses of drugs to reduce the likelihood of side effects. If we transfer such a feature to the outside world, it becomes clear how insects and mammals develop resistance to various kinds of poisons.

The adaptive properties of all organisms should be considered as part of natural selection.

The grandiose inventions of the human mind never cease to amaze, there is no limit to fantasy. But what nature has been creating for many centuries surpasses the most creative ideas and designs. Nature has created more than one and a half million species of living individuals, each of which is individual and unique in its forms, physiology, adaptability to life. Examples of organisms adapting to constantly changing living conditions on the planet are examples of the wisdom of the creator and a constant source of problems for biologists to solve.

Adaptation means adaptability or habituation. This is a process of gradual rebirth of the physiological, morphological or psychological functions of a creature in a changed environment. Both individual individuals and entire populations undergo changes.

A vivid example of direct and indirect adaptation is the survival of flora and fauna in the zone of increased radiation around the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. Direct adaptability is characteristic of those individuals who managed to survive, get used to and begin to multiply, some did not stand the test and died (indirect adaptation).

Since the conditions of existence on Earth are constantly changing, the processes of evolution and fitness in living nature are also a continuous process.

A recent example of adaptation is changing the habitat of a colony of green Mexican arating parrots. Recently, they have changed their habitual habitat and settled in the very mouth of the Masaya volcano, in an environment constantly saturated with high concentration sulfuric gas. Scientists have not yet given an explanation for this phenomenon.

Types of adaptation

A change in the whole form of an organism's existence is a functional adaptation. An example of adaptation, when changing conditions lead to mutual adaptation of living organisms to each other, is a correlative adaptation or co-adaptation.

Adaptation can be passive, when the functions or structure of the subject occur without his participation, or active, when he consciously changes his habits to match the environment (examples of people adapting to natural conditions or society). There are cases when the subject adapts the environment to his needs - this is an objective adaptation.

Biologists divide the types of adaptation according to three criteria:

• Morphological.
• Physiological.
• behavioral or psychological.

Examples of adaptation of animals or plants in their pure form are rare, most cases of adaptation to new conditions occur in mixed forms.

Morphological adaptations: examples

Morphological changes are changes in the shape of the body, individual organs or the entire structure of a living organism that have occurred in the process of evolution.

The following are morphological adaptations, examples from the animal and plant world, which we take for granted:

• The transformation of leaves into spines in cacti and other plants of arid regions.
• Turtle shell.
• Streamlined body shapes of inhabitants of reservoirs.

Physiological adaptations: examples

Physiological adaptation is a change in a number of chemical processes occurring inside the body.

• The release of a strong scent by flowers to attract insects contributes to dusting.
• The state of anabiosis, which the simplest organisms are able to enter, allows them to maintain their vital activity after many years. The oldest bacterium capable of reproduction is 250 years old.
• The accumulation of subcutaneous fat, which is converted into water, in camels.

Behavioral (psychological) adaptations

Examples of human adaptation are more associated with the psychological factor. Behavioral characteristics are characteristic of flora and fauna. So, in the process of evolution, a change in the temperature regime causes some animals to hibernate, birds fly south to return in the spring, trees shed their leaves and slow down the movement of juices. The instinct to choose the most suitable partner for procreation drives the behavior of animals during the mating season. Some northern frogs and turtles freeze completely for the winter and thaw, reviving with the onset of heat.

Factors causing the need for change

Any adaptation processes are a response to environmental factors that lead to a change in the environment. Such factors are divided into biotic, abiotic and anthropogenic.

Biotic factors are the influence of living organisms on each other, when, for example, one species disappears, which serves as food for another.

Abiotic factors are changes in the surrounding inanimate nature when the climate, soil composition, water availability, and solar activity cycles change. Physiological adaptations, examples of the influence of abiotic factors - equatorial fish that can breathe both in water and on land. They are well adapted to the conditions when the drying up of rivers is a frequent occurrence.

Anthropogenic factors - the influence of human activity that changes the environment.

Habitat adaptations

• illumination. In plants, these are separate groups that differ in the need for sunlight. Light-loving heliophytes live well in open spaces. In contrast, they are sciophytes: plants of forest thickets feel good in shaded places. Among the animals there are also individuals whose design is for an active lifestyle at night or underground.
• Air temperature. On average, for all living things, including humans, the optimal temperature environment is the range from 0 to 50 ° C. However, life exists in almost all climatic regions of the Earth.

Opposite examples of adaptation to abnormal temperatures are described below.

Arctic fish do not freeze due to the production of a unique anti-freeze protein in the blood, which prevents the blood from freezing.

The simplest microorganisms are found in hydrothermal springs, the water temperature in which exceeds the boiling point.

Hydrophyte plants, that is, those that live in or near water, die even with a slight loss of moisture. Xerophytes, on the contrary, are adapted to live in arid regions, and die in high humidity. Among animals, nature has also worked on adapting to aquatic and non-aquatic environments.

Human adaptation

Man's ability to adapt is truly enormous. The secrets of human thinking are far from being fully revealed, and the secrets of the adaptive ability of people will remain a mysterious topic for scientists for a long time to come. The superiority of Homo sapiens over other living beings lies in the ability to consciously change their behavior to meet the requirements of the environment or, conversely, the world around them to suit their needs.

The flexibility of human behavior is manifested daily. If you give the task: "give examples of people's adaptation", the majority begins to recall exceptional cases of survival in these rare cases, and in new circumstances it is typical of a person every day. We try on a new environment at the moment of birth, in kindergarten, school, in a team, when moving to another country. It is this state of accepting new sensations by the body that is called stress. Stress is a psychological factor, but nevertheless, many physiological functions change under its influence. In the case when a person accepts a new environment as positive for himself, the new state becomes habitual, otherwise stress threatens to become protracted and lead to a number of serious diseases.

Human adaptation mechanisms

There are three types of human adaptation:

• Physiological. The simplest examples are acclimatization and adaptability to changing time zones or the daily regime of work. In the process of evolution, various types of people were formed, depending on the territorial place of residence. Arctic, alpine, continental, desert, equatorial types differ significantly in physiological parameters.
• Psychological adaptation. This is the ability of a person to find moments of understanding with people of different psychotypes, in a country with a different level of mentality. A reasonable person tends to change his established stereotypes under the influence of new information, special cases, stress.
• Social adaptation. A type of addiction that is unique to humans.

All adaptive types are closely related to each other, as a rule, any change in habitual existence causes a need in a person for social and psychological adaptation. Under their influence, the mechanisms of physiological changes come into action, which also adapt to new conditions.

Such a mobilization of all body reactions is called an adaptation syndrome. New body reactions appear in response to sudden changes in the environment. At the first stage - anxiety - there is a change in physiological functions, changes in the work of metabolism and systems. Further, protective functions and organs (including the brain) are connected, they begin to turn on their protective functions and hidden capabilities. The third stage of adaptation depends on individual characteristics: a person either joins a new life and enters the usual course (in medicine, recovery occurs during this period), or the body does not accept stress, and the consequences are already taking a negative form.

Phenomena of the human body

In man, nature has a huge margin of safety, which is used in everyday life only to a small extent. It manifests itself in extreme situations and is perceived as a miracle. In fact, the miracle is inherent in ourselves. An example of adaptation: the ability of people to adapt to a normal life after the removal of a significant part of the internal organs.

Natural innate immunity throughout life can be strengthened by a number of factors or, conversely, weakened by an incorrect lifestyle. Unfortunately, addiction to bad habits is also the difference between a person and other living organisms.