The concept of alternation. Types of alternations: positional and non-positional alternations, phonetic and historical. Positional alternations
What is called positional alternation of sound units? When can it be argued that sound units alternate positionally?
We will start from the concept of alternation. Alternation is always found in the composition of a particular morpheme. If the same morpheme in different words (or in different forms one word) has a partially unequal sound composition, then there is an alternation. Spin - twist. Forms of one verb, they have one root; its meaning in these two forms is the same; the sound composition is also partially the same: there is a common part kru-, but the last sound of this root in one form [t '], in another [h ']. This is alternation.
The alternation is radically steep / twisted in writing. But there are alternations that are not imprinted in the spelling of words. For example, spelling does not reflect the alternation in word forms moro [s] - moro [s] s; but it's still an alternation.
Position - a condition for the pronunciation of sounds. There are, for example, such positions: vowels - under stress, in an unstressed syllable after a soft consonant, before [l], before a pause, consonants - at the end of a word, before [e], before a soft dental, after a sonorant consonant. Each sound in a word is in a certain position.
Some alternations are determined by position, and they are called positional. For example, mena
[h] to [s] occurs at the end of a word before a pause. Indeed: Moro [s] s - Moro [s], story [s] s -
story [s], ro [s] a - ro [s1, va [s] a - va [s]; black-eyed [s] a - black-eyed [s], plague [s] yy - plague [s], si [s] yy - si [s]; bury [s] la - bury [s], froze [s] la - froze [s], oblast [s \ li - oble [s], head of ho [s '] egg - manager [s], Kamsky auto [s] ] plant - KamA [s], higher educational [h] institution - vu \ s]. There is no word, there is no form of the word in which [h], hitting the end of the word, would not be replaced by deaf [s].
In itself, from a purely acoustic or articulatory side, a pause does not at all require that the noisy consonant in front of it be deaf. There are many languages (Ukrainian, Serbo-Croatian, French, English) where the final noisy remains voiced. The alternation is not due to the acoustic or articulatory nature of the sound, but to the laws of a given language.
On what basis do we conclude that alternation is positional? Maybe we take into account the articulatory and acoustic visualization of the interaction of sounds? For example, a tooth before a soft tooth must itself be soft (in the Russian literary language), cf. .
But the opinion about the need for a visually obvious assimilation of sounds to each other is wrong. In order to recognize the pattern of positional alternation, sound similarity is not necessary. As a special case it is possible, but precisely as a special case. There are cases when the phonetic alternation is alive, acting, positional, but there is no similarity between the sounds that have entered into interaction.
Example. In the Russian literary language, [o] (stressed vowel) in the first pre-stressed syllable after a solid consonant is replaced by a vowel [a]: new - newer, house - at home, stop - stand, etc. Alternation is positional. However, there is no acoustic need for such an alternation. One cannot even say that [o] is replaced in an unstressed syllable by the sound [a], because [a] is articulatory weaker than [o] (this would explain why it is appropriate to have [a] in weak unstressed syllables). On the contrary, [a] requires a larger solution oral cavity, i.e. more energetic articulation.
In general, to present (as a general law) the cause of sound alternation in the fact that one sound requires an acoustic or articulatory adaptation to itself of another sound is a great delusion. So, the fact that the position requires a certain alternation cannot be guessed from the acoustic-articulatory essence of sounds.
By what reliable criterion is it possible to separate positional alternations from non-positional alternations? Only one at a time: positional alternations know no exceptions. If the position N2 appears instead of N1, then the sound a always changes to the sound P; it is natural to consider position N2 as the reason for the exchange.
On the contrary, if the position N2 in some words is accompanied by the appearance of p (instead of a), and in others it is not accompanied (but remains without replacement), then the position N2 cannot be considered as the reason for its alternation || R. She does not cause it. Therefore, the alternation that the exception knows is not positional.
Therefore, positional alternation can be explained in two ways: it is an alternation that occurs in a given language system without exception; it is an alternation due to position. Both definitions are essentially the same.
Different sounds with completely different characteristics can be in positional alternation. For example, [o] (vowel of the middle rise, back row, labialized) and [a] (vowel of the lower rise, middle row, non-labialized) alternate. Significant qualitative differences do not prevent them from being alternating sounds (Table 4):
Table 4
Examples
Position
Members
alternation
At home, newer, stand
stressed syllable
First prestressed syllable after a hard consonant
There are no exceptions, that is, there are no cases (among the commonly used full-meaning words of Russian literary language), when the vowel [o] would be preserved in the second position, therefore, the alternation is positional.
The sound can alternate with zero (Table 5):
Table 5
| Position | Members alternation | Examples |
| Before the pause | 1i] | stop, build, hero, your |
| After a vowel before a vowel | zero | standing, building |
| nym [and] | heroes, their | |
The alternation of vowels depends primarily on their position in relation to the stressed syllable. In it, vowels sound most distinct, so the position of the vowel in the stressed syllable is called strong . In a strong position, the following vowels are distinguished: [a] - [lady], [o] - [house], [e] - [em] (letter name), [s] - [smoke], [and] - [im] , [y] - [mind].
In unstressed syllables, vowels are pronounced less distinctly, shorter, so the position of the vowel in an unstressed syllable is called weak position. Compare the pronunciation of root vowels in words run, run, run out. In the first case, the vowel [e] is in a strong position, in a stressed syllable, so it is heard clearly. It cannot be confused with any other. In words run away and run out vowels in the root are in a weak position, tk. the stress shifted to other syllables. We can no longer say that in this case we hear the vowel [e], because its sound weakens, decreases in duration, and its pronunciation approaches [and]. And in the word run out the vowel is pronounced even shorter, losing its main features. This positional change of vowels is called reduction .
^ Reduction is a weakening of the pronunciation of a vowel associated with a change in its length and sound quality in a weak position. All vowels in unstressed syllables undergo reduction, but the degree of reduction and its nature are different for different vowels. Distinguish reduction quantitative and qualitative .
At quantitative reduction vowels, although they are not pronounced so clearly, losing part of the longitude (i.e. changing quantitatively), but do not lose their main quality, do not become completely obscure: Pat t - pat tí - Pat tevó th; land tsa - land tsó – land tsevó th; etcy bend - prs jó k - yoú etcs bend. High vowels [i], [s], [y] are subjected to quantitative reduction. In any position, they are pronounced quite recognizably.
At qualitative reduction the very nature of the sound of vowels changes: they lose their main quality, becoming almost unrecognizable. Yes, in words get sick and enemies there are no vowels [o] and [a] occurring in a strong position ([bol`], [vrak]). Instead, they pronounce a sound similar to a weakened [a], and therefore, it needs its own designation - [] (a-tent). In the word price a vowel sound in a weak position is similar to [s] and [e] at the same time. In transcription, it is denoted [s e] ([s] with an overtone [e]). If we compare the words painful,be at enmity, price, it turns out that the vowels in the roots, being far enough from the stressed syllables, become quite short, indistinguishable. In transcription, such a vowel is designated [ъ] (ep). (By the way, changes in weak positions depend not only on the distance from the stressed syllable, but also on the position of the vowel after a hard or soft consonant. So, in the same position as hurt, enemies, in the word clock a sound is pronounced, the middle between [and] and [e] - [and e], and in the word hourly- sound denoted by [b] (er)).
Thus, depending on the position of the vowel in relation to the stressed syllable, 2 types of qualitative reduction are distinguished: they are called the 1st degree of reduction (or 1st weak position) and the 2nd degree of reduction (2nd weak position).
1st degree of reduction vowels in the following positions are exposed:
a) 1st prestressed syllable: [pl`á] (fields), [trva] (grass), [nʻi e so] (nickle), [shy e stop`] (sixth);
b) 1st open syllable, regardless of the distance from the stressed syllable: [d`in] (one), [d`inok`y`] (lonely), [s e tash] (floor), [s e tzhy]́ (floors);
c) adjacent identical vowels (the so-called "gaping" of vowels): [зl`et`] (blush), [ngrot] (to the garden).
2nd degree of reduction vowels are exposed in other cases:
a) 2nd, 3rd, etc. prestressed syllable: [karndash] (pencil), [karndshy] (the pencils), [s'd'ina] (gray hair), [t`l`i e background] (telephone);
b) all stressed syllables: [mam] (mother), [lozh'ch`k] (spoon), [sea] (sea), [fight] (fight).
The designation in phonetic transcription of vowels undergoing qualitative reduction can be schematically represented as follows:
Recall that the vowels [and], [s], [y] are not subject to qualitative reduction, therefore, in phonetic transcription, they will be denoted in any position [and], [s], [y]: [l`is`itsʹ] (fox), [k`irp`ich`i] (bricks), [s`in`y`] (blue), [roar] (lever arm), [roar and e jock] (lever), [bald`] (bold), [corn] (corn).
Questions and tasks
What determines the positional alternation of vowels?
What is reduction? What is it connected with?
Name the types of reduction. What is the difference?
What vowels are subject to quantitative reduction?
What is the essence of qualitative reduction?
What is the reason for the existence of two degrees of qualitative reduction?
How do vowels of the 1st degree of reduction change and are indicated? vowels of the 2nd degree of reduction?
Change the words or select cognates for them so that the vowels that are in a strong position are first in the 1st weak position, and then in the 2nd weak position: house, six, king, stretches, whole, dark.
Determine the positions of the vowels. Transcribe the words. Divide them into syllables: watery, carefree, gear, phenomenon, frozen, holiday, language, happiness, station, forget-me-not.
What phonetic phenomenon underlies the appearance of homophones: company - campaign, shine - devote, awl - awl, caress - rinse, cleanliness - frequency? Transcribe the words.
Read the words. Make them alphabetical: [l`ú l`k], [y`i uh ntá p`], [r`i uh shé n`i`b], [b`i uh p`ó ck], [y`i uh w`:ó ], [divided uh d`í t`], [tsy uh oń h'k], [pdr Ms.́ t`]. Is there only one variant of the letter notation in all cases?
Transcribe text 1 . Specify the cases of quantitative and qualitative reduction. Give complete description vowel sounds in the underlined words.
(N. Nosov)
§eleven. Positional changes in consonants
Positional alternations consonants are associated with the position of the sound in the word, as well as with the influence of sounds on each other. As with vowels, there are strong and weak positions for consonants too. However, consonants can coincide or differ in sound in two ways: by sonority-deafness and by hardness-softness. The position in which paired consonants differ is called strong.
Usually strong positions they do not coincide in voicedness-deafness and hardness-softness, however, in the position before a vowel, consonants differ in both ways. This position is called absolutely strong . The following consonants can be distinguished in it: [d] - [house] (house), [d`] - [id`om] (let's go), [t] - [current] (current), [t`] - [t`ok] (tech), [h] - [umbrella] (umbrella), [з`] - [з`ornъ] (grains), [s] – [som] (som), [s`] - [s`ol] (villages), [b] - [cheerful] (cheerfully), [b`] - [b`odr] (hips), [p] - [sweat] (sweat), [n`] - [n`otr] (Peter), [in] - [ox] (ox), [v`] - [v`ol] (led), [f] - [background] (background), [f`] - [f`odr] (Fyodor), [g] - [goal] (Goal), [g`] - [g`en`y`] (genius), [k] - [cat] (cat), [k`] - [tk`ot] (weaves), [m] - [mol] (Youth), [m`] - [m`ol] (a piece of chalk), [n] - [nose] (nose), [n`]- [n`os] (carried), [r] - [rof] (ditch), [r`] - [r`of] (roar), [l] – [lot] (lot), [l`] - [l`ot] (ice), [x] - [hot] (move), [х`] - [х`andry`] (cunning), [f] - [zhok] (burned), [w`:] - [w`: from] (burns), [w] - [shock] (wOK), [w`:] - [w`: ok`i] (cheeks), [h`] - [h`olk] (bang), [c] - [tsokat] (clatter), [th`] - [th`ok] (yogi).
In addition to an absolutely strong position, there are strong positions for different groups of paired consonants. So, for noisy consonants, paired in sonority-deafness, the following positions are also strong:
before a sonorant consonant: [s`l`it`] - [z`l`it`] (drain - piss off), [ask`it] - [throw`it] (asks - quits), [cm`i e y`as`] - [zm`i e y`as`] (laughing - laughing), [whip] - [bend] (whip - bend);
before [in], [in`]: [dvr`etz] - [tvr`etz] (palace - creator), [sv`er`] - [sv`er`] (beast - check).
at the end of the word: [kon] (kon)- [con`] (horse), [m`el] (a piece of chalk)- [m`el`] (stranded), [throne] (throne)– [throne`] (touch);
before a hard consonant: [l'ink] (Linka)- [l`in`k] (molting), [bridge] (bridge), [proz`b] (request). For dental consonants - also in front of soft labials, which is associated with the allowable orthoepic norms variability: [s`m`at`] - [sm`at`] (crumple), [t`v`ordy`] - [tv`ordy`] (solid);
for [l] and [l`] - all positions are strong: [mal`v] (mallow)- [mlva] (rumor), [plz`aʹ] (crawling)- [n`i e l`z`a] (it is forbidden).
Stun due to the fact that in Russian a voiced consonant cannot be pronounced at the end of a word: [gr`ip] (flu or mushroom) , [l`es] ( forest or climbed), [stock] ( stock or stack), [wear] ( knife or burden– R.p. plural), [p`at`] ( five or span) etc. When a word changes, when the corresponding consonant falls into a strong position, it becomes clear whether there is a positional alternation in this word: [g`ip] - [g`iby] (mushroom - mushrooms)- [n] // [b], [l`es] - [l`ezu] (climb - climb)- [s] // [s], [stock] - [stha] (stack - stacks) - [k] // [g], etc.
Assimilation - this is the likening of sounds to each other within the same phonetic word. Assimilation occurs as a result of the fact that the articulation of one of the adjacent consonants extends to the other. The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become the same, is called complete assimilation ([zh:at`] - squeeze, [b`i e s: on] - without sleep, [uch`its: b] - to study). Usually, as a result of such assimilation, so-called long sounds are formed.
The interaction of sounds, as a result of which they become similar only according to some one articulatory feature, is called incomplete (or partial) assimilation : [loshk] (the spoon)- assimilation by deafness, [kos`t`] (bone)- softness assimilation.
There are the following types of assimilation:
a) assimilation by softness [h], [s], [n] before [d`], [t`], [n`]: [tail`t`ik] (tail), [pl`ez`n`y`y] (more useful), [in`d`i`y] (India), [kan`t`ik] (edging);
b) assimilation by softness [n] before [h`], [w`:]: [n`an`ch`it`] (to babysit), [gon`sh`:ik] (racer);
c) assimilation by hardness: [y`i e nvarsk`y`] (January)(cf. [y`i e nvar`] (January)), [s`t`i e pnoy`] (steppe)(cf. [s`t`ep`] (steppe)).
In general, in case of difficulties associated with the presence or absence of assimilation by hardness-softness, it is best to refer to the appropriate reference literature, For example, Orthoepic Dictionary Russian language.
by place and method of education . With such assimilation, the articulation of the previous consonant adjusts to the articulation of the next one: [sh: yt`] (sew), [h:ad`i] (behind), [ryts:b] (rummage)- complete assimilation; [h`sh`:etn] (in vain), [best`] (best)- partial assimilation.
Questions and tasks
What causes positional alternations of consonants?
Why are there different strong positions for different consonant clusters?
What is an absolutely strong position for consonants?
Name the strong positions according to sonority-deafness.
Name the main strengths in terms of hardness-softness.
Why are all voiced-deafness positions strong for sonorant consonants? Why for [h`], [w`:], [zh`:], [d`], [q] all positions in terms of hardness-softness are strong?
What is the stun associated with? Give your examples.
From the listed consonants, indicate those that can be at the absolute end of the word: [th`], [w], [g], [m], [m`], [h], [h`], [t], [t`], [s], [s`], [ d], [d`], [g], [g`], [k], [k`]. Justify your answer with examples.
In one of the school textbooks on the Russian language, the following rule is given: “At the end of the word, voiced and deaf paired consonants are pronounced equally deaf.” Rate this statement. How can it be corrected?
What is assimilation? Describe assimilation by loudness-deafness, by hardness-softness, by place and method of formation. Bring your examples to different types assimilation.
Read the text. Specify: a) consonants in an absolutely strong position; b) consonants in a strong position in voiced-deafness, c) consonants in a strong position in hardness-softness:
Is it possible to find out the meaning of these words in transcription out of context: [cat], [poppy], [voice], [tinder], [l`es`t`], [in`i uh s`t`í ], [sy`est]? What options are available? What phonetic phenomenon creates homophones in this case?
Transcribe the words. Identify all cases of assimilation: rain, rare, guess, pilot, burn, get naughty, hand over, plant, grow, homeland, here, pick up, fairy tale, illness, coddle, sandy, instill, remove, shortchange, cog, man, breast, childhood, common.
Transcribe the text. Look for cases of assimilation. Describe the syllables and sounds in the underlined words:
Feeling that beautyher begins to fade and wanting to somehow prolong its summer, Birch dyed yellowColour - the most fashionable in autumnage .
And then everyone saw that her autumn had come ... (F.Krivin)
alternation- replacement of one sound by another, occurring in the same place of the same phoneme, but in different words or word forms (koz(z)a - goat(s)).
Alternation may be associated with a certain position of sounds in a word. Positional alternation called such an alternation that occurs in any position and knows no exceptions in a given language system (stunning at the end of a word: friend-druk, leg-nok; "fatally total".).
At phonetic (positional) alternations positions, i.e., the conditions for the appearance of a particular sound, phonetic - the beginning and end of a word or syllable, the proximity of other sounds, the position in a stressed or unstressed syllable, this is an alternation of sounds related to one morpheme.
Examples:
The alternation of sounds can be caused by the position of the beginning of the word, in dialects with incomplete okan "o" is replaced by "y" at the beginning of the word in the second pre-stressed syllable: clouds - ublaka, island - islands; operation, subjugation. The alternation may be related to the position of the sound in the syllable. So, in an undisguised unstressed syllable, the phoneme /o/ is realized by the sound "" (lake - azer). In a covered syllable, it appears after a solid consonant only in the first pre-stressed one, and in other unstressed syllables, after a solid consonant, ə is pronounced (in but in əzerk). Often the alternation is due to the position of one sound next to another (after the TV consonant “and” is replaced by “s” (game - play; knives, wide)). Before the deaf acc. voiced ones are replaced by deaf ones (knit - tie). Sounds can alternate depending on the position in relation to the stress (from above - navirhu).
But in the examples, a friend is friendly, paper is paper, this is not a phonetic alternation (the spelling “g” does not depend on the position of “n” after it (gon - drive, blink - blink)). Here is another positional conditioning: the alternation g/f knows no exceptions in the position before the suffix -n-. The position here is morphological, alternation - morphological positional(alternation in which the spelling depends on the morpheme). In borrowed words, too - catalog - catalog. With morph. alternations, not only a suffix, but also an ending can act as a special position (to destroy - I destroy, to drown - I drown, to poison - to persecute, to feed - I feed). There are no exceptions, and in loans. (graph - graph).
Positional alternations that know no exceptions - positionally conditioned(eyes - voice, girlfriend - friendly); aware of exceptions positionally fixed(bridge - bridge, sten - wall). Phonetic positionally conditioned - alternations of sounds related to one phoneme. Phonetic positionally attached can be an alternation of sounds related to one phoneme, and an alternation of phonemes (Kazan - Kazan; excl. June - June).
Non-positional alternations - alternations that have neither phonetic nor morphological conditionality; are associated only with specific words and are inexplicable in modern language(girlfriend - friends, dry - dry - dry).
Historical alternations - alternations that are not due to the phonetic position of the sound, representing a reflection phonetic processes who acted in more early periods development of the Russian language. These are morphological (they accompany the formation of certain grammatical forms, although in themselves de are exponents grammatical meanings, and traditional alternations, since they are preserved by virtue of tradition, not being conditioned either by semantic necessity or by the requirements of modern phonetic system language) and non-positional alternation of phonemes. Some call morphological alternations historical.
Speech sound alternations
Phonetic and historical alternations.
Vowel alternations:
positional vowel alternations (reduction);
combinatorial vowel alternations (accommodation).
Consonant alternations:
stunning consonants;
combinatorial changes of consonants (assimilation).
Historical alternations of vowels and consonants.
Phonetic and historical alternations
Alternation is a regular change of speech sounds within one morpheme: grass - grass, ear - ears.
Alternations in Russian can be phonetic and historical. Phonetic alternations are due to the phonetic laws in force in the modern language, for example, the law of stunning voiced consonants at the end of a word: gardens - garden. Depending on the reasons that caused the change of sounds, phonetic alternations are divided into positional and combinatorial. Positional alternations are explained by phonetic position - the location of the sound in the word (for vowels - stressed or unstressed position, for consonants - the position of the end of the word). Combinatorial alternations are explained by the influence of one sound on another ( demolished, sewed, knocked down).
Historical alternations arose as phonetic ones, but the phonetic laws that determined them ceased to operate in the language, and the change of sounds was preserved: friend - friendly - friends.
Vowel alternations
Vowel alternations in SRRL may depend on the position of the sound in relation to the stress and on the proximity of the stressed vowel to a hard / soft consonant.
Stressed vowels are in a strong position, i.e. in the position of the greatest distinction of differential features, are called vowels of a complete formation. They are pronounced clearly, distinctly: garden, house, hour, chalk. In an unstressed position, which is commonly called weak, vowels undergo changes - they are reduced. Reduction (lat. reducereduce) is a weakening of a vowel sound in an unstressed position, a qualitative or quantitative change in a vowel. Reduced (unstressed) vowels differ from stressed ones in less pronunciation power, greater brevity, less energetic articulation.
quality vowels of non-high rise [e, o, a] are subject to reduction in SRRL. They change their quality, their differential features, coincide in their sound with other sounds in the same position. In relation to stress, 2 types of weak vowel positions are distinguished: I position is the first pre-stressed syllable or the absolute beginning of a word; II position - all other pre-stressed and stressed syllables. In II position, in comparison with I, there is a stronger change in sound. As a result of qualitative reduction, a positional change of sounds occurs, intersecting rows of sounds are formed:
[a] [o] (after hard consonants)
[a] [e] (after soft consonants)
Garden - gardens - gardener
House - houses - brownie
Five - five - five
Green - green - turn green
quantitative reduction in SRRL the high vowels [i, s, y] are exposed. They do not change their differential qualities, but become shorter in strength and duration, less intense. For example, smoke - smoke - smoke, risk - risk - risk, empty - empty - emptiness.
Combinatorial changes in vowel sounds under the influence of neighboring consonants are called accommodation in SRN (from Latin accommodatio - adaptation). Accommodation is explained by the fact that the organs of speech do not have time to complete the pronunciation of one sound, they do not have time to return to their original position, as they begin the articulation of the next sound. Percussive vowel sounds, being in the vicinity of soft consonants, change their articulation, and the sounds of the front and non-front row behave differently.
Non-front vowels [a, o, u, s, e] in the vicinity of soft consonants become more front (move forward) at the beginning, end or throughout their sound: mat - crumpled - mother - knead, onion - hatch - bows - hatches.
Front vowels [е, и] undergo accommodation in a position between two soft consonants and become narrower, tense, closed: sleeps - drink, sang - sang.
Consonant alternations
Alternations of consonant sounds in SRRL may depend on the position of the sound in the word and on the proximity of the consonant to a hard / soft consonant or a voiced / voiceless consonant.
In the position of the end of a word in Russian, only deaf consonants can be pronounced. If at the end of the word there is a paired voiced consonant, it is stunned: oak, garden, plov, cart.
The alternation of consonant sounds under the influence of neighboring consonants is commonly called assimilation (lat. assimilatio - assimilation). In SRLP, only regressive assimilation works, when the subsequent consonant affects the previous one: boat, guests. Assimilation can be complete (in this case, the assimilated sound completely coincides with the one to which it is likened) and incomplete (respectively, only a few signs of the assimilated sound change): sew, unclench, count. Most often, incomplete assimilation is observed in the Russian language on one basis: deafness / voicedness or (less often, in some cases) hardness / softness: shop, hand over, poetry, here. Moreover, assimilation can be observed both within one morpheme, and at the junction of morphemes and even at the junction of words: carver, to the house, with heat.
Historical alternations of vowels and consonants
Historical alternations in SRLP do not depend on phonetic conditions (positions in a word, proximity to other sounds), which is how they differ from phonetic alternations. For example: reset - dump, peck - oven.
Historical vowel alternations include:
f / / o: I'm carrying - a cart, I'm carrying - a burden;
e//e: cross - crossroads;
o//a: late - late;
o, a // zero sound (fluent vowels): sleep - sleep, day - day;
a, i / / im, in, em, en, m, n: remove - remove, compress - compress, compress;
u, u//ov, ev: I don’t care - I spit.
Historical consonant alternations include:
c//h//c: face-face-face;
g//f//z: friend- friendly - friends;
x / / w: ear - ears;
c//h: father - fatherland;
s / / w, s / / w: carry - drive, wear - wear;
t//h///u: light - candle - lighting;
d//f//zhd: drive - drive - driving;
sk / / u: splash - splashes;
st / / u: whistle - whistle;
d, t / / s: I lead - lead, meta - revenge;
b / / bl, p / / pl, v / / vl, f / / fl, m / / ml: love - love, sculpt - sculpt, catch - catch, break - break.
Historical alternations arose in different periods of the development of the language, for various reasons. Knowing these alternations helps us to establish the historical relationship of many words that are not cognate in SRRL: braid - scratch, flat - area, flowing - current.
In real speech, sounds are pronounced differently, it depends on the individual characteristics of the speaker, his social and territorial affiliation, positional conditions for pronouncing the sound. Sound changes caused by any neighboring sounds are called combinatorial. The convergence of the articulation of two sounds is called accommodation , for example, in the Romance languages, as well as in the Proto-Slavic language, the back-lingual consonants, being in front of the front vowel, turned into either hissing, or middle-lingual affricates, or fricative: penetrate, penetrating, tremble - tremble and under. The similarity of sounds to each other is called assimilation , For example, squeeze [squeeze], lat. affere from ab-fere. In some cases, the reverse process is observed - dissimilation - dissimilarity of sounds with similar articulation: Rus. what [what]. Assimilation occurs in both vowels and consonants; dissimilation is much less common.
Alternations of sounds are quite regularly observed in the language, for example, in Russian all vowel sounds (except U) in an unstressed position are able to alternate with each other, voiced consonants alternate with deaf ones, hard with soft ones. However, despite this, people still identify sound complexes into words and morphemes. We give the following examples: in words table and on table the root vowel and the final consonant are pronounced differently, and different vowels are also pronounced in following words: five, minus five, five digit; but in words tooth - teeth, snow - snow the final consonant is pronounced differently. In order to understand sounding speech, it is necessary to identify significant units of the language by meaning and by sound. AT said words sounds alternate positionally, that is, they change, but their mutual exchange is natural and depends on phonetic position , that is, specific conditions of pronunciation.
Sounds that alternate positionally exist in the language as an identity, a series of positionally alternating sounds is called allophones
, and the language unit, represented by a number of allophones - phoneme
. The phoneme is opposed to sound as a unit of language to a unit of speech, it is thanks to phonemes that we distinguish and identify words and morphemes, the phoneme is a functional unit of the language, as it distinguishes words. The basic principle of identifying and analyzing phonemes is formulated as follows: if in a given language the differences between two given sounds make it possible to distinguish different words or different grammatical forms, these sounds refer to different phonemes. Yes, phoneme< a >in Russian it is represented by the following allophones [a, Λ, b, i, b], compare in the following words: shaft, on the shaft, gross, five, without five, five-ton[v'al, n'vΛ'lu, vlΛv'oy, p'at', b'sp'i't'i, p't'i'tonk], phoneme<д> - next next allophones [d, d ', t], for example: ice, icy, on ice[l'ot, l'd'i`noy, nΛ`l'du]. Phoneme
Therefore, all phonetic positions can be divided into those in which neutralization occurs ( weak positions ), and those in which neutralization does not occur ( strong positions ). So, for most vowels in Russian, the position under stress is strong, and the position without stress is weak; consonants also have their own positions: for voiced consonants, the position at the end of the word and before the voiceless consonant is weak, and the position before the vowel is strong.
A phoneme is always named after the variety that appears in a strong position. If a number of positionally alternating sounds is common to several phonemes, and there is no strong position in this case, then such a unit is called hyperphoneme . For example, for unstressed vowels in the word pencil there are no strong positions, the same should be said about the initial and final consonant in the word all of a sudden, compare the phonetic and phonemic transcription of these words: [karΛndash, vdruk],<к а/о р а/о н д а ш, в/ф д р у г/к>. (Phonetic transcription is in square brackets, and phonological transcription is in diamond-shaped brackets).